View source for Pipeline

{{Short description|Pumping fluids or gas through pipes}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:HDPE Pipeline in a harsh Australian environment.jpg|thumb|264x264px|[[HDPE pipe]]line on a mine site in Australia]]

A '''pipeline''' is a system of [[Pipe (fluid conveyance)|pipes]] for long-distance [[transportation]] of a liquid or gas, typically to a market area for consumption.<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2117.html |title=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=September 6, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821003050/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2117.html |archive-date=August 21, 2016 }}</ref> Industry datasets indicate the length of the global trunk/transmission pipeline network is on the order of ~2.19 million km by '''2025''', with North America accounting for ~44%. The United States had 65%, Russia had 8%, and Canada had 3%, thus 76% of all pipeline were in these three countries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Simper |first=Sara |date=2022-01-26 |title=North America continues to dominate global transmission pipeline length by 2025, says GlobalData |url=https://www.worldpipelines.com/project-news/26012022/north-america-continues-to-dominate-global-transmission-pipeline-length-by-2025-says-globaldata/ |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=World Pipelines |language=en}}</ref> The main attribute to pollution from pipelines is caused by corrosion and leakage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=He |first1=Guoxi |last2=Tian |first2=Zhiyuan |last3=Liao |first3=Kexi |last4=Shi |first4=Jun |last5=Wang |first5=Liang |date=2023-09-01 |title=Numerical investigation on the migration of leaked pollutants after liquid pressurized pipeline leakage regarding oil and gas parallel pipelines situation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0957582023005530 |journal=Process Safety and Environmental Protection |volume=177 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1016/j.psep.2023.06.055 |bibcode=2023PSEP..177....1H |issn=0957-5820|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

''Pipeline and Gas Journal''{{'}}s worldwide survey figures indicate that {{convert|118623|mi}} of pipelines are planned and under construction. Of these, {{convert|88976|mi}} represent projects in the planning and design phase; {{convert|29647|mi}} reflect pipelines in various stages of construction. Liquids and gases are transported in pipelines, and any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pipeline101.com/why-do-we-need-pipelines/what-do-pipelines-transport |title=Pipeline transport |access-date=26 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211184128/http://www.pipeline101.com/why-do-we-need-pipelines/what-do-pipelines-transport |archive-date=11 February 2015 }}</ref>

Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and refined petroleum, [[fuel]]s—such as oil, natural gas and biofuels—and other fluids including [[sewage]], [[slurry]], [[water]], [[beer]], hot water or [[steam]] for shorter distances and even [[Pneumatic tube|pneumatic]] systems which allow for the generation of suction pressure for useful work and in transporting solid objects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pipeline {{!}} Definition, History, Types, Uses, & Facts |website=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/pipeline-technology |access-date=2024-07-06 |language=en}}</ref> Pipelines are useful for transporting water for [[drinking water|drinking]] or [[irrigation]] over long distances when it needs to move over [[hill]]s, or where [[canal]]s or [[channel (geography)|channel]]s are poor choices due to considerations of [[evaporation]], [[pollution]], or environmental impact. {{Transport}}Oil pipelines are made from [[steel]] or [[HDPE pipe|plastic tubes]] which are usually buried. The oil is moved through the pipelines by [[pump]] stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are pressurized into liquids known as [[Natural-gas condensate|natural gas liquids]] (NGLs).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://naturalgas.org/naturalgas/transport/|title=» The Transportation of Natural Gas NaturalGas.org|access-date=2019-07-18}}</ref> Natural gas pipelines are constructed of [[carbon steel]]. [[Hydrogen pipeline transport]] is the transportation of hydrogen through a pipe. Pipelines are one of the safest ways of transporting materials as compared to road or rail, and hence in war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HDPE Pipes and Poly Pipe Fittings {{!}} Polyethylene Pipe Systems|url=https://www.allplasticpipe.com/hdpe-pipes-and-fittings|access-date=2021-12-15|website=All Plastic Pipe |language=tr}}</ref>

==Oil and natural gas==
<!-- This heading is linked by many redirects. Do not change without updating the associated links. -->
{{See also|List of oil pipelines|List of natural gas pipelines}}

{{Split section|Oil pipeline|Gas pipeline|date=June 2019|discuss=Talk:Pipeline_transport#Giving_the_oil_and_gas_pipeline_their_own_articles}}

[[File:Pipeline device.jpg|thumb|left|A "[[Pipeline inspection gauge|Pig]]" launcher/receiver, on the natural gas pipeline in Switzerland]]

The first [[crude oil]] pipeline was built by the Oil Transport Association, which constructed a {{convert|2|in|adj=on}} wrought iron pipeline over a {{convert|6|mi|adj=on}} track from an oil field in Pennsylvania to a railroad station in [[Oil Creek State Park#History|Oil Creek]], in the 1860s. Some of the first major [[submarine pipeline]]s were constructed across the [[English Channel]] in 1944 during [[Operation Pluto]]. These provided an estimated 8 per cent of all petroleum products used by the Allies on the [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]] between the Normandy landings and the end of Second World War.

Pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil, [[Petroleum product|refined oil products]] or [[natural gas]] over land. For example, in 2014, pipeline transport of crude oil cost about $5 per barrel, while rail transport cost about $10 to $15 per barrel.<ref name="forbes">{{cite magazine |last=Conca |first=James |date=26 April 2014 |title=Pick Your Poison For Crude – Pipeline, Rail, Truck Or Boat |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesconca/2014/04/26/pick-your-poison-for-crude-pipeline-rail-truck-or-boat/ |magazine=Forbes}}</ref> Trucking has even higher costs due to the additional labor required; employment on completed pipelines represents only "1% of that of the trucking industry.".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cepac.cheme.cmu.edu/pasi2008/slides/cerda/library/slides/jcerda-pasi-2008-1page.pdf |title=Oil Pipeline Logistics |publisher=Cepac.cheme.cmu.edu |access-date=2015-05-04}}</ref>

In the United States, 70% of crude oil and petroleum products are shipped by pipeline. (23% are by ship, 4% by truck, and 3% by rail) In Canada for natural gas and petroleum products, 97% are shipped by pipeline.<ref name="forbes"/>

Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are lightly pressurized into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs). Small NGL processing facilities can be located in oil fields so the butane and propane liquid under light pressure of {{convert|125|psi|abbr=off}}, can be shipped by rail, truck or pipeline. Propane can be used as a fuel in oil fields to heat various facilities used by the oil drillers or equipment and trucks used in the oil patch. EG: Propane will convert from a gas to a liquid under light pressure, 100 psi, give or take depending on temperature, and is pumped into cars and trucks at less than {{cvt|125|psi}} at retail stations. Pipelines and rail cars use about double that pressure to pump at {{cvt|250|psi}}.

[[File:Pipeline-small image, seen from below.jpeg|thumb|200px|An elevated section of the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]]]]

The distance to ship propane to markets is much shorter, as thousands of [[natural-gas processing]] plants are located in or near oil fields. Many [[Bakken Formation|Bakken]] Basin oil companies in North Dakota, Montana, Manitoba and Saskatchewan gas fields separate the NGLs in the field, allowing the drillers to sell propane directly to small wholesalers, eliminating the large refinery control of product and prices for propane or butane.

The most recent major pipeline to start operating in North America is a TransCanada natural gas line going north across the Niagara region bridges. This gas line carries Marcellus shale gas from Pennsylvania and other tied in methane or natural gas sources into the Canadian province of Ontario. It began operations in the fall of 2012, supplying 16 percent of all the natural gas used in Ontario.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

[[File:Major russian gas pipelines to europe.png|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Major Russian gas pipelines to Europe in 2009.{{update inline|date=April 2022}} Deliveries on some pipelines were disrupted by or became controversial after the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], including the [[2022 Russia–European Union gas dispute]].]]

This new US-supplied natural gas displaces the natural gas formerly shipped to Ontario from western Canada in Alberta and Manitoba, thus dropping the government regulated pipeline shipping charges because of the significantly shorter distance from gas source to consumer. To avoid delays and US government regulation, many small, medium and large oil producers in North Dakota have decided to run an oil pipeline north to Canada to meet up with a Canadian oil pipeline shipping oil from west to east. This allows the Bakken Basin and Three Forks oil producers to get higher negotiated prices for their oil because they will not be restricted to just one wholesale market in the US. The distance from the biggest oil patch in North Dakota, in [[Williston, North Dakota]], is only about 85 miles or 137 kilometres to the Canada–US border and [[Manitoba]]. [[Mutual fund]]s and [[joint venture]]s are the largest investors in new oil and gas pipelines. In the fall of 2012, the US began exporting [[propane]] to Europe, known as LPG, as wholesale prices there are much higher than in North America. Additionally, a pipeline is currently being constructed from North Dakota to Illinois, commonly known as the [[Dakota Access Pipeline]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=About |publisher=Dakota Access Pipeline|url=https://daplpipelinefacts.com/About.html|access-date=2020-10-09|website=daplpipelinefacts.com}}</ref>

As more North American pipelines are built, even more exports of LNG, propane, butane, and other natural gas products occur on all three US coasts. To give insight, North Dakota Bakken region's oil production has grown by 600% from 2007 to 2015.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.eia.gov/petroleum/drilling/pdf/dpr-full.pdf|title=Drilling Productivity Report|date=November 2017|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|access-date=21 November 2017}}</ref> North Dakota oil companies are shipping huge amounts of oil by tanker rail car as they can direct the oil to the market that gives the best price, and rail cars can be used to avoid a congested oil pipeline to get the oil to a different pipeline in order to get the oil to market faster or to a different less busy oil refinery. However, pipelines provide a cheaper means to transport by volume.

Enbridge in Canada is applying to reverse an oil pipeline going from east to west (Line 9) and expanding it and using it to ship western Canadian bitumen oil eastward.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestar.com/projects/pipeline_journey.html |title=Line 9: Journey along the pipeline |work=Toronto Star |first=Jessica |last=Mcdiarmid |date=2014-01-17 |access-date=2015-01-28 |archive-date=2015-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221120259/http://www.thestar.com/projects/pipeline_journey.html }}</ref> From a presently rated 250,000 barrels equivalent per day pipeline, it will be expanded to between 1.0 and 1.3 million barrels per day. It will bring western oil to refineries in Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Quebec and New York by early 2014. New Brunswick will also refine some of this western Canadian crude and export some crude and refined oil to Europe from its deep water oil ULCC loading port.

Although pipelines can be built under the sea, that process is economically and technically demanding, so the majority of oil at sea is transported by [[tanker (ship)|tanker ships]]. Similarly, it is often more economically feasible to transport natural gas in the form of LNG; however, the break-even point between LNG and pipelines would depend on the volume of natural gas and the distance it travels.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ulvestad|first1= Marte|last2=Overland|first2=Indra|date=2012|title= Natural gas and CO2 price variation: Impact on the relative cost-efficiency of LNG and pipelines |bibcode-access=free |doi-access=free |journal=International Journal of Environmental Studies|volume=69|issue=3|pages=407–426|pmc=3962073|doi= 10.1080/00207233.2012.677581|pmid= 24683269|bibcode= 2012IJEnS..69..407U}}</ref>

===Growth of market===
[[File:Gasoducto junto a la B-145, Chile, 2016-02-09, DD 36.JPG|thumb|Gas pipe in the dry region of Antofagasta, Chile]]

The market size for oil and gas pipeline construction experienced tremendous growth prior to the economic downturn in 2008. After faltering in 2009, demand for pipeline expansion and updating increased the following year as energy production grew.<ref>[http://www.ibisworld.com/industry/default.aspx?indid=1977 "Oil & Gas Pipeline Construction in the U.S.: Market Research Report]", November 2012, IBISWorld.</ref> By 2012, almost {{convert|32000|mi}} of North American pipeline were being planned or under construction.<ref name="pipelineandgasjournal.com">{{cite journal |url=http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/2012-worldwide-pipeline-construction-report |title=2012 Worldwide Pipeline Construction Report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325081749/http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/2012-worldwide-pipeline-construction-report |archive-date=2013-03-25 |journal=Pipeline and Gas Journal |volume=239 |issue=1 |date=January 2012 |first=Rita |last=Tubb }}</ref> When pipelines are constrained, additional pipeline product transportation options may include the use of drag reducing agents, or by transporting product via truck or rail.

===Construction and operation===
Oil pipelines are made from [[steel]] or [[HDPE pipe|plastic tubes]] with inner diameter typically from {{convert|4|to|48|in}}. Most pipelines are typically buried at a depth of about {{convert|3|to|6|ft}}. To protect pipes from [[impact (mechanics)|impact]], [[abrasion (mechanical)|abrasion]], and [[corrosion]], a variety of methods are used. These can include [[wood lagging]] (wood slats), [[concrete]] coating, rockshield, [[HDPE pipe|high-density polyethylene]], imported sand padding, sacrificial cathodes and padding machines.<ref name="asme">{{cite book |last=Mohitpour |first=Mo |title=Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach |publisher=ASME Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7918-0202-1}}</ref>

Crude oil contains varying amounts of [[paraffin wax]] and in colder climates wax buildup may occur within a pipeline. Often these pipelines are inspected and cleaned using [[pigging]], the practice of using devices known as "pigs" to perform various maintenance operations on a pipeline. The devices are also known as "scrapers" or "Go-devils". "Smart pigs" (also known as "intelligent" or "intelligence" pigs) are used to detect anomalies in the pipe such as dents, metal loss caused by corrosion, cracking or other mechanical damage.<ref>[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/go-devil go-devil – definition of go-devil] by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia.</ref> These devices are launched from pig-launcher stations and travel through the pipeline to be received at any other station down-stream, either cleaning wax deposits and material that may have accumulated inside the line or inspecting and recording the condition of the line.

For natural gas, pipelines are constructed of [[carbon steel]] and vary in size from {{convert|2|to|60|in}} in diameter, depending on the type of pipeline. The gas is pressurized by [[compressor station]]s and is odorless unless mixed with a [[thiol|mercaptan odorant]] where required by a regulating authority.

==Ammonia==
{{see also|The Togliattiazot affair}}
[[File:Ammiakoprovod NS.jpg|thumb|The world's longest ammonia pipeline, from Russia to [[Ukraine]]]]

Until damaged during the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]],<ref>{{cite news |work=[[Reuters]] |title=Russia and Ukraine say ammonia pipeline was damaged, in potential blow to grain deal | url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-says-it-will-take-1-3-months-repair-ammonia-pipeline-2023-06-07/ |date=7 June 2023}}</ref> the [[Russia]]n{{ndash}}[[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] ''Transammiak'' line was the longest ammonia pipeline in the world, at 2,500{{nbsp}}km.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The legal dispute over Russia's largest ammonia plant |first=Daniel |last=Mitov |magazine=The Parliament |url=https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/partner/article/the-legal-dispute-over-russias-largest-ammonia-plant |date=24 Jan 2024}}</ref> It connected the [[TogliattiAzot]] facility in Russia to the exporting [[Black Sea]]-port of [[Odesa]] in Ukraine.

==Alcohol fuels==
{{See also|Biobutanol}}
Pipelines have been used for transportation of [[ethanol]] in Brazil, and there are several ethanol pipeline projects in Brazil and the United States.<ref name="ustoday">{{cite news |last=MacPherson |first=James |date=2007-11-18 |title=Ethanol makers consider coast-to-coast pipeline |url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/energy/2007-11-18-ethanolpipeline_N.htm |access-date=2008-08-23 |newspaper=USA Today}}
</ref> The main problems related to the transport of ethanol by pipeline are its corrosive nature and tendency to absorb water and impurities in pipelines, which are not problems with oil and natural gas.<ref name="ustoday"/><ref name="whims">{{cite report |url=http://www.agmrc.org/NR/rdonlyres/4EE0E81C-C607-4C3F-BBCF-B75B7395C881/0/ksupipelineethl.pdf |title=Pipeline Considerations for Ethanol |last=Whims |first=John |date=August 2002 |publisher=Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, Department of Economics, Kansas State University |access-date=2008-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910120230/http://www.agmrc.org/NR/rdonlyres/4EE0E81C-C607-4C3F-BBCF-B75B7395C881/0/ksupipelineethl.pdf |archive-date=2008-09-10 }}
</ref> Insufficient volumes and cost-effectiveness are other considerations limiting construction of ethanol pipelines.<ref name="whims"/><ref name="iowa">{{cite news |date=2008-08-24 |title=Ethanol pipeline places the cart before the horse |url=http://media.www.dailyiowan.com/media/storage/paper599/news/2008/07/24/Opinions/Ethanol.Pipeline.Places.The.Cart.Before.The.Horse-3394187.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006065126/http://media.www.dailyiowan.com/media/storage/paper599/news/2008/07/24/Opinions/Ethanol.Pipeline.Places.The.Cart.Before.The.Horse-3394187.shtml |archive-date=2008-10-06 |access-date=2008-08-23 |publisher=The Daily Iowan}}
</ref>

In the US minimal amounts of ethanol are transported by pipeline. Most ethanol is shipped by rail, the main alternatives being truck and barge. Delivering ethanol by pipeline is the most desirable option, but ethanol's affinity for water and solvent properties require the use of a dedicated pipeline, or significant cleanup of existing pipelines.

==Coal and ore==
[[Slurry pipeline]]s are sometimes used to transport coal or ore from mines. The material to be transported is closely mixed with water before being introduced to the pipeline; at the far end, the material must be dried. One example is a {{convert|525|km|adj=on}} slurry pipeline which is planned to transport iron ore from the [[Minas-Rio]] mine (producing 26.5 million tonnes per year) to the [[Superporto do Açu|Port of Açu]] in Brazil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bnamericas.com/project-profile/en/Minas-Rio-Minas-Rio|access-date=2010-12-12|title=Project Profiles, Minas-Rio|date=2010-12-12}}</ref> An existing example is the {{convert|85|km|adj=on}} Savage River Slurry pipeline in [[Tasmania]], Australia, possibly the world's first when it was built in 1967. It includes a {{convert|366|m|adj=on}} bridge span at {{convert|167|m}} above the Savage River.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pipeliner.com.au/news/the_savage_river_slurry_pipeline/054155/|access-date=2011-05-07|title=The Savage River Slurry Pipeline – The Australian Pipeliner|date=January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518235759/http://pipeliner.com.au/news/the_savage_river_slurry_pipeline/054155/|archive-date=2011-05-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highestbridges.com/wiki/index.php?title=Savage_River_Pipeline_Bridge|title=Savage River Pipeline Bridge – Highestbridges.com|access-date=2011-05-07|date=2009-12-17}}</ref>

==Hydrogen==
{{Main|Hydrogen pipeline transport}}
[[Hydrogen pipeline transport]] is a transportation of hydrogen through a [[pipe (material)|pipe]] as part of the [[hydrogen infrastructure]]. Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to connect the point of [[hydrogen production]] or delivery of hydrogen with the point of demand.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/hpwgw_airprod_remp.pdf|title=DOE Hydrogen Pipeline Working Group Workshop|publisher=Eere.energy.gov|access-date=2015-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191048/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/hpwgw_airprod_remp.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-03}}</ref> Most [[hydrogen]] is produced at the place of demand with every {{convert|50|to|100|mi}} an industrial production facility.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hydrogenforecast.com/ArticleDetails.php?articleID=250|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604012854/http://www.hydrogenforecast.com/ArticleDetails.php?articleID=250|title=Shell Takes Flexible Approach to Fueling the Future|first=Dean|last=Stanley|date=February 2005|archive-date=June 4, 2009|website=Hydrogen Forecast}}</ref> The 1938 [[Rhine-Ruhr]] {{convert|240|km|adj=on}} hydrogen pipeline is still in operation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.storhy.net/train-in/PDF-TI/03_StorHy-Train-IN-Session-1_3_JToepler.pdf|title=The Technological Steps of Hydrogen Introduction|page=24|publisher=Storhy.net|access-date=2015-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029214321/http://www.storhy.net/train-in/PDF-TI/03_StorHy-Train-IN-Session-1_3_JToepler.pdf|archive-date=2008-10-29}}</ref> {{As of|2004}}, there are {{convert|900|mi}} of low-pressure hydrogen pipelines in the US and {{convert|930|mi}} in Europe.

In steel pipelines, gaseous hydrogen can accelerate fatigue-crack growth and reduce the apparent fracture toughness of line-pipe and welds, so materials must be qualified for hydrogen service using fracture-mechanics criteria. ASME B31.12<ref>{{Cite web |title=ASME B31.12 Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines {{!}} H2tools {{!}} Hydrogen Tools |url=https://h2tools.org/fuel-cell-codes-and-standards/asme-b3112-hydrogen-piping-and-pipelines |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=h2tools.org}}</ref> for hydrogen piping and pipelines provides such a qualification route (e.g., threshold stress-intensity in hydrogen and optional fatigue-crack-growth data). Recent evaluations on API 5L X70 line-pipe show measurable toughness reductions and faster crack growth under blended-hydrogen conditions, while recent reviews summarize hydrogen uptake, trapping and mitigation specific to pipeline steels.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martin |first=May L. |last2=Connolly |first2=Matthew |last3=Buck |first3=Zachary N. |last4=Bradley |first4=Peter E. |last5=Lauria |first5=Damian |last6=Slifka |first6=Andrew J. |date=2022-05-01 |title=Evaluating a natural gas pipeline steel for blended hydrogen service |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875510022001196 |journal=Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering |volume=101 |article-number=104529 |doi=10.1016/j.jngse.2022.104529 |issn=1875-5100|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Hanyu |last2=Niu |first2=Ranming |last3=Li |first3=Wei |last4=Lu |first4=Hongzhou |last5=Cairney |first5=Julie |last6=Chen |first6=Yi-Sheng |date=2022-09-01 |title=Hydrogen in pipeline steels: Recent advances in characterization and embrittlement mitigation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875510022002979 |journal=Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering |volume=105 |article-number=104709 |doi=10.1016/j.jngse.2022.104709 |issn=1875-5100|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Water==
{{main|Water transportation}}
{{see also|Aqueduct (watercourse)|History of water supply and sanitation}}
[[File:LA Aqueduct Antelope Valley.jpg|thumb|The [[Los Angeles Aqueduct]] in [[Antelope Valley]]]]

Two millennia ago, the [[Roman Empire|ancient Romans]] made use of large [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]] to transport water from higher elevations by building the aqueducts in graduated segments that allowed [[gravity]] to push the water along until it reached its destination. Hundreds of these were built throughout Europe and elsewhere, and along with [[flour mill]]s were considered the lifeline of the Roman Empire. The [[history of China|ancient Chinese]] also made use of channels and pipe systems for public works. The famous [[Han dynasty]] court [[eunuch (court official)|eunuch]] [[Zhang Rang]] (d. 189&nbsp;AD) once ordered the engineer Bi Lan to construct a series of square-pallet [[chain pump]]s outside the capital city of [[Luoyang]].<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 33">Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. p. 33.</ref> These chain pumps serviced the imperial [[palace]]s and living quarters of the capital city as the water lifted by the chain pumps was brought in by a [[stoneware]] [[pipe (material)|pipe]] system.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 33"/><ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 345 346">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 345–46.</ref>

Pipelines are useful for transporting water for [[drinking water|drinking]] or [[irrigation]] over long distances when it needs to move over [[hill]]s, or where [[canal]]s or [[channel (geography)|channels]] are poor choices due to considerations of [[evaporation]], [[pollution]], or environmental impact.

The {{cvt|530|km}} [[Goldfields Water Supply Scheme]] in [[Western Australia]] using {{cvt|750|mm}} pipe and completed in 1903 was the largest water supply scheme of its time.<ref>{{Cite Australian Dictionary of Biography |first=George |last=Parsons |title=Mephan Ferguson (1843–1919) |id2=ferguson-mephan-3511 |year=1972 |volume=4 |access-date=9 August 2025}}</ref><ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/dynasties/txt/s1489302.htm The Forrest family] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817224729/http://www.abc.net.au/dynasties/txt/s1489302.htm |date=2016-08-17 }} ''Dynasties'', ABC. Retrieved 17 September 2006.</ref>

Examples of significant water pipelines in [[South Australia]] are the [[Morgan Whyalla pipeline|Morgan-Whyalla pipeline]] (completed 1944) and [[Mannum-Adelaide pipeline]] (completed 1955) pipelines, both part of the larger [[Snowy Mountains scheme]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sawater.com.au/SAWater/WhatsNew/NewsRoom/Mannum+Adelaide+Celebrations.htm |title=Mannum Adelaide Celebrations |publisher=SA Water |access-date=2015-01-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503090622/http://www.sawater.com.au/SAWater/WhatsNew/NewsRoom/Mannum+Adelaide+Celebrations.htm |archive-date=2015-05-03 }}</ref>

Two [[Los Angeles, California]] aqueducts, the [[Owens Valley aqueduct]] (completed 1913) and the [[Los Angeles aqueduct#Second Los Angeles Aqueduct|Second Los Angeles Aqueduct]] (completed 1970), include extensive use of pipelines.

The [[Great Manmade River]] of Libya supplies {{convert|3.68|e6m3|e6yd3|abbr=unit}} of water each day to Tripoli, Benghazi, Sirte, and several other cities in Libya. The pipeline is over {{convert|2800|km|mi}} long, and is connected to wells tapping an aquifer over {{convert|500|m}} underground.<ref>{{cite web |title=GMR (Great Man-Made River) Water Supply Project, Libya |url=http://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816232713/https://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |archive-date=August 16, 2020 |access-date=April 15, 2012 |publisher=water-technology.net}}</ref>

==Other systems==

===District heating===
[[File:Fernwärmeleitung Dü StPö mit Kraftwerk Dürnrohr.jpg|thumb|200px|District heating pipeline in Austria with a length of 31&nbsp;km<ref name="Wärmetransportleitung">[http://www.gaswaerme.at/de/pdf/10-1/oberhammer.pdf Andreas Oberhammer; The longest heat transfer pipeline in Austria] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706092155/http://www.gaswaerme.at/de/pdf/10-1/oberhammer.pdf |date=2011-07-06}} Paper in German. Retrieved 2010-09-20</ref>]]
{{Main|District heating}}

District heating or ''teleheating'' systems consist of a network of [[insulated pipe|insulated]] feed and return pipes which transport heated water, [[pressurized hot water]], or sometimes [[steam]] to the customer. While steam is hottest and may be used in [[industrial process]]es due to its higher temperature, it is less [[thermal efficiency|efficient]] to produce and transport due to greater heat losses. Heat transfer oils are generally not used for economic and ecological reasons. The typical annual loss of thermal energy through distribution is around 10%, as seen in Norway's district heating network.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nve.no/global/energi/analyser/energi%20i%20norge%20folder/energy%20in%20norway%202009%20edition.pdf |title=Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate |access-date=2011-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928144652/http://www.nve.no/global/energi/analyser/energi%20i%20norge%20folder/energy%20in%20norway%202009%20edition.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-28}}
</ref>

District heating pipelines are normally installed underground, with some exceptions. Within the system, [[thermal energy storage|heat storage]] may be installed to even out peak load demands. Heat is transferred into the [[central heating]] of the dwellings through [[heat exchanger]]s at [[district heating substation|heat substations]], without mixing of the fluids in either system.

===Beer===
[[File:Thor pipeline.jpg|thumb|alt=Thor Pipeline in Randers, Denmark|Thor Pipeline in [[Randers]], Denmark]]

Bars in the [[Veltins-Arena]], a major [[Association football|football]] ground in [[Gelsenkirchen]], Germany, are interconnected by a {{convert|5|km|mi|-long|adj=mid}} beer pipeline. In [[Randers]] city in Denmark, the so-called Thor Beer pipeline was operated. Originally, copper pipes ran directly from the brewery, but when the brewery moved out of the city in the 1990s, Thor Beer replaced it with a giant tank.

A three-kilometre beer pipeline was completed in [[Bruges]], Belgium in September 2016 to reduce truck traffic on the city streets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euronews.com/2016/09/15/bruges-beer-pipeline-becomes-reality|title=Bruges' Beer Pipeline Becomes Reality|date=September 15, 2016|language=en|access-date=2016-10-28}}</ref>

===Brine===
The village of [[Hallstatt]] in Austria, which is known for its long history of [[salt mining]], claims to contain "the oldest industrial pipeline in the world", dating back to 1595.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html |title=Hallstatt's White Gold – Salt |access-date=2007-05-15 |last=Lopez |first=Billie Ann |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210142713/http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html |archive-date=2007-02-10 }}</ref> It was constructed from 13,000 hollowed-out tree [[trunk (botany)|trunks]] to transport [[brine]] {{convert|40|km}} from Hallstatt to [[Ebensee]].<ref>See the article [[Hallstatt]] for details and references.</ref>

===Milk===
Between 1978 and 1994, a 15&nbsp;km milk pipeline ran between the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] island of [[Ameland]] and [[Holwerd]] on the mainland, of which 8&nbsp;km was beneath the [[Wadden Sea]]. Every day, 30,000 litres of milk produced on the island were transported to be processed on the mainland. In 1994, the pipeline was abandoned.<ref>[http://www.digibron.nl/search/detail/012df08e8a4ffc97d1a4d1a1/amelandse-melk-niet-meer-door-wkddenzeepijp Amelandse melk niet meer door Waddenzeepijp], Reformatorisch Dagblad 20 January 1994.</ref>

=== Pneumatic transport ===
[[File:Washington, D.C. Miss Helen Ringwald works with the pneumatic tubes.jpg|thumb|A pneumatic tube system in Washington, D.C., in 1943]]
{{Main|Pneumatic tube}}

Rather than transporting fluids, pneumatic tubes are usually used to transport solids in a cylindrical container by compressed air or by partial vacuum. They were most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and were used to transport small solid objects within a building, e.g. documents in an office or money in a bank. By the 21st century, pneumatic tube transport had been mostly superseded by digital solutions for transporting information, but is still used in cases where convenience and speed in a local environment are important. Hospitals, for example, use them to deliver drugs and specimens.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wykes |first=Sara |date=2010-01-11 |title=Gone with the wind: Tubes are whisking samples across hospital |url=https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2010/01/gone-with-the-wind-tubes-are-whisking-samples-across-hospital.html |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=[[Stanford University School of Medicine]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Marine pipelines ==
{{Main|Submarine pipeline}}
In places, a pipeline may have to cross water expanses, such as small seas, straits and rivers.<ref name="Palmer&KingP.2">Palmer & King, pp. 2–3</ref> In many instances, they lie entirely on the seabed. These pipelines are referred to as "marine" pipelines (also, "submarine" or "offshore" pipelines). They are used primarily to carry oil or gas, but transportation of water is also important.<ref name="Palmer&KingP.2"/> In offshore projects, a distinction is made between a "flowline" and a pipeline.<ref name="Palmer&KingP.2"/><ref name="DeanP.338">Dean, p. 338</ref><ref name="Bai&BaiP.24">Bai & Bai, p. 22</ref> The former is an ''intrafield'' pipeline, in the sense that it is used to connect subsea [[wellhead]]s, manifolds and the [[oil platform|platform]] ''within'' a particular development field. The latter, sometimes referred to as an "export pipeline", is used to bring the resource to shore.<ref name="DeanP.338"/> The construction and maintenance of marine pipelines imply logistical challenges that are different from those onland, mainly because of wave and current dynamics, along with other [[geohazard]]s.

==Functions==
[[File:How it Works Refined Petroleum Product Pipelines.png|thumb|Refined petroleum product pipelines may carry multiple products at the same time, in batches that are drawn off as they reach consumers some hours or days after injection.]]
In general, pipelines can be classified in three categories depending on purpose:

;Gathering pipelines: Group of smaller interconnected pipelines forming complex networks with the purpose of bringing crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to a treatment plant or processing facility. In this group, pipelines are usually short- a couple hundred metres- and with small diameters. Sub-sea pipelines for collecting product from deep water production platforms are also considered gathering systems.
;Transportation pipelines: Mainly long pipes with large diameters, moving products (oil, gas, refined products) between cities, countries and even continents. These transportation networks include several compressor stations in gas lines or pump stations for crude and multi-products pipelines.
;Distribution pipelines: Composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters, used to take the products to the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and businesses downstream. Pipelines at terminals for distributing products to tanks and storage facilities are included in this groups.

==Development and planning==
When a pipeline is built, the construction project not only covers the [[civil engineering]] work to lay the pipeline and build the pump/compressor stations, it also has to cover all the work related to the installation of the field devices that will support remote operation.

The pipeline is routed along what is known as a "right of way". Pipelines are generally developed and built using the following stages:

# Open season to determine market interest: Potential customers are given the chance to sign up for part of the new pipeline's capacity rights.
# Route (right of way) selection including land acquisition ([[eminent domain]])
# Pipeline design: The pipeline project may take a number of forms, including the construction of a new pipeline, conversion of existing pipeline from one fuel type to another, or improvements to facilities on a current pipeline route.
# Obtaining approval: Once the design is finalized and the first pipeline customers have purchased their share of capacity, the project must be approved by the relevant regulatory agencies.
# Surveying the route
# Clearing the route
# Trenching – Main Route and Crossings (roads, rail, other pipes, etc.)
# Installing the pipe
# Installing valves, intersections, etc.
# Covering the pipe and trench
# Testing: Once construction is completed, the new pipeline is subjected to tests to ensure its structural integrity. These may include hydrostatic testing and line packing.<ref name="eia.gov">[http://www.eia.gov/pub/oil_gas/natural_gas/analysis_publications/ngpipeline/develop.html "Natural Gas Pipeline Development and Expansion]," U.S. Energy Information Administration, Retrieved December 12, 2012.</ref>

Russia has "Pipeline Troops" as part of the [[Rear Services]], who are trained to build and repair pipelines. Russia is the only country to have Pipeline Troops.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://de.rian.ru/politics/20120116/262467833.html |title=Russlands Militär übt für möglichen US-Angriff auf Iran |publisher=Ria Novosti |language=de |access-date=17 January 2012 |date=16 January 2012 |archive-date=17 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117233824/http://de.rian.ru/politics/20120116/262467833.html }}</ref>

The US government, mainly through the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]], the [[FERC]] and others, reviews proposed pipeline projects in order to comply with the [[Clean Water Act]], the [[National Environmental Policy Act]], other laws and, in some cases, municipal laws.<ref>Houston Public Works. City of Houston. "Pipeline Permit(Oil and Gas)." [https://www.houstonpermittingcenter.org/hpwoce1004 City of Houston website] Retrieved 2 June 2022.</ref><ref>Pipeline Permitting. [https://www.ingaa.org/File.aspx?id=34233&v=89d18216 Interstate Natural Gas Association website]  Retrieved 2 June 2022.</ref> The Biden administration has sought to permit the respective states and tribal groups to appraise and potentially block the proposed projects.<ref>Friedman, Lisa (2 June 2022). "E.P.A., Reversing Trump, Will Restore States' Power to Block Pipelines". [https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/02/climate/states-tribes-pipelines.html?smid=url-share NY Times website]  Retrieved 2 Jane 2022.</ref>

==Operation==
Field devices are instrumentation, data gathering units and communication systems. The field [[instrumentation]] includes flow, pressure, and temperature gauges/transmitters, and other devices to measure the relevant data required. These instruments are installed along the pipeline on some specific locations, such as injection or delivery stations, pump stations (liquid pipelines) or compressor stations (gas pipelines), and block valve stations.

The information measured by these field instruments is then gathered in local [[remote terminal unit]]s (RTU) that transfer the field data to a central location in real time using communication systems, such as satellite channels, microwave links, or cellular phone connections.

Pipelines are controlled and operated remotely, from what is usually known as the "Main Control Room". In this center, all the data related to field measurement is consolidated in one central database. The data is received from multiple RTUs along the pipeline. It is common to find RTUs installed at every station along the pipeline.

[[File:Pipeline-Scada.jpg|thumb|500px|The SCADA System for pipelines]]

The [[SCADA]] system at the Main Control Room receives all the field data and presents it to the pipeline operator through a set of screens or [[SCADA#Human Machine Interface|Human Machine Interface]], showing the operational conditions of the pipeline. The operator can monitor the hydraulic conditions of the line, as well as send operational commands (open/close valves, turn on/off compressors or pumps, change setpoints, etc.) through the SCADA system to the field.

To optimize and secure the operation of these assets, some pipeline companies are using what is called "Advanced Pipeline Applications", which are software tools installed on top of the SCADA system, that provide extended functionality to perform leak detection, leak location, batch tracking (liquid lines), pig tracking, composition tracking, predictive modeling, look ahead modeling, and operator training.

==Technology==

===Components===
[[File:Trans-Alaska Pipeline crossing a ridge by Tanana River.jpg|thumb|right|The Trans Alaska Pipeline crossing under the [[Delta River]] and over ridge of the [[Alaska Range]]]]

Pipeline networks are composed of several pieces of equipment that operate together to move products from location to location. The main elements of a pipeline system are:

;Initial injection station: Known also as "supply" or "inlet" station, is the beginning of the system, where the product is injected into the line. Storage facilities, pumps or compressors are usually located at these locations.

;Compressor/pump stations: [[Pump]]s for liquid pipelines and [[compressors]] for gas pipelines, are located along the line to move the product through the pipeline. The location of these stations is defined by the topography of the terrain, the type of product being transported, or operational conditions of the network.

;Partial delivery station: Known also as "intermediate stations", these facilities allow the pipeline operator to deliver part of the product being transported.

;Block valve station: These are the first line of protection for pipelines. With these valves the operator can isolate any segment of the line for maintenance work or isolate a rupture or leak. Block valve stations are usually located every 20 to {{convert|30|mi|km}}, depending on the type of pipeline. Even though it is not a design rule, it is a very usual practice in liquid pipelines. The location of these stations depends exclusively on the nature of the product being transported, the trajectory of the pipeline and/or the operational conditions of the line.

;Regulator station: This is a special type of valve station, where the operator can release some of the pressure from the line. Regulators are usually located at the downhill side of a peak.

;Final delivery station: Known also as "outlet" stations or terminals, this is where the product will be distributed to the consumer. It could be a tank terminal for liquid pipelines or a connection to a distribution network for gas pipelines.

===Leak detection systems===
Since oil and gas pipelines are an important asset of the economic development of almost any country, it has been required either by government regulations or internal policies to ensure the safety of the assets, and the population and environment where these pipelines run.

Pipeline companies face government regulation, environmental constraints and social situations. Government regulations may define minimum staff to run the operation, operator training requirements, pipeline facilities, technology and applications required to ensure operational safety. For example, in the State of Washington it is mandatory for pipeline operators to be able to detect and locate leaks of 8 percent of maximum flow within fifteen minutes or less. Social factors also affect the operation of pipelines. Product theft is sometimes also a problem for pipeline companies. In this case, the detection levels should be under two percent of maximum flow, with a high expectation for location accuracy.

Various technologies and strategies have been implemented for monitoring pipelines, from physically walking the lines to satellite surveillance. The most common technology to protect pipelines from occasional leaks is Computational Pipeline Monitoring or CPM. CPM takes information from the field related to pressures, flows, and temperatures to estimate the hydraulic behavior of the product being transported. Once the estimation is completed, the results are compared to other field references to detect the presence of an anomaly or unexpected situation, which may be related to a leak.

The [[American Petroleum Institute]] has published several articles related to the performance of CPM in liquids pipelines. The API Publications are:
*RAM 1130 – Computational pipeline monitoring for liquids pipelines
*API 1149 – Pipeline variable uncertainties & their effects on leak detectability

Where a pipeline containing passes under a road or railway, it is usually enclosed in a protective casing. This casing is vented to the atmosphere to prevent the build-up of flammable gases or corrosive substances, and to allow the air inside the casing to be sampled to detect leaks. The ''casing vent'', a pipe protruding from the ground, often doubles as a warning marker called a ''casing vent marker''.<ref>''[https://corenaturalresources.com/redirect Pipeline Safety]'', CONSOL Energy, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518101537/http://www.consolenergy.com/natural-gas-amp-coal/natural-gas/pipeline-safety.aspx |date=2015-05-18 }}, accessed 2015-05-13</ref>

==Implementation==
Pipelines are generally laid underground because temperature is less variable. Because pipelines are usually metal, this helps to reduce the expansion and shrinkage that can occur with weather changes.<ref>{{cite book|title=Oil and Gas Pipelines|last=Saxon|first=Carina|publisher=Gale|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4103-1751-3|pages=636–639}}</ref> However, in some cases it is necessary to cross a valley or a river on a [[pipeline bridge]]. Pipelines for centralized heating systems are often laid on the ground or overhead. Pipelines for petroleum running through permafrost areas as Trans-Alaska Pipeline are often run overhead in order to avoid melting the frozen ground by hot petroleum which would result in sinking the pipeline in the ground.

==Maintenance==
Maintenance of pipelines includes checking [[cathodic protection]] levels for the proper range, surveillance for construction, erosion, or leaks by foot, land vehicle, boat, or air, and running cleaning pigs when there is anything carried in the pipeline that is corrosive.

US pipeline maintenance rules are covered in [[Code of Federal Regulations]] (CFR) sections, 49 CFR 192 for natural gas pipelines, and 49 CFR 195 for petroleum liquid pipelines.

==Regulation==
[[File:BlendonWoodsPipeline.JPG|thumb|right|An underground petroleum pipeline running through a park]]

In the US, onshore and offshore pipelines used to transport oil and gas are regulated by the [[Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration]] (PHMSA). Certain offshore pipelines used to produce oil and gas are regulated by the [[Minerals Management Service]] (MMS). In Canada, pipelines are regulated by either the provincial regulators or, if they cross provincial boundaries or the Canada–US border, by the [[National Energy Board]] (NEB). Government regulations in Canada and the United States require that buried fuel pipelines must be protected from [[corrosion]]. Often, the most economical method of corrosion control is by use of pipeline [[Industrial coating|coating]] in conjunction with [[cathodic protection]] and technology to monitor the pipeline. Above ground, cathodic protection is not an option. The coating is the only external protection.

==Pipelines and geopolitics==
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2022}}
[[File:Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Area Maps of Oil and Gas fields, Prospects, Structural Axes, and Petroleum Facilities -- 1951 - DPLA - bfbf332b09ce6186590cf6158a869bab.jpg|thumb|right|United States [[CIA]] map of pipeline infrastructure in the Soviet Union (1951)]]

Pipelines for major energy resources (petroleum and natural gas) are not merely an element of trade. They connect to issues of [[geopolitics]] and [[international security]] as well, and the construction, placement, and control of oil and gas pipelines often figure prominently in [[Sovereign state|state]] interests and actions. A notable example of pipeline politics occurred at the beginning of the year 2009, wherein [[2009 Russia–Ukraine gas dispute|a dispute]] between Russia and [[Ukraine]] ostensibly over pricing led to a major political crisis. Russian state-owned gas company [[Gazprom]] cut off natural gas supplies to Ukraine after talks between it and the Ukrainian government fell through. In addition to cutting off supplies to Ukraine, Russian gas flowing through Ukraine—which included nearly all supplies to [[Southeastern Europe]] and some supplies to [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Western Europe]]—was cut off, creating a major crisis in several countries heavily dependent on Russian gas as fuel. Russia was accused of using the dispute as leverage in its attempt to keep other powers, and particularly the [[European Union]], from interfering in its "[[near abroad]]".

==Hazard identification==
<!-- Hazard identification is the proper wording in risk assessment -->
Because the [[solvent]] fraction of [[dilbit]] typically comprises [[volatile organic compound|volatile]] [[aromatics]] such as [[naptha]] and [[benzene]], reasonably rapid carrier [[vaporization]] can be expected to follow an above-ground spill—ostensibly enabling timely intervention by leaving only a [[viscous]] residue that is slow to migrate. Effective protocols to minimize exposure to [[petrochemical]] vapours are well-established, and oil spilled from the pipeline would be unlikely to reach the [[aquifer]] unless incomplete remediation were followed by the introduction of another carrier (e.g. a series of torrential downpours).

The introduction of [[benzene]] and other volatile organic compounds (collectively [[BTEX]]) to the subterranean environment compounds the threat posed by a pipeline leak. Particularly if followed by rain, a pipeline breach would result in BTEX [[dissolution (chemistry)|dissolution]] and [[chemical equilibrium|equilibration]] of benzene in water, followed by [[percolation]] of the admixture into the aquifer. Benzene can cause many [[benzene#Health effects|health problems]] and is [[carcinogenic]] with EPA [[Maximum Contaminant Level]] (MCL) set at 5 μg/L for [[potable water]].<ref>{{cite web|last=EPA|title=Basic Information about Benzene in Drinking Water|url=http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/benzene.cfm|access-date=2013-03-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220141636/http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/benzene.cfm|archive-date=2013-02-20}}</ref> Although it is not well studied, single benzene exposure events have been linked to acute carcinogenesis.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Calabrese|first=EJ|author2=Blain, RB |title=The single exposure carcinogen database: assessing the circumstances under which a single exposure to a carcinogen can cause cancer|journal=Toxicological Sciences|year=1999|volume=50|issue=2|pages=169–85|doi=10.1093/toxsci/50.2.169|pmid=10478853|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, the exposure of livestock, mainly cattle, to benzene has been shown to cause many health issues, such as [[neurotoxicity]], fetal damage and fatal poisoning.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Pattanayek, M.|author2=DeShields, B.|name-list-style=amp|title=Characterizing Risks to Livestock from Petroleum Hydrocarbons|url=http://ipec.utulsa.edu/Conf2003/Papers/pattanayek_deshields_29.pdf|publisher=Blasland, Bouck, and Lee, Inc.|access-date=2011-11-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425161929/http://ipec.utulsa.edu/Conf2003/Papers/pattanayek_deshields_29.pdf|archive-date=2012-04-25}}</ref>

The entire surface of an above-ground pipeline can be directly examined for material breach. Pooled petroleum is unambiguous, readily spotted, and indicates the location of required repairs. Because the effectiveness of remote inspection is limited by the cost of monitoring equipment, gaps between [[sensor]]s, and data that requires interpretation, small leaks in buried pipe can sometimes go undetected.

Pipeline developers do not always prioritize effective surveillance against leaks. Buried pipes draw fewer complaints. They are [[thermal insulation|insulated]] from extremes in [[ambient temperature]], they are shielded from [[ultraviolet rays]], and they are less exposed to [[photodegradation]]. Buried pipes are isolated from airborne debris, [[electrical storms]], [[tornadoes]], [[hurricanes]], [[hail]], and [[acid rain]]. They are protected from nesting birds, [[rut (mammalian reproduction)|rutting]] mammals, and stray buckshot. Buried pipe is less vulnerable to accident damage (e.g. [[automobile accidents|automobile collisions]]) and less accessible to [[vandalism|vandals]], [[saboteurs]], and [[terrorists]].

==Exposure==
[[File:Keystone jan08 DSC 0173.jpg|thumb|Protest against the [[Keystone Pipeline]]]]
Previous work<ref name="stansbury">{{cite web|last=Stansbury|first=John|title=Analysis of Frequency, Magnitude and Consequence of Worst-Case Spills From the Proposed Keystone XL Pipeline|url=http://watercenter.unl.edu/downloads/2011-Worst-case-Keystone-spills-report.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150117101558/http://watercenter.unl.edu/downloads/2011-Worst-case-Keystone-spills-report.pdf|archive-date=2015-01-17}}</ref> has shown that a 'worst-case exposure scenario' can be limited to a specific set of conditions. Based on the advanced detection methods and pipeline shut-off [[standard operating procedure|SOP]] developed by TransCanada, the risk of a substantive or large release over a short period of time contaminating groundwater with benzene is unlikely.<ref name="potential">{{cite web|last=US State Dept|title=Potential Releases From Project Construction and Operation and Environmental Consequence Analysis|url=http://www.keystonepipeline-xl.state.gov/clientsite/keystonexl.nsf/19_KXL_FEIS_Sec_3.13_Potential_Releases.pdf?OpenFileResource|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909100930/https://www.keystonepipeline-xl.state.gov/clientsite/keystonexl.nsf/19_KXL_FEIS_Sec_3.13_Potential_Releases.pdf?OpenFileResource|archive-date=September 9, 2023|access-date=2 November 2011}}</ref> Detection, shutoff, and remediation procedures would limit the dissolution and transport of benzene. Therefore, the exposure of benzene would be limited to leaks that are below the [[detection limit|limit of detection]] and go unnoticed for extended periods of time.<ref name=stansbury/> Leak detection is monitored through a [[SCADA]] system that assesses pressure and volume flow every 5 seconds. A pinhole leak that releases small quantities that cannot be detected by the SCADA system (<1.5% flow) could accumulate into a substantive spill.<ref name=potential/> Detection of pinhole leaks would come from a visual or [[olfactory]] inspection, aerial surveying, or mass-balance inconsistencies.<ref name=potential/> It is assumed that pinhole leaks are discovered within the 14-day inspection interval; however, snow cover and location (e.g. remote, deep) could delay detection. Benzene typically makes up 0.1 to 1.0% of oil and will have varying degrees of [[volatility (chemistry)|volatility]] and dissolution based on environmental factors.

Even with pipeline leak volumes within SCADA detection limits, sometimes pipeline leaks are misinterpreted by pipeline operators to be pump malfunctions, or other problems. The [[Enbridge]] Line 6B [[Kalamazoo River oil spill|crude oil pipeline failure]] in [[Marshall, Michigan]], on July 25, 2010, was thought by operators in Edmonton to be from column separation of the [[dilbit]] in that pipeline. The leak in wetlands along the [[Kalamazoo River]] was only confirmed 17 hours after it happened by a local gas company employee.

===Spill frequency-volume===
Although the [[Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration]] (PHMSA) has standard baseline incident frequencies to estimate the number of spills, TransCanada altered these assumptions based on improved pipeline design, operation, and safety.<ref name="potential"/> Whether these adjustments are justified is debatable as these assumptions resulted in a nearly ten-fold decrease in spill estimates.<ref name="stansbury"/> Given that the pipeline crosses 247 miles of the Ogallala Aquifer,<ref>{{cite web|last=US State Dept|title=Environmental Analysis: Water Resources|url=http://www.keystonepipeline-xl.state.gov/clientsite/keystonexl.nsf/09_KXL_FEIS_Sec_3.3_Water_Resources.pdf?OpenFileResource|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909100929/https://www.keystonepipeline-xl.state.gov/clientsite/keystonexl.nsf/09_KXL_FEIS_Sec_3.3_Water_Resources.pdf?OpenFileResource|archive-date=September 9, 2023|access-date=2 November 2011}}</ref> or 14.5% of the entire pipeline length, and the 50-year life of the entire pipeline is expected to have between 11 and 91 spills,<ref name="stansbury"/> approximately 1.6 to 13.2 spills can be expected to occur over the aquifer. An estimate of 13.2 spills over the aquifer, each lasting 14 days, results in 184 days of potential exposure over the 50-year lifetime of the pipeline.
In the reduced-scope worst-case exposure scenario, the volume of a pinhole leak at 1.5% of max flow-rate for 14 days has been estimated at 189,000 barrels or 7.9 million gallons of oil.<ref name="stansbury"/> According to PHMSA's incident database,<ref>{{cite web|last=PHMSA|title=Incident Statistics|url=https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/hazmat-program-management-data-and-statistics/data-operations/incident-statistics|access-date=2 November 2011}}</ref> only 0.5% of all spills in the last ten years were more than 10,000 barrels.

===Benzene fate and transport===
[[File:Benzene Transport to Groundwater from Oil Spill.pdf|thumb|300px|Scenario for benzene leaching to groundwater]]

Benzene is considered a light [[aromatic hydrocarbon]] with high solubility and high volatility.{{Clarify|reason = Benzene has a solubility of 1.79 g/L in water at 15 °C. Is this considered high?|date = August 2014}} It is unclear how temperature and depth would impact the volatility of benzene, so assumptions have been made that benzene in oil (1% weight by volume) would not volatilize before equilibrating with water.<ref name="stansbury"/>

Using the [[octanol-water partition coefficient]] and a 100-year precipitation event for the area, a worst-case estimate of 75&nbsp;mg/L of benzene is anticipated to flow toward the aquifer.<ref name="stansbury"/> The actual movement of the [[plume (hydrodynamics)|plume]] through [[groundwater]] systems is not well described, although one estimate is that up to 4.9 billion gallons of water in the Ogallala Aquifer could become contaminated with benzene at concentrations above the MCL.<ref name="stansbury"/> The Final Environmental Impact Statement from the State Department does not include a quantitative analysis because it assumed that most benzene will volatilize.<ref name="potential"/>

===Previous dilbit spill remediation difficulties===
One of the major concerns over [[dilbit]] is the difficulty in cleaning it up.<ref>[http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.html?programID=12-P13-00027&segmentID=1 "Kalamazoo River Spill Yields Record Fine"], ''[[Living on Earth]]'', July 6, 2012. Lisa Song, a reporter for Inside Climate News, interviewed by Bruce Gellerman. Retrieved 2013-01-01.</ref> When the aforementioned Enbridge Line 6B crude oil pipeline ruptured in Marshall, Michigan in 2010, at least 843,000 gallons of dilbit were spilled.<ref>[https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2012/PAR1201.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140928113319/https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2012/PAR1201.pdf|date=September 28, 2014}}</ref> After detection of the leak, [[Telescopic handler|booms]] and [[vacuum truck]]s were deployed. Heavy rains caused the river to [[overtop]] existing dams, and carried dilbit 30 miles downstream before the spill was contained. Remediation work collected over 1.1 million gallons of oil and almost 200,000 cubic yards of oil-contaminated sediment and debris from the Kalamazoo River system. However, oil was still being found in affected waters in October 2012.<ref>[https://www.epa.gov/enbridge-spill-michigan "More Work Needed to Clean up Enbridge Oil Spill in Kalamazoo River"], US EPA, October 3, 2012.</ref>

==Accidents and dangers==
Pipelines can help ensure a country's economic well-being and as such present a likely target of terrorists or wartime adversaries.
Fossil fuels can be transported by pipeline, rail, truck or ship, though natural gas requires compression or [[liquefaction]] to make vehicle transport economical. For transport of crude oil via these four modes, various reports rank pipelines as proportionately causing less human death and property damage than rail and truck and [[Oil spill|spilling less oil]] than truck.<ref name="forbes"/>

===Accidents===
{{Main list|List of pipeline accidents}}

Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose special safety concerns. While corrosion, pressure, and equipment failure are common causes, excavation damage is also a leading accident type that can be avoided by calling 811 before digging near pipelines.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brigham McCown on Oil Pipeline Safety and Energy Infrastructure |publisher=C-SPAN |url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?460026-3/washington-journal-brigham-mccown-discusses-oil-pipeline-safety-energy-infrastructure |access-date=2022-07-09}}</ref> 
*1965 – A 32-inch gas transmission pipeline, north of Natchitoches, Louisiana, belonging to the Tennessee Gas Pipeline exploded and burned from [[stress corrosion cracking]] failure on March 4, killing 17 people. At least 9 others were injured, and 7 homes 450 feet from the rupture were destroyed. This accident, and others of the era, led then-President Lyndon B. Johnson to call for the formation of a national pipeline safety agency in 1967. The same pipeline had also had an explosion on May 9, 1955, just {{Convert|930|ft}} from the 1965 failure.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gendisasters.com/louisiana/53/natchitoches-la-gas-pipeline-explosion-mar-1965|title=Natchitoches, LA Gas Pipeline Explosion, Mar 1965|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006104655/http://www3.gendisasters.com/louisiana/53/natchitoches-la-gas-pipeline-explosion-mar-1965|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jiJLAAAAIBAJ&pg=6968,2455002&dq=gas+line+blast&hl=en|title= Google News Archive Search|publisher=The Press-Courier|access-date=30 September 2014}}</ref>
*June 16, 1976 – A gasoline pipeline was ruptured by a road construction crew in [[Los Angeles]], California. Gasoline sprayed across the area, and soon ignited, killing 9, and injuring at least 14 others. Confusion over the depth of the pipeline in the construction area seemed to be a factor in the accident.<ref>{{cite letter|recipient=Mr. C. D. Mims|subject=Safety Recommendations P-76-87 through 90|url=https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/recletters/1976/P76_87_90.pdf|last=Todd|date=31 January 1977|publisher=National Transportation Safety Board|location=Washington, DC|access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031053108/https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/recletters/1976/P76_87_90.pdf|archive-date=31 October 2012|first=Webster B. Jr.}}</ref>
*June 4, 1989 – The [[Ufa train disaster]]: Sparks from two passing trains detonated gas leaking from a [[liquefied petroleum gas|LPG]] pipeline near [[Ufa]], Russia. At least 575 people were reported killed.
*October 17, 1998 – [[1998 Jesse pipeline explosion]]: A [[petroleum]] pipeline exploded at Jesse on the [[Oil Rivers|Niger Delta]] in [[Nigeria]], killing about 1,200 villagers, some of whom were scavenging [[gasoline]].
*June 10, 1999 – A pipeline rupture in a [[Bellingham, Washington]] park led to the release of 277,200 gallons of gasoline. The gasoline was ignited, causing an explosion that killed two children and one adult. Misoperation of the pipeline and a previously damaged section of the pipe that was not detected before were identified as causing the failure.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2002/PAR0202.pdf|title=Pipeline Accident Report: Pipeline Rupture and Subsequent Fire in Bellingham, Washington, June 10, 1999|date=2002|publisher=National Transportation Safety Board|location=Washington, DC|access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031053056/https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2002/PAR0202.pdf|archive-date=31 October 2012}}</ref>
*August 19, 2000 – A natural gas pipeline rupture and fire near [[Carlsbad, New Mexico]]; this explosion and fire killed 12 members of an extended family. The cause was due to severe internal corrosion of the pipeline.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2003/PAR0301.pdf|title=Pipeline Accident Report: Natural Gas Pipeline Rupture and Fire Near Carlsbad, New Mexico, August 19, 2000|date=2003|publisher=National Transportation Safety Board|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101102741/https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2003/PAR0301.pdf|archive-date=1 November 2013}}</ref>
*July 30, 2004 – A major [[natural gas]] pipeline exploded in [[Ghislenghien]], Belgium near [[Ath]] (thirty kilometres southwest of [[Brussels]]), killing at least 24 people and leaving 132 wounded, some critically.
*May 12, 2006 – An oil pipeline ruptured outside [[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]]. Up to 200 people may have been killed. See [[Nigeria oil blast]].
*November 1, 2007 – A propane pipeline exploded near Carmichael, Mississippi, about {{convert|30|mi}} south of [[Meridian, Mississippi]]. Two people were killed instantly and an additional four were injured. Several homes were destroyed and sixty families were displaced. The pipeline is owned by Enterprise Products Partners LP, and runs from [[Mont Belvieu, Texas]], to [[Apex, North Carolina]]. Inability to find flaws in pre-1971 ERW seam welded pipe flaws was a contributing factor to the accident.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtok.com/home/headlines/10946761.html|title=Clarke County Explosion Kills Two, Destroys Homes|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006130925/http://www.wtok.com/home/headlines/10946761.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2009/PAR0901.pdf|title=Pipeline Accident Report: Rupture of Hazardous Liquid Pipeline With Release and Ignition of Propane, Carmichael, Mississippi, November 1, 2007|date=2009|publisher=National Transportation Safety Board|location=Washington, DC|access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028062315/https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2009/PAR0901.pdf|archive-date=28 October 2013}}</ref>
*September 9, 2010 – [[2010 San Bruno pipeline explosion]]: A 30-inch-diameter high-pressure natural gas pipeline owned by the [[Pacific Gas and Electric Company]] exploded in the Crestmoor residential neighborhood {{Convert|2|mi}} west of San Francisco International Airport, killing 8, injuring 58, and destroying 38 homes. Poor quality control of the pipe used & of the construction were cited as factors in the accident.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2011/PAR1101.pdf|title=Pipeline Accident Report: Pacific Gas and Electric Company Natural Gas Transmission Pipeline Rupture and Fire, San Bruno, California, September 9, 2010|date=2011|publisher=National Transportation Safety Board|location=Washington, DC|access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611133921/https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2011/PAR1101.pdf|archive-date=11 June 2014}}</ref>
*June 27, 2014 – An explosion occurred after a natural gas pipe line ruptured in Nagaram village, East Godavari district, [[Andhra Pradesh]], India causing 16 deaths and destroying "scores of homes".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/14-killed-in-blast-at-gail-pipeline-in-andhra-pradesh/article1-1234108.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627181851/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/14-killed-in-blast-at-gail-pipeline-in-andhra-pradesh/article1-1234108.aspx|archive-date=June 27, 2014|title= Breaking News, India, World, Bollywood, Sports, Business, Technology|newspaper=Hindustan Times|access-date=30 September 2014}}</ref>
*July 31, 2014 – On the night of July 31, [[2014 Kaohsiung gas explosions|a series of explosions]] originating in underground gas pipelines occurred in the city of [[Kaohsiung]], [[Taiwan]]. Leaking gas filled the sewers along several major thoroughfares and the resulting explosions turned several kilometers of road surface into deep trenches, sending vehicles and debris high into the air and igniting fires over a large area. At least 32 people were killed and 321 injured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/taiwan-explosions-probe-focuses-petrochem-firm-084259627.html|title=Taiwan explosions probe focuses on petrochem firm|date=2 August 2014|work=Yahoo News|access-date=30 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.setnews.net/News.aspx?PageGroupID=1&NewsID=33335&PageType=1|title=高雄驚傳嚴重氣爆意外 死傷人數攀升至28人、286傷|date=2014|website=[[SET News]]|language=zh|trans-title=Casualties climb to 28 people in Kaohsiung gas explosion, 286 injured|access-date=30 September 2014}}</ref>

===As targets===
Pipelines can be the target of [[vandalism]], [[sabotage]], or even [[terrorist attack]]s. For example, between early 2011 and July 2012, a natural gas pipeline connecting Egypt to Israel and Jordan was attacked 15 times.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.africandefence.net/terrorist-threats-to-energy-infrastructure-in-north-africa/|title=Terrorist threats to energy infrastructure in North Africa|work=African Defence |author=Consultancy Africa Intelligence|access-date=December 11, 2018|date=2014-06-26}}</ref> In 2019, [[Tlahuelilpan pipeline explosion|a fuel pipeline north of Mexico City exploded]] after fuel thieves tapped into the line. At least sixty-six people were reported to have been killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/19/world/americas/hidalgo-explosion-mexico-pipeline.html|title=Mexico Explosion Kills 66 After Thieves Rupture Pipeline|work=The New York Times |first1=Paulina|last1=Villegas|first2=Kirk|last2=Semple|date=January 19, 2019|access-date=January 19, 2019}}</ref> In war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks, as destruction of pipelines can seriously disrupt enemy [[logistics]]. On 26 September 2022, a [[2022 Nord Stream pipeline sabotage|series of explosions and subsequent major gas leaks]] occurred on the [[Nord Stream 1]] and [[Nord Stream 2]] pipelines that run to Europe from Russia under the Baltic Sea. The leaks are believed to have been caused by an act of sabotage.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-26 |title=Sweden and Denmark say Nord Stream pipeline blasts were deliberate attacks |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/gas-leak-detected-near-nord-stream-2/ |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=POLITICO |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-09-27 |title=CIA warned Berlin about possible attacks on gas pipelines in summer – Spiegel |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/cia-warned-berlin-about-possible-attacks-gas-pipelines-summer-spiegel-2022-09-27/ |access-date=2022-10-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Plucinska |first=Joanna |date=2022-10-06 |title=Nord Stream gas 'sabotage': who's being blamed and why? |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/qa-nord-stream-gas-sabotage-whos-being-blamed-why-2022-09-30/ |access-date=2022-10-13}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Lists of pipelines]]
*{{section link|Biogas|Biogas gas-grid injection}}
*[[Black powder in gas pipelines]]
*[[Coal pipeline]]
*[[District heating]]
*[[Geomagnetically induced current]] (GIC)
*[[HCNG dispenser]]
*[[HDPE pipe]]
*[[Hot tapping]]
*[[Hydraulically activated pipeline pigging]]
*[[Hydrogen pipeline transport]]
*[[Hydrostatic test]]
*[[Inland Petroleum Distribution System]]
*[[List of countries by total length of pipelines]]
*[[List of natural gas pipelines]]
*[[List of pipeline accidents]]
*[[Natural gas pipeline system in the United States]]
*[[Gas networks simulation]]
*[[Operation Pluto]]
*[[Petroleum transport]]
*[[Pigging]]
*[[Pipelayer]]
*[[Pipeline bridge]]
*[[Pneumatic tube]], a method for sending documents and other solid materials in capsules through a tube
*[[Plastic pipework]]
*[[Reinforced thermoplastic pipe]]
*[[Russia–Ukraine gas disputes]]
*[[Slurry pipeline]]
*[[Sprayed in place pipe]]
*[[Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite web|last=Tubb|first=Rita|title=2012 Worldwide Pipeline Construction |url=http://www.api.org/~/media/Files/Publications/Catalog/10_Pipeline.pdf|website=API |publisher=Oildom Publishing Company of Texas|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092532/http://www.api.org/~/media/Files/Publications/Catalog/10_Pipeline.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |access-date=September 6, 2016}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Pipeline transport}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130116073835/http://energyglobal.com/news/pipelines.aspx Pipeline news and industry magazine]
*{{Cite web|url=http://pipelineknowledge.com/files/images/presentations/history_of_gas_and_oil_pipelines.pdf|title=History of Gas and Oil Pipelines|last=Pipeline Knowledge & Development|date=2011}}, US historical summary
*[http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=456 Pipeline Politics in Asia: The Intersection of Demand, Energy Markets, and Supply Routes], by Mikkal E. Herberg et al. ([[National Bureau of Asian Research]], 2010)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080216014638/http://www.oxfordenergy.org/pdfs/NG22.pdf The Dolphin Project: The Development of a Gulf Gas Initiative], by Justin Dargin, [[Oxford Institute for Energy Studies]] Jan 2008 Working Paper NG #22
*UK – [https://web.archive.org/web/20090512155221/http://www.linewatch.co.uk/ Linewatch] – a joint awareness initiative between 14 oil and gas pipeline operators
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=diEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA65 |title=Submarine Gas Pipe Line Taps Undersea Wealth |date=November 1951 }} Article about first undersea gas pipeline constructed in the US and the problems encountered
*{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WSgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA19 |title=The Marvels Of Underground Oil Railroads |magazine=Popular Science |date=April 1937 }}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tqanBk2lEos Construction and delivery of compressor stations for a gas pipeline in the Soviet Union by AEG] (company video from the 1970s with subtitles)
*[https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo38496 Gas Pipeline Safety: Guidance and More Information Needed before Using Risk-Based Reassessment Intervals: Report to Congressional Committees] [[Government Accountability Office]]
*[http://www.petroleumworld.com/eveditorial-op18102901.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430131844/http://www.petroleumworld.com/eveditorial-op18102901.htm |date=2021-04-30 }}

{{Petroleum industry}}
{{Infrastructure}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pipeline Transport}}
[[Category:Freight transport]]
[[Category:Gas technologies]]
[[Category:Infrastructure]]
[[Category:Pipeline transport| ]]
[[Category:Piping]]