View source for Picea abies

{{Short description|Species of plant}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Norway spruce
| image = Kuusk Keila-Paldiski rdt ääres.jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Farjon, A. |date=2017 |title=''Picea abies'' |volume=2017 |article-number=e.T42318A71233492 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T42318A71233492.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Picea
| species = abies
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten|H. Karst.]]
| range_map = Norway Spruce Picea abies distribution map 2.png
| range_map_caption = The Norway spruce range.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />
| range_map2 = Picea abies range.svg
| range_map2_caption = Distribution map. Green: native range. Orange: introduced areas. Crosses and triangles denote isolated populations.
}}

'''''Picea abies''''', the '''Norway spruce'''<ref name=BSBI07>{{BSBI 2007 |access-date=2014-10-17}}</ref> or '''European spruce''',<ref name="FEIS" /> is a species of [[spruce]] native to [[Northern Europe|Northern]], [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conifers.org/pi/Picea_abies.php |title=Picea abies (Norway spruce) description |website=Conifers.org |access-date=2017-01-08}}</ref>

It has [[branchlet]]s that typically hang downwards, and the longest cones of any [[spruce]], 9–17 cm long. It is very closely related to the [[Siberian spruce]] (''Picea obovata''), which replaces it east of the [[Ural Mountains]], and with which it [[hybrid (biology)|hybridises]] freely. The Norway spruce has a wide distribution for it being planted for its wood, and is the species used as the main [[Christmas tree]] in several countries around the world. It was the first [[gymnosperm]] to have its [[genome sequence]]d. The Latin [[binomial nomenclature|specific epithet]] ''abies'' means "like 
''[[Abies]]'', Fir tree".<ref name=RHSLG>{{cite book | last=Harrison |first=Lorraine | title=RHS Latin for Gardeners | year=2012 |publisher=Mitchell Beazley | location=United Kingdom | isbn=978-1-84533-731-5}}</ref>

== Description ==
[[File:Picea abies - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-105.jpg|thumb|upright|left|An 1885 illustration of ''P.&nbsp;abies'', showing the cones and leaves.]]
[[File:Picea abies young female cone - Keila.jpg|thumb|upright|Young female cone]]
Norway spruce is a large, fast-growing [[evergreen]] [[conifer]]ous [[tree]] growing {{convert|35|–|55|m|ft|round=5|abbr=on}} tall and with a trunk diameter of 1 to 1.5 m. It can grow fast when young, up to 1 m per year for the first 25 years under good conditions, but becomes slower once over {{convert|20|m|ft|round=5|abbr=on}} tall.<ref name=afm /> The shoots are orange-brown and glabrous. The [[leaf|leaves]] are needle-like with blunt tips,<ref name="FNA">{{eFloras|1|200005295|Picea abies|family=Pinaceae |first=Ronald J. |last=Taylor}}</ref> 12–14 mm long, quadrangular in cross-section, and dark green on all four sides with inconspicuous [[stoma]]tal lines. The [[seed cone]]s are 9–17 cm long (the longest of any spruce), and have bluntly to sharply triangular-pointed scale tips. They are green or reddish, maturing brown 5–7 months after pollination. The [[seed]]s are black, 4–5 mm long, with a pale brown 15 mm wing.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /><ref name=farjon /><ref name=rushforthc /><ref name=gymno />
The tallest measured Norway spruce is {{convert|62.26|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4}} tall and grows near [[Ribnica na Pohorju]], [[Slovenia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/trees/norwayspruce/records/ |website=Monumental trees |title=''Picea abies'' records}}</ref>

== Range and ecology ==
The Norway spruce grows throughout Europe from Norway in the northwest and Poland eastward, and also in the mountains of central Europe, southwest to the western end of the Alps, and southeast in the Carpathians and Balkans to the extreme north of Greece. The northern limit is in the arctic, just north of [[70th parallel north|70°&nbsp;N]] in Norway. Its eastern limit in Russia is hard to define, due to extensive hybridisation and intergradation with the [[Siberian spruce]], but is usually given as the Ural Mountains. However, trees showing some Siberian spruce characters extend as far west as much of northern Finland, with a few records in northeast Norway. The hybrid is known as ''Picea'' × ''fennica'' (or ''P.&nbsp;abies'' subsp. ''fennica'', if the two [[taxa]] are considered [[subspecies]]), and can be distinguished by a tendency towards having hairy shoots and cones with smoothly rounded scales.<ref name=farjon /><ref name=rushforthc /><ref name=gymno />

Norway spruce cone scales are used as food by the [[caterpillar]]s of the [[tortrix moth]] ''[[Cydia illutana]]'', whereas ''[[Cydia duplicana]]'' feeds on the bark around injuries or [[canker]].

== Taxonomy ==
{{Multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| align = right
| total_width = 240
| header = Cones of ''P.&nbsp;obovata'' and ''Picea abies''
| image1 = Picea obovata Brno4.JPG
| caption1 = Cones of ''P.&nbsp;obovata'' are short and have rounded scales.
| image2 = Picea abies cone.jpg
| caption2 = Cones of ''P.&nbsp;abies'' are longer and have pointed scales.
}}
Populations in southeast Europe tend to have on average longer cones with more pointed scales; these are sometimes distinguished as ''Picea abies'' var. ''acuminata'', but there is extensive overlap in variation with trees from other parts of the range.<ref name=farjon /><ref name=rushforthc /><ref name=gymno />

Some botanists treat [[Siberian spruce]] as a subspecies of Norway spruce, though in their typical forms, they are very distinct, the Siberian spruce having cones only 5–10&nbsp;cm long, with smoothly rounded scales, and pubescent shoots.<ref name=farjon /><ref name=rushforthc /><ref name=gymno /> [[Genetically]] Norway and Siberian spruces have turned out to be extremely similar and may be considered as two closely related [[subspecies]] of ''P.&nbsp;abies''.<ref name=Krutovskii1995 /><!-- needs more up-to-date source using wider range of evidence. While extensive hybridisation does counteract establishment of reproductive isolation, ability to hybridise is a symplesiomorphy and by itself not sufficient to determine taxonomic status. -->

Another spruce with smoothly rounded cone scales and hairy shoots occurs rarely in the Central Alps in eastern [[Switzerland]]. It is also distinct in having thicker, blue-green leaves. Many texts treat this as a variant of Norway spruce, but it is as distinct as many other spruces, and appears to be more closely related to Siberian spruce (''[[Picea obovata]]''), Schrenk's spruce (''[[Picea schrenkiana]]'') from central [[Asia]] and Morinda spruce (''[[Picea smithiana]]'') in the [[Himalaya]]. Treated as a distinct species, it takes the name Alpine spruce (''[[Picea alpestris]]''). As with Siberian spruce, it hybridises extensively with Norway spruce; pure specimens are rare. Hybrids are commonly known as Norwegian spruce, which should not be confused with the pure species Norway spruce.<ref name=farjon /><ref name=rushforthc /><ref name=gymno />

== Cultivation ==
[[File:Trafalgar_Square_Christmas_tree8.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Trafalgar Square Christmas tree]] in 2008. Given to [[London]] every year as a gift from Norway's capital city, [[Oslo]], Norway spruces that are around 50 to 60 years old are typically used]][[File:Fichtenkultur.jpg|thumb|upright|Young spruce group marginal [[Windthrow|windthrow area]] twelve years after [[Cyclone Kyrill|Kyrill]] / [[Vogelsberg Mountains|Vogelsberg]]]] 

The Norway spruce is one of the most widely planted spruces, both in and outside of its native range, and one of the most economically important coniferous species in Europe.<ref name=FEIS /> It is used as an ornamental tree in [[park]]s and [[garden]]s. It is also widely planted for use as a [[Christmas tree]]. Every Christmas, the Norwegian capital city, Oslo, provides the cities of London (the [[Trafalgar Square Christmas tree]]), Edinburgh and Washington, D.C., with a Norway spruce, which is placed at the central most square of each city. This is mainly a sign of gratitude for the aid these countries gave during the Second World War.<ref>{{cite web|author=British Embassy Oslo|title=Oslo's Christmas tree gift to Trafalgar Square|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/world-location-news/oslos-christmas-tree-gift-to-trafalgar-square|website=GOV.UK|access-date=28 June 2015}}</ref>
In North America, Norway spruce is widely planted, specifically in the [[Northeastern United States|Northeastern]], [[West Coast of the United States|Pacific Coast]], and [[Mountain States|Rocky Mountain states]], as well as in southeastern Canada. It is [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] in some parts of North America. There are naturalised populations occurring from [[Connecticut]] to [[Michigan]], and it is probable that they occur elsewhere.<ref name=FEIS /> Norway spruces prefer cool-summer areas and they will grow up to USDA Growing Zone 7, except along the west coast where summers are cool enough even in parts of USDA Growing Zone 10 (Sunset Climate Zones 14-17).<ref>https://phzm-prod.ars.usda.gov USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map</ref><ref>The New Sunset Western Garden Book (2012), p. 504.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Picea abies - Plant Finder |url=https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=e620 |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=www.missouribotanicalgarden.org}}</ref>

Seed production begins when the tree is in its fourth decade and total lifespan is up to 300 years in its natural range in Europe. Introduced Norway spruces in the British Isles and North America have a much shorter life expectancy. As the tree ages, its crown thins out and lower branches die off.{{cn|date=June 2025}}

In the northern US and Canada, Norway spruce is reported as invasive in some locations; however, it does not pose a problem in [[Hardiness zone|Zone 6]] and up as the seeds have a significantly reduced germination rate in areas with hot, humid summers.{{cn|date=June 2025}}

The Norway spruce tolerates acidic soils well, but does not do well on dry or deficient soils. From 1928 until the 1960s it was planted on surface mine spoils in Indiana.<ref name=FEIS />

=== Cultivars ===
Several [[cultivar]]s have been selected as ornamentals ('Barrya', 'Capitata', 'Decumbens', 'Dumosa', 'Clanbrassiliana', 'Gregoryana', 'Inversa', 'Microsperma', 'Nidiformis', 'Ohlendorffii', 'Repens', 'Tabuliformis', 'Maxwellii', 'Virgata', 'Inversa', 'Pendula'), with a wide variety of sizes and shapes, from full-sized forest trees to extremely slow-growing, prostrate forms. They are occasionally traded under the obsolete [[scientific name]] ''Picea excelsa'' (an [[illegitimate name]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=194775#|title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Picea excelsa|website=www.itis.gov|access-date=2019-07-10}}</ref> The following cultivars have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]]:<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf | title = AGM Plants - Ornamental | date = July 2017 | page = 78 | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | access-date = 25 April 2018}}</ref> 
*'Acrocona'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/90634/i-Picea-abies-i-Acrocona/Details
| title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Picea abies'' 'Acrocona' | access-date = 25 April 2018}}</ref> – {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall and broad
*'Clanbrassiliana'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/97950/i-Picea-abies-i-Clanbrassiliana/Details
| title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Picea abies'' 'Clanbrassiliana' | access-date = 25 April 2018}}</ref> – {{convert|1.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall by {{convert|2.4|m|ft|abbr=on}} broad
*'Inversa'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/83770/i-Picea-abies-i-Inversa/Details
| title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Picea abies'' 'Inversa' | access-date = 25 April 2018}}</ref> – {{convert|9 |m|ft|abbr=on}} tall by {{convert| 4|m|ft|abbr=on}} broad
*'Little Gem'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/94308/i-Picea-abies-i-Little-Gem/Details
| title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Picea abies'' 'Little Gem' | access-date = 25 April 2018}}</ref> – {{convert|0.5 |m|ft|abbr=on}} tall and broad
*'Nidiformis'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/98841/i-Picea-abies-i-Nidiformis/Details
| title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Picea abies'' 'Nidiformis' | access-date = 25 April 2018}}</ref> – {{convert|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall by {{convert|4 |m|ft|abbr=on}} broad<gallery>
File:Picea abies 'Inversa'.jpg|Picea abies 'Inversa'
File:Picea abies 'Little Gem' kz04.jpg|Picea abies 'Little Gem'
File:Picea abies 'Aleksandra Fastigiata' Świerk pospolity 2023-04-30 03.jpg|Picea abies 'Aleksandra Fastigiata'
File:Picea abies 'Acrocona' 02.jpg|Picea abies 'Acrocona' 02
File:Picea abies 'Virgata' - Baum.jpg|Picea abies 'Virgata'
</gallery>

===Uses===
The Norway spruce is used in [[forestry]] for ([[softwood]]) [[timber]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Buckley|first1=Michael|title=A basic guide to softwoods and hardwoods|url=http://www.worldhardwoods.com/files/articles_basicguide.pdf|publisher=worldhardwoods.com|date=2005|access-date=1 October 2017|archive-date=19 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819093840/http://www.worldhardwoods.com/files/articles_basicguide.pdf}}</ref> and [[paper]] production.<gallery mode="packed">

File:Norway spruce (Picea abies) trunk cross section.png|''Picea abies'' [[Trunk (botany)|trunk]] cross section
File:Picea abies wood texture.jpg|''Picea abies'' trunk cross section close-up
</gallery>

The Norwegian company [[Borregaard]] produces the synthetic substitute for natural vanilla [[Vanillin]] using the Norwegian spruce.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2021-03-31 |title=Sustainable Vanillin from the Forests of Norway |url=https://zanos.co.uk/news/sustainable-vanillin-from-the-forests-of-norway/ |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=Zanos |language=en-US}}</ref> They are currently the only company to produce wood based vanillin and is claimed by the company to be preferred by their customers due to, among other reasons, its much lower carbon footprint than petrochemically synthesised vanillin.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plant-based vanillin |url=https://www.borregaard.com/markets/food/plant-based-vanillin/ |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=www.borregaard.com |language=en}}</ref>

It is esteemed as a source of [[tonewood]] by stringed-instrument makers, and is commonly used for [[Violin|violins]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Paul Hostetter |url=http://www.lutherie.net/eurospruce.html |title=European spruce ranges, and commentary on Picea spp |website=Lutherie.net |access-date=2017-01-08}}</ref> One form of the tree called {{ill|Haselfichte|de}} (Hazel-spruce) grows in the European Alps and has been recognised by [[UNESCO]] as intangible cultural heritage. This form was used by [[Stradivarius]] for instruments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waldwissen.net/waldwirtschaft/holz/verarbeitung/wsl_haselfichte/index_DE |title=Die Haselfichte |website=Waldwissen.net |date=2012-06-20 |access-date=2017-01-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170119072746/http://www.waldwissen.net/waldwirtschaft/holz/verarbeitung/wsl_haselfichte/index_DE |archive-date=2017-01-19}}</ref>

====As food====
The tree is the source of [[spruce beer]], which was once used to prevent and even cure [[scurvy]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Karellp|title=New Beer – Spruce Beer|url=http://blackcreekbrewery.wordpress.com/2012/06/11/new-brew-spruce-beer-2/|publisher=The Black Creek Growler|access-date=30 September 2012|date=2012-06-11}}</ref>

Norway spruce shoot tips have been used in traditional Austrian medicine internally (as syrup or tea) and externally (as baths, for inhalation, as ointments, as resin application or as tea) for treatment of disorders of the respiratory tract, skin, locomotor system, gastrointestinal tract and infections.<ref name=Vogl2013 />

During the production of [[Mont d'Or (cheese)|Mont d'Or cheese]] it is wrapped in a "''sangle''" made from the [[cambium]] of a Norway spruce (French: ''{{ill|Épicéa commun|fr}}'') for about two weeks at least, which gives the cheese a unique flavour.<ref>{{cite web | title=La sangle d'épicéa, secret d'un goût unique| website=Vacherin Mont-d'Or | url=https://www.vacherin-montdor.ch/le-gout/ | language=fr | access-date=11 December 2022}}</ref>

In [[Finland]], Norway spruce tips ([[Finnish language|Finnish]]: ''kuusenkerkkä'') are used as a spice, for example, in syrup, herbal tea, alcohol, smoothies, salt, and desserts.<ref>{{cite web |last=Niiranen |first=Pekka |date=2020-06-17 |title=Kuusenkerkän kerääminen siirtyy yläilmoihin – metsänomistajille tiedossa uusi ansaintamahdollisuus |url=https://yle.fi/a/3-11403513 |website=yle.fi |location= |publisher=[[Yle]] |access-date=2025-01-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Loukasmäki |first=Arto |date=2016-06-06 |title=Kadoksissa ollut juomaresepti löytyi – kuusenkerkästä tehdään muutakin kuin siirappia |url=https://yle.fi/a/3-8926774 |website=yle.fi |publisher=[[Yle]] |access-date=2025-01-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Mendelin |first1=Oskar |last2=Jungar |first2=Matias |date=2024-04-25 |title=Kuusenkerkkä on hyödyntämätön raaka-aine – tässä muutama yksinkertainen vinkki metsän vihreän kullan hyödyntämiseen |url=https://yle.fi/aihe/a/20-10006629 |website=yle.fi |publisher=[[Yle]] |access-date=2025-01-08}}</ref> Spruce tip syrup is also used as a [[cold medicine]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Aula |first=Minna |date=2015-07-02 |title=Kuusenkerkkäsiirapista tuli maistuva muoti-ilmiö: "Tehoaa yskänlääkkeenäkin" |url=https://yle.fi/a/3-8122421 |website=yle.fi |publisher=[[Yle]] |access-date=2025-01-08}}</ref>

== Longevity ==
A press release from [[Umeå University]] says that a Norway spruce clone named [[Old Tjikko]], carbon dated as 9,550 years old, is the "oldest living tree".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.info.umu.se/NYHETER/PressmeddelandeEng.aspx?id=3061 |publisher=Umeå University |title=World's oldest living tree discovered in Sweden |date=April 16, 2008 |access-date=26 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420213045/http://www.info.umu.se/NYHETER/PressmeddelandeEng.aspx?id=3061 |archive-date=20 April 2008 }}</ref> The oldest individual specimen of Norway spruce discovered by tree ring dating found in 2012 in a nature reserve of Buskerud County, Norway, was found to be 532 years old.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sciencenorway.no/age-agriculture--fisheries-forest/the-oldest-spruce-in-northern-europe-is-532-years-old/1378265|title=The oldest spruce in Northern Europe is 532 years old|date=27 October 2012}}</ref>

However, [[Pando (tree)|Pando]], a stand of 47,000 [[quaking aspen]] clones, is estimated to be between 14,000 and one million years old.<ref>[https://www.nps.gov/brca/learn/nature/quakingaspen.htm Quaking Aspen] by the [[Bryce Canyon]] [[National Park Service]]</ref><ref name=Mitton1996 /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/2aa00080-0ad4-55e1-ea50bc7a36a218c4/|title=Swedish Spruce Is World's Oldest Tree|first=Scientific|last=American|website=Scientific American}}</ref>

The stress is on the difference between the singular "oldest tree" and the multiple "oldest trees", and between "oldest clone" and "oldest non-clone". Old Tjikko is one of a series of genetically identical clones growing from a root system, one part of which is estimated to be 9,550 years old based on carbon dating. The oldest known individual tree (that has not taken advantage of [[vegetative cloning]]) is a Great Basin [[bristlecone pine]] over 5,000 years old (germination in 3051 BC).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rmtrr.org/oldlist.htm |title=Old List |work=Rocky Mountain Tree-Ring Research |access-date=16 August 2013}}</ref>

== Genetics ==
The genome of ''Picea abies'' was sequenced in 2013, the first gymnosperm genome to be completely sequenced.<ref name=Nystedt2013 /> The genome contains approximately 20 billion base pairs and is about six times the size of the human genome, despite possessing a similar number of genes. A large proportion of the spruce genome consists of repetitive DNA sequences, including long terminal repeat [[transposable elements]]. Despite recent advances in massively parallel DNA sequencing, the assembly of such a large and repetitive genome is a particularly challenging task, mainly from a computational perspective.<ref name=Birol />

Within populations of ''Picea abies'' there is great genetic variability, which most likely reflect populations' isolation in glacial [[Refugium (population biology)|refugia]] and post-glacial evolutionary history. Genetic diversity can in particular be detected when looking at how the populations respond to climatic conditions. E.g. variations in timing and length of the annual growth period as well as differences in frost-hardiness in spring and autumn. These annual growth patterns are important to recognise in order to choose the proper reforestation material of ''Picea abies''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Skrøppa, T.|title=''Picea abies'' - Norway spruce|journal=EUFORGEN; Technical Guidelines for Genetic Conservation and Use|date=2003|url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin//templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/856_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_Norway_spruce__Picea_abies_.pdf|access-date=2016-10-21|archive-date=2016-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022021658/http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin//templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/856_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_Norway_spruce__Picea_abies_.pdf}}</ref>

== Chemistry ==
[[p-Hydroxybenzoic acid glucoside]], [[picein]], [[piceatannol]] and its glucoside ([[astringin]]), [[isorhapontin]] (the isorhapontigenin glucoside), [[catechin]] and [[ferulic acid]] are phenolic compounds found in mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal roots of Norway spruces.<ref name=Munzenberger1990 /> [[Piceol]]<ref name=Lokke1990 /> and [[astringin]]<ref name=Lindberg1992 /> are also found in ''P.&nbsp;abies''.

== Research ==
[[Extract]]s from ''Picea abies'' have shown inhibitory activity on porcine [[pancreatic lipase]] [[in vitro]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Screening of selected food and medicinal plant extracts for pancreatic lipase inhibition |doi=10.1002/ptr.2718 |pmid=19107742 |volume=23 |issue=6 |journal=Phytotherapy Research |pages=874–877|year = 2009|last1 = Slanc|first1 = Petra|last2=Doljak |first2=Bojan |last3=Kreft |first3=Samo |last4=Lunder |first4=Mojca |last5=Janeš |first5=Damjan |last6=šTrukelj |first6=Borut|s2cid=22562789}}</ref>

== Synonyms ==
''Picea abies'' (L.) H.&nbsp;Karst is the accepted name of this species. More than 150 synonyms of ''Picea abies'' have been published.<ref name=ThePlantList />

[[Homotypic synonym]]s of ''Picea abies'' are:<ref name=WorldCklist />
*''Pinus abies'' <small>L.</small>
*''Abies picea'' <small>Mill.</small>
*''Pinus pyramidalis'' <small>Salisb.</small>
*''Pinus abies'' subsp. ''vulgaris'' <small>Voss</small>
*''Abies abies'' <small>(L.) Druce</small>

Some [[heterotypic synonym]]s of ''Picea abies'' are:
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*''Abies alpestris'' <small>Brügger</small>
*''Abies carpatica'' <small>(Loudon) Ravenscr.</small>
*''Abies cinerea'' <small>Borkh.</small>
*''Abies clambrasiliana'' <small>Lavallée</small>
*''Abies clanbrassiliana'' <small>P. Lawson</small>
*''Abies coerulescens'' <small>K. Koch</small>
*''Abies conica'' <small>Lavallée</small>
*''Abies elegans'' <small>Sm. ''ex'' J.Knight</small>
*''Abies eremita'' <small>K.Koch</small>
*''Abies erythrocarpa'' <small>(Purk.) Nyman</small>
*''Abies excelsa'' <small>(Lam.) Poir.</small>
*''Abies extrema'' <small>Th.Fr.</small>
*''Abies finedonensis'' <small>Gordon</small>
*''Abies gigantea'' <small>Sm. ''ex'' Carrière</small>
*''Abies gregoryana'' <small>H. Low. ''ex'' Gordon</small>
*''Abies inverta'' <small>R. Sm. ''ex'' Gordon</small>
*''Abies lemoniana'' <small>Booth ''ex'' Gordon</small>
*''Abies medioxima'' <small>C.Lawson</small>
*''Abies minuta'' <small>Poir.</small>
*''Abies montana'' <small>Nyman</small>
*''Abies parvula'' <small>Knight</small>
*''Abies subarctica'' <small>(Schur) Nyman</small>
*''Abies viminalis'' <small>Wahlenb.</small>
*''Picea alpestris'' <small>(Brügger) Stein</small>
*''Picea cranstonii'' <small>Beissn.</small>
*''Picea elegantissima'' <small>Beissn.</small>
*''Picea excelsa'' <small>(Lam.) Link</small>
*''Picea finedonensis'' <small>Beissn.</small>
*''Picea gregoryana'' <small>Beissn.</small>
*''Picea integrisquamis'' <small>(Carrière) Chiov.</small>
*''Picea maxwellii'' <small>Beissn.</small>
*''Picea montana'' <small>Schur</small>
*''Picea remontii'' <small>Beissn.</small>
*''Picea rubra'' <small>A. Dietr.</small>
*''Picea subarctica'' <small>Schur</small>
*''Picea velebitica'' <small>Simonk. ''ex'' Kümmerle</small>
*''Picea viminalis'' <small>(Alstr.) Beissn.</small>
*''Picea vulgaris'' <small>Link</small>
*''Pinus excelsa'' <small>Lam.</small>
*''Pinus sativa'' <small>Lam.</small>
*''Pinus viminalis'' <small>Alstr.</small>
{{Div col end}}

== See also ==
*[[Pinus resinosa]] Norway pine

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|
refs=

<ref name=farjon>Farjon, A. (1990). ''Pinaceae. Drawings and Descriptions of the Genera''. Koeltz Scientific Books {{ISBN|3-87429-298-3}}.</ref>
<ref name=afm>Mitchell, A.F. (1974). ''A Field Guide to the Trees of Britain and Northern Europe''. Collins {{ISBN|0-00-212035-6}}</ref>
<ref name=rushforthc>Rushforth, K. (1987). ''Conifers''. Helm {{ISBN|0-7470-2801-X}}.</ref>
<ref name=gymno>{{Gymnosperm Database |family=Pinaceae |genus=Picea |species=abies}}</ref>
<ref name=Krutovskii1995>{{cite journal|last1=Krutovskii |first1=Konstantin V. |last2=Bergmann |first2=Fritz |year=1995 |title=Introgressive hybridization and phylogenetic relationships between Norway, ''Picea abies'' (L.) Karst., and Siberian, ''P. obovata'' Ledeb., spruce species studied by isozyme loci |journal=[[Heredity (journal)|Heredity]] |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=464–480 |doi=10.1038/hdy.1995.67|doi-access=free|bibcode=1995Hered..74..464K }}</ref>
<ref name=FEIS>{{FEIS |type=tree |last=Sullivan |first=Janet |genus=Picea |species=abies |year=1994 |access-date=18 November 2009}}</ref>
<ref name=Vogl2013>{{cite journal |author1=Vogl, S. |author2=Picker, P. |author3=Mihaly-Bison, J. |author4=Fakhrudin, N. |author5=Atanasov, A.G. |author6=Heiss, E.H. |author7=Wawrosch, C. |author8=Reznicek, G. |author9=Dirsch, V.M. |author10=Saukel, J. |author11=Kopp, B. |title=Ethnopharmacological in vitro studies on Austria's folk medicine – an unexplored lore. In vitro anti-inflammatory activities of 71 Austrian traditional herbal drugs |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |date=7 October 2013 |volume=149 |issue=3 |pages=750–771 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2013.06.007 |pmid=23770053 |pmc=3791396}}</ref>
<ref name=Mitton1996>{{cite journal|title=Genetic variation and the natural history of quaking aspen |last1=Mitton |first1=J.B. |last2=Grant |first2=M.C. |year=1996 |journal=BioScience |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=25–31 |jstor=1312652|doi=10.2307/1312652 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name=Munzenberger1990>{{cite journal |author1=Münzenberger, B. |author2=Heilemann, J. |author3=Strack, D. |author4=Kottke, I. |author5=Oberwinkler, F. |title=Phenolics of mycorrhizas and non-mycorrhizal roots of Norway spruce |journal=Planta |year=1990 |volume=182 |issue=1 |pages=142–148 |doi=10.1007/BF00239996 |pmid=24197010|bibcode=1990Plant.182..142M |s2cid=43504838}}</ref>
<ref name=Lokke1990>{{cite journal|last=Løkke|first=Hans|title=Picein and piceol concentrations in Norway spruce |journal=Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety |date=June 1990 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=301–309 |doi=10.1016/0147-6513(90)90032-Z |pmid=2364913|bibcode=1990EcoES..19..301L }}</ref>
<ref name=Lindberg1992>{{cite journal|author1=Lindberg, M. |author2=Lundgren, L. |author3=Gref, R. |author4=Johansson, M. |title=Stilbenes and resin acids in relation to the penetration of Heterobasidion annosum through the bark of ''Picea abies'' |journal=Forest Pathology |date=1 May 1992 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=95–106 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0329.1992.tb01436.x}}</ref>
<ref name=Birol>{{cite journal |author1=Birol, I. |author2=Raymond, A. |author3=Jackman, S.D. |author4=Pleasance, S. |author5=Coope, R. |author6=Taylor, G.A. |author7=Yuen, M.M. |author8=Keeling, C.I. |author9=Brand, D. |author10=Vandervalk, B.P. |author11=Kirk, H. |author12=Pandoh, P. |author13=Moore, R.A. |author14=Zhao, Y. |author15=Mungall, A.J. |author16=Jaquish, B. |author17=Yanchuk, A. |author18=Ritland, C. |author19=Boyle, B. |author20=Bousquet, J. |author21=Ritland, K. |author22=Mackay, J. |author23=Bohlmann, J. |author24=Jones, S.J. |title=Assembling the 20 Gb white spruce (''Picea glauca'') genome from whole-genome shotgun sequencing data |journal=Bioinformatics |year=2013 |volume=29 |issue=12 |pages=1492–1497 |doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btt178 |pmid=23698863 |pmc=3673215 |display-authors=10}}</ref>
<ref name=Nystedt2013>{{cite journal |title=The Norway spruce genome sequence and conifer genome evolution |journal=Nature |volume=497 |issue=7451 |pages=579–584 |doi=10.1038/nature12211 |date=30 May 2013 |author1=Nystedt, B. |author2=Street, N.R. |author3=Wetterbom, A. |author4=Zuccolo, A. |author5=Lin, Y.C. |author6=Scofield, D.G. |author7=Vezzi, F. |author8=Delhomme, N. |author9=Giacomello, S. |author10=Alexeyenko, A. |author11=Vicedomini, R. |author12=Sahlin, K. |author13=Sherwood, E. |author14=Elfstrand, M. |author15=Gramzow, L. |author16=Holmberg, K. |author17=Hällman, J. |author18=Keech, O. |author19=Klasson, L. |author20=Koriabine, M. |author21=Kucukoglu, M. |author22=Käller, M. |author23=Luthman, J. |author24=Lysholm, F. |author25=Niittylä, T. |author26=Olson, Å. |author27=Rilakovic, N. |author28=Ritland, C. |author29=Rosselló, J.A. |author30=Sena, J. |author31=Svensson, T. |author32=Talavera-López, C. |author33=Theißen, G. |author34=Tuominen, H. |author35=Vanneste, K. |author36=Wu, Z.Q. |author37=Zhang, B. |author38=Zerbe, P. |author39=Arvestad, L. |author40=Bhalerao, R. |author41=Bohlmann, J. |author42=Bousquet, J. |author43=Garcia Gil, R. |author44=Hvidsten, T.R. |author45=de Jong, P. |author46=MacKay, J. |author47=Morgante, M. |author48=Ritland, K. |author49=Sundberg, B. |author50=Thompson, S.L. |author51=Van de Peer, Y. |author52=Andersson, B. |author53=Nilsson, O. |author54=Ingvarsson, P.K. |author55=Lundeberg, J. |author56=Jansson, S. |display-authors=10 |pmid=23698360|bibcode=2013Natur.497..579N |hdl=1854/LU-4110028 |doi-access=free|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name=ThePlantList>{{ThePlantList | id =kew-2562738 | taxon =Picea abies | authority =(L.) H. Karst | accessdate = 14 March 2014}}</ref>
<ref name=WorldCklist>{{cite web |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=380406 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404013857/http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=380406 |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 4, 2019 |title=''Picea abies'' |work=[[World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]] (WCSP) |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] }}</ref>
}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikispecies}}
* [http://congenie.org/start Spruce Genome Project] at Congenie.org
* [http://www.euforgen.org/species/picea-abies/ ''Picea abies''] - distribution map, genetic conservation units and related resources. [[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]] (EUFORGEN)

{{Taxonbar|from=Q145992}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Picea|abies]]
[[Category:Flora of Belarus]]
[[Category:Flora of Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Flora of Croatia]]
[[Category:Flora of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Flora of Estonia]]
[[Category:Flora of Germany]]
[[Category:Flora of Italy]]
[[Category:Flora of Latvia]]
[[Category:Flora of Lithuania]]
[[Category:Flora of Poland]]
[[Category:Flora of Moldova]]
[[Category:Flora of Romania]]
[[Category:Flora of Serbia]]
[[Category:Flora of Slovakia]]
[[Category:Flora of Slovenia]]
[[Category:Flora of Ukraine]]
[[Category:Flora of the Alps]]
[[Category:Flora of Northern Europe]]
[[Category:Least concern plants]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Trees of continental subarctic climate]]
[[Category:Trees of humid continental climate]]
[[Category:Trees of subpolar oceanic climate]]
[[Category:Trees of Europe]]
[[Category:Trees of Russia]]