View source for Phonology

{{Short description|Study of sound organization in languages}}
{{distinguish|Phenology|Phenylogy}}
{{for-multi|the study of language production and perception|Phonetics|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=March 2025}}
{{Linguistics|Subfields1}}
'''Phonology''' (formerly also '''phonemics''' or '''phonematics'''<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Classical Philology|volume=40|number=1|date=January 1945|page=47|quote=Professor Whatmough’s assault on the terms “phonemic” and “phonemics” seemed to me, as to others, pedantic. So it is a pleasure to discover that his antipathy to these now well-established terms is not so deep rooted and consistent as one would suppose from his words in ''CP'', XXXVIII (1943), 211: “Nobody says ''mathemics'' instead of ''mathematics''; and I, for one, do not say, and never shall, ''phonemics'' for ''phonematics'' or ''phonemic'' for ''phonematic''.” In happening to re-read an earlier article of his in the ''Mélanges linguistiques offerts à M. Holger Pedersen'' (1937),. I find him beginning a sentence (p. 46) “Ideally the phonemic system of a language. . . . .”|title="Phonemics" versus "Phonematics"|first=Carl Darling|last=Buck|authorlink=Carl Darling Buck|publisher=University of Chicago |doi=10.1086/362860 }}</ref><ref name=trask-1996-267>{{harvtxt|Trask|1996|p=267}}: "'''phonemics''' {{IPA|/fəˈniːmɪks/}} ''n.'' [''obsolescent''] 1. Any procedure for identifying the '''phonemes''' of a language from a corpus of data. 2. (formerly also '''phonematics''') A former synonym for '''phonology''', often preferred by the '''American Structuralists''' and reflecting the importance in structuralist work of phonemics in sense 1."</ref><ref name=trask-1996-264>{{harvtxt|Trask|1996|p=264}}: "'''phonematics''' {{IPA|/fəʊnɪˈmætɪks/}} ''n.'' 1. [''obsolete''] An old synonym for '''phonemics''' (sense 2)."</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/phonematics|title=phonematics|website=Collins}}</ref>{{efn|Depending on usage, there may or may not be a distinction between ''phonology'' and ''phonemics'' or ''phonematics'', the latter of which are more strictly about segments ([[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s) rather than [[suprasegmental]]s ([[syllable]]s, [[Length (phonetics)|length]], [[Stress (linguistics)|accent]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], etc.). Synonymy between these terms is favored by some American [[Structural linguistics|structuralist]] phonologists (or rather, phonemicists)<ref name=trask-1996-267/><ref name=trask-1996-264/><ref>{{cite book|chapter=phonemics|quote=1 Synonym for '''phonology'''.<br>2 Because of the historical connotations that since the time of the Neogrammarians were attached to the term '''phonology''', which today is used for synchronic and diachronic studies, ‘phonemics’ was first used by the American structuralists for ‘synchronic phonology.’ This designation was also meant to distinguish the American structuralist approach from that of the European structuralists, especially those of the '''Prague School'''.|page=892|publisher=Routledge|trans-title=Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics|editor-first=Gregory|editor-last=Trauth|editor-first2=Kerstin|editor-last2=Kazzazi|translator-first=Gregory|translator-last=Trauth|translator-first2=Kerstin|translator-last2=Kazzazi|title=Hadumod Bussmann Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft|year=1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|page=362|chapter=phoneme|quote=On this general basis, several approaches to '''phonemic analysis''', or '''phonemics''', have developed. [...] Apart from the question of definition, if the view is taken that all aspects of the sound system of a language can be analysed in terms of phonemes – that is, the {{smallcaps|suprasegmental}} as well as the {{smallcaps|segmental}} features – then ‘phonemics’ becomes equivalent to phonology (= '''phonemic phonology'''). This view was particularly common in later developments of the American {{smallcaps|structuralist}} tradition of linguistic analysis, where linguists adopting this ‘phonemic principle’ were called '''phonemicists'''. Many phonologists, however (particularly in the British tradition), prefer not to analyse suprasegmental features in terms of phonemes, and have developed approaches which do without the phoneme altogether (‘nonphonemic phonology’, as in {{smallcaps|prosodic}} and {{smallcaps|distinctive feature}} theories).|title=A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics|editor-last=Crystal|editor-first=David|edition=6th|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|editor-link=David Crystal|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4051-5296-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter='''phonemics''' ''n'' '''phonemic''' ''adj''|quote=The term “phonemics” has been used by American linguists, particularly in {{smallcaps|structural linguistics}}. Lately, the term {{smallcaps|phonology}} has been preferred.|page=433|editor-first=Jack Croft|editor-last=Richards|editor-link=Jack C. Richards|editor-first2=Richard|editor-last2=Schmidt|editor-link2=Richard Schmidt (linguist)|title=Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics|edition=4th|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4082-0460-3|publisher=Pearson Education}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|page=340|chapter=phonemics|quote=The term used by American structuralists for '''phonology''', indicating the central position of the phoneme in their analyses.|title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Linguistics|editor-first=Keith|editor-last=Brown|editor-link=Keith Brown (linguist)|editor-first2=Jim|editor-last2=Miller|editor-link2=Jim Miller (linguist)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-521-76675-3}}</ref> and is reflected in ''[[morphophonology]]''/''morphophonemics'', among other derivatives.}}) is the branch of [[linguistics]] that studies how languages systematically organize their [[phoneme]]s or, for [[sign language]]s, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a particular [[language variety]]. At one time, the study of phonology related only to the study of the systems of phonemes in spoken languages, but now it may relate to any [[Linguistic description|linguistic analysis]] either:

{{Ordered list |list_style_type=lower-alpha|at a level beneath the word (including [[syllable]], onset and [[syllable rime|rime]], [[articulatory gestures]], articulatory features, [[mora (linguistics)|mora]], etc.), or|all levels of language in which sound or signs are structured to convey [[linguistic meaning]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brentari |first1=Diane |last2=Fenlon |first2=Jordan |last3=Cormier |first3=Kearsy |title=Sign Language Phonology |journal=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics |date=July 2018 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.117|isbn=9780199384655 |s2cid=60752232 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/f17a7b97fd366c1cab628bcf07cbe97b458ce793}}</ref>}}

[[Sign languages]] have a phonological system equivalent to the system of sounds in spoken languages. The building blocks of signs are specifications for movement, location, and handshape.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=William C. Stokoe |last=Stokoe |first=William C. |orig-year=1960 |year=1978 |title=Sign Language Structure: An outline of the visual communication systems of the American deaf |series=Studies in linguistics, Occasional papers |volume=8 |department=Department of Anthropology and Linguistics, University at Buffalo |edition=2nd |place=Silver Spring, MD |publisher=Linstok Press}}</ref> At first, a separate terminology was used for the study of sign phonology ("chereme" instead of "phoneme", etc.), but the concepts are now considered to apply universally to all [[human languages]].

== Terminology ==
The word "phonology" (as in "[[phonology of English]]") can refer either to the field of study or to the phonological system of a given language.<ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of PHONOLOGY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phonology |website=www.merriam-webster.com |access-date=3 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This is one of the fundamental systems that a language is considered to comprise, like its [[syntax]], its [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and its [[vocabulary|lexicon]]. The word ''phonology'' comes from [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|φωνή}}, ''phōnḗ'', 'voice, sound', and the suffix ''[[-logy]]'' (which is from Greek {{lang|grc|λόγος}}, ''lógos'', 'word, speech, subject of discussion').

Phonology is typically distinguished from [[phonetics]], which concerns the physical production, acoustic transmission and [[perception]] of the sounds or signs of language.<ref name=Lass1998/><ref name=Carr2003/> Phonology describes the way they function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. For many linguists, phonetics belongs to [[descriptive linguistics]] and phonology to [[theoretical linguistics]], but establishing the phonological system of a language is necessarily an application of theoretical principles to analysis of phonetic evidence in some theories. The distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the [[phoneme]] in the mid-20th century. Some subfields of modern phonology have a crossover with phonetics in descriptive disciplines such as [[psycholinguistics]] and [[speech perception]], which result in specific areas like [[articulatory phonology]] or [[laboratory phonology]].

Definitions of the field of phonology vary. [[Nikolai Trubetzkoy]] in ''Grundzüge der Phonologie'' (1939) defines phonology as "the study of sound pertaining to the system of language," as opposed to phonetics, which is "the study of sound pertaining to the act of speech" (the distinction between ''language'' and ''speech'' being basically [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]'s distinction between [[langue and parole|''langue'' and ''parole'']]).<ref name="GdP">Trubetzkoy N., ''Grundzüge der Phonologie'' (published 1939), translated by C. Baltaxe as ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ej6ENdUGS-UC&q=%22Grundz%C3%BCge+der+Phonologie%22 Principles of Phonology]'', University of California Press, 1969</ref> More recently, Lass (1998) writes that phonology refers broadly to the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language, and in more narrow terms, "phonology proper is concerned with the function, behavior and organization of sounds as linguistic items."<ref name=Lass1998/> According to Clark ''et al.'' (2007), it means the systematic use of [[sound]] to encode meaning in any spoken [[human language]], or the field of linguistics studying that use.<ref name=ClarkEtal2007/>

== History ==
<!--'History of phonology' redirects here-->

Evidence for a systematic investigation of the sounds of a language appears in the 4th c. BCE Ashtadhyayi, a Sanskrit grammar by Pāṇini. Particularly, within the Shiva Sutras, auxiliary work to the Ashtadhyayi, an inventory of what would be construed as a list of the phonemes of Sanskrit is provided, with a notational scheme for them which is deployed throughout the main text, which concerns itself with issues of morphology, syntax and semantics.

[[Ibn Jinni]] of [[Mosul]], a pioneer in phonology, wrote prolifically in the 10th century on [[Arabic]] morphology and phonology in works such as ''[[Kitāb Al-Munṣif]], [[Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab]],'' and '' {{Interlanguage link|Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ|ar|الخصائص (كتاب)|italic=y}}''.<ref>Bernards, Monique, "Ibn Jinnī", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Edited by: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Everett Rowson. Consulted online on 27 May 2021

First published online: 2021

First print edition: 9789004435964, 20210701, 2021-4</ref>

The study of phonology as it exists today is defined by the formative studies of the 19th-century Polish scholar [[Jan Baudouin de Courtenay]],<ref name="and2021">{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Stephen R. |title=Phonology in the twentieth century |date=2021 |publisher=Language Science Press |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-96110-327-0 |edition=Second, revised and expanded |url=https://zenodo.org/record/5577931 |access-date=28 December 2021|doi= 10.5281/zenodo.5509618|issn=2629-172X|author-link=Stephen R. Anderson}}</ref>{{rp|17}} who (together with his students [[Mikołaj Kruszewski]] and [[Lev Shcherba]] in the [[Kazan School]]) shaped the modern usage of the term ''[[phoneme]]'' in a series of lectures<!--''A detailed programme of lectures for the academic year'', p. 115--> in 1876–1877. The word ''phoneme'' had been coined a few years earlier, in 1873, by the French linguist [[A. Dufriche-Desgenettes]]. In a paper read at 24 May meeting of the [[Société de Linguistique de Paris]],<ref>Anon (probably [[Louis Havet]]). (1873) "Sur la nature des consonnes nasales". ''Revue critique d'histoire et de littérature'' 13, No. 23, p. 368.</ref> Dufriche-Desgenettes proposed for ''phoneme'' to serve as a one-word equivalent for the German ''Sprachlaut''.<ref>[[Roman Jakobson]], ''Selected Writings: Word and Language'', Volume 2, Walter de Gruyter, 1971, p. 396.</ref> Baudouin de Courtenay's subsequent work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He also worked on the theory of phonetic alternations (what is now called [[allophony]] and [[morphophonology]]) and may have had an influence on the work of Saussure, according to [[E. F. K. Koerner]].<ref>[[E. F. K. Koerner]], ''Ferdinand de Saussure: Origin and Development of His Linguistic Thought in Western Studies of Language. A contribution to the history and theory of linguistics'', Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn [Oxford & Elmsford, N.Y.: Pergamon Press], 1973.</ref>
[[File:Nikolai Trubetzkoy.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.75|Nikolai Trubetzkoy, 1920s]]
An influential school of phonology in the interwar period was the [[Prague school]]. One of its leading members was Prince [[Nikolai Trubetzkoy]], whose ''Grundzüge der Phonologie'' (''Principles of Phonology''),<ref name="GdP" /> published posthumously in 1939, is among the most important works in the field from that period. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of [[morphophonology]], but the concept had also been recognized by de Courtenay. Trubetzkoy also developed the concept of the ''[[archiphoneme]]''. Another important figure in the Prague school was [[Roman Jakobson]], one of the most prominent linguists of the 20th century. [[Louis Hjelmslev]]'s [[glossematics]] also contributed with a focus on linguistic structure independent of phonetic realization or semantics.<ref name="and2021" />{{rp|175}}

In 1968, [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[Morris Halle]] published ''[[The Sound Pattern of English]]'' (SPE), the basis for [[generative phonology]]. In that view, phonological representations are sequences of [[segment (linguistics)|segments]] made up of [[distinctive feature]]s. The features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, [[Gunnar Fant]], and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a universally fixed set and have the binary values + or −. There are at least two levels of representation: [[underlying representation]] and surface phonetic representation. Ordered phonological rules govern how [[underlying representation]] is transformed into the actual pronunciation (the so-called surface form). An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable and the emphasis on segments. Furthermore, the generativists folded [[morphophonology]] into phonology, which both solved and created problems.

Natural phonology is a theory based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969 and, more explicitly, in 1979. In this view, phonology is based on a set of universal [[phonological process]]es that interact with one another; those that are active and those that are suppressed is language-specific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on [[distinctive feature]]s within [[prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] groups. Prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance. Phonological processes are unordered with respect to each other and apply simultaneously, but the output of one process may be the input to another. The second most prominent natural phonologist is Patricia Donegan, Stampe's wife; there are many natural phonologists in Europe and a few in the US, such as Geoffrey Nathan. The principles of natural phonology were extended to [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] by [[Wolfgang U. Dressler]], who founded natural morphology.

In 1976, [[John Goldsmith (linguist)|John Goldsmith]] introduced [[autosegmental phonology]]. Phonological phenomena are no longer seen as operating on ''one'' linear sequence of segments, called phonemes or feature combinations but rather as involving ''some parallel sequences'' of features that reside on multiple tiers. Autosegmental phonology later evolved into [[feature geometry]], which became the standard theory of representation for theories of the organization of phonology as different as lexical phonology and [[optimality theory]].

[[Government phonology]], which originated in the early 1980s as an attempt to unify theoretical notions of syntactic and phonological structures, is based on the notion that all languages necessarily follow a small set of [[principle]]s and vary according to their selection of certain binary [[parameter]]s. That is, all languages' phonological structures are essentially the same, but there is restricted variation that accounts for differences in surface realizations. Principles are held to be inviolable, but parameters may sometimes come into conflict. Prominent figures in this field include [[Jonathan Kaye (linguist)|Jonathan Kaye]], Jean Lowenstamm, Jean-Roger Vergnaud, [[Monik Charette]], and John Harris.

In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, [[Alan Prince]] and [[Paul Smolensky]] developed [[optimality theory]], an overall architecture for phonology according to which languages choose a pronunciation of a word that best satisfies a list of constraints ordered by importance; a lower-ranked constraint can be violated when the violation is necessary in order to obey a higher-ranked constraint. The approach was soon extended to morphology by [[John McCarthy (linguist)|John McCarthy]] and [[Alan Prince]] and has become a dominant trend in phonology. The appeal to phonetic grounding of constraints and representational elements (e.g. features) in various approaches has been criticized by proponents of "substance-free phonology", especially by [[Mark Hale]] and [[Charles Reiss]].<ref name=HaleReiss2008/><ref name=HaleReiss2000/>

An integrated approach to phonological theory that combines synchronic and diachronic accounts to sound patterns was initiated with [[Evolutionary Phonology]] in recent years.<ref>Blevins, Juliette. 2004. ''Evolutionary phonology: The emergence of sound patterns''. Cambridge University Press.</ref>

== Analysis of phonemes ==
{{IPA notice|section}}{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2019}}
An important part of traditional, pre-generative schools of phonology is studying which sounds can be grouped into distinctive units within a language; these units are known as [[phoneme]]s. For example, in English, the "p" sound in ''pot'' is [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] (pronounced {{IPA|[pʰ]}}) while that in ''spot'' is not aspirated (pronounced {{IPA|[p]}}). However, English speakers intuitively treat both sounds as variations ([[allophone]]s, which cannot give origin to [[minimal pairs]]) of the same phonological category, that is of the phoneme {{IPA|/p/}}. (Traditionally, it would be argued that if an aspirated {{IPA|[pʰ]}} were interchanged with the unaspirated {{IPA|[p]}} in ''spot'', native speakers of English would still hear the same words; that is, the two sounds are perceived as "the same" {{IPA|/p/}}.) In some other languages, however, these two sounds are perceived as different, and they are consequently assigned to different phonemes. For example, in [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], and [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], there are [[minimal pair]]s of words for which aspiration is the only contrasting feature (two words can have different meanings but with the only difference in pronunciation being that one has an aspirated sound where the other has an unaspirated one).

[[File:Phonological Diagram of modern Arabic and Hebrew vowels.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The vowels of modern (Standard) [[Arabic]] (left) and (Israeli) [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (right) from the phonemic point of view. Note the intersection of the two circles—the distinction between short ''a'', ''i'' and ''u'' is made by both speakers, but Arabic lacks the mid articulation of short vowels, while Hebrew lacks the distinction of vowel length.]]

[[File:Phonetic Diagram of modern Arabic and Hebrew vowels.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The vowels of modern (Standard) Arabic and (Israeli) Hebrew from the phonetic point of view. The two circles are totally separate—none of the vowel-sounds made by speakers of one language is made by speakers of the other.]]

Part of the phonological study of a language therefore involves looking at data (phonetic [[transcription (linguistics)|transcriptions]] of the speech of [[native speaker]]s) and trying to deduce what the underlying phonemes are and what the sound inventory of the language is. The presence or absence of minimal pairs, as mentioned above, is a frequently used criterion for deciding whether two sounds should be assigned to the same phoneme. However, other considerations often need to be taken into account as well.

The particular contrasts which are phonemic in a language can change over time. At one time, {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[v]}}, two sounds that have the same place and manner of articulation and differ in voicing only, were [[allophones]] of the same phoneme in English, but later came to belong to separate phonemes. This is one of the main factors of historical change of languages as described in [[historical linguistics]].

The findings and insights of speech perception and articulation research complicate the traditional and somewhat intuitive idea of interchangeable allophones being perceived as the same phoneme. First, interchanged allophones of the same phoneme can result in unrecognizable words. Second, actual speech, even at a word level, is highly co-articulated, so it is problematic to expect to be able to splice words into simple segments without affecting speech perception.

Different linguists therefore take different approaches to the problem of assigning sounds to phonemes. For example, they differ in the extent to which they require allophones to be phonetically similar. There are also differing ideas as to whether this grouping of sounds is purely a tool for linguistic analysis, or reflects an actual process in the way the human brain processes a language.

Since the early 1960s, theoretical linguists have moved away from the traditional concept of a phoneme, preferring to consider basic units at a more abstract level, as a component of [[morpheme]]s; these units can be called ''morphophonemes'', and analysis using this approach is called [[morphophonology]].<!-- This is not correct, morphophonemes were present already in the Prague School and are by no means an invention of generative phonology. "Underlying segments" should be referred to instead. If the author does not chage it, I will edit it later. -->

== Other topics ==
<!-- This section is linked from [[Quebec French]] -->
In addition to the minimal units that can serve the purpose of differentiating meaning (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, or replace one another in different forms of the same morpheme ([[allomorph]]s), as well as, for example, [[syllable]] structure, [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], [[feature geometry]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], and [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]].

Phonology also includes topics such as [[phonotactics]] (the phonological constraints on what sounds can appear in what positions in a given language) and [[alternation (linguistics)|phonological alternation]] (how the pronunciation of a sound changes through the application of [[phonological rule]]s, sometimes in a given order that can be [[feeding order|feeding]] or [[bleeding order|bleeding]],<ref>Goldsmith 1995:1.</ref>) as well as [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], the study of [[suprasegmental]]s and topics such as [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]].

The principles of phonological analysis can be applied independently of [[modality (semiotics)|modality]] because they are designed to serve as general analytical tools, not language-specific ones. The same principles have been applied to the analysis of sign languages (see [[Phoneme#Phonemes in sign languages|Phonemes in sign languages]]), even though the sublexical units are not instantiated as speech sounds.

==See also==
* [[Absolute neutralisation]]
* {{anl|Accent (sociolinguistics)}}
* [[Cherology]]
* {{anl|English phonology}}
* [[List of phonologists]]
* {{anl|Neogrammarian}}
* {{anl|Phonological development}}
* {{anl|Phonological hierarchy}}
* [[Second language phonology]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|25em|refs=
<ref name=Carr2003>{{Cite book |year=2003 |author=Carr, Philip |title=English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |place=Massachusetts, US; Oxford, UK; Victoria, Australia; Berlin, Germany |isbn=978-0-631-19775-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p5a7mmpqbt0C&q=introduction+phonetics+phonology |access-date=8 January 2011 |postscript=Paperback ISBN 0-631-19776-1}}</ref>
<ref name=ClarkEtal2007>{{Cite book |year=2007 |author=Clark, John |author2=Yallop, Colin |author3=Fletcher, Janet |title=An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell|Blackwell Publishing]] |place=Massachusetts, US; Oxford, UK; Victoria, Australia |isbn=978-1-4051-3083-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dX5P5mxtYYIC&q=introduction+phonetics+phonology |access-date=8 January 2011 |postscript=Alternative ISBN 1-4051-3083-0}}</ref>
<ref name=Lass1998>{{Cite book |year=1998 |author=Lass, Roger |title=Phonology: An Introduction to Basic Concepts |page=1 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |place=Cambridge, UK; New York; Melbourne, Australia |isbn=978-0-521-23728-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aTsAt3D6H58C&q=phonology |access-date=8 January 2011 |postscript=Paperback ISBN 0-521-28183-0}}</ref>
<ref name=HaleReiss2008>{{Cite book |year=2008| author=Hale, Mark |author2=Reiss, Charles |title=The Phonological Enterprise |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford, UK|isbn= 978-0-19-953397-8}}
</ref>
<ref name=HaleReiss2000>{{Cite journal| year =2000|last1=Hale |first1=Mark |last2=Reiss |first2=Charles | title= 'Substance abuse' and 'dysfunctionalism': Current trends in phonology |journal=Linguistic Inquiry |volume =31 |issue=1 |pages=157–169 |doi=10.1162/002438900554334 |jstor=4179099}}</ref>
}}

== Bibliography ==
* Anderson, John M.; and Ewen, Colin J. (1987). ''Principles of dependency phonology''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.2307/486567 | last1 = Bloch | first1 = Bernard | year = 1941 | title = Phonemic overlapping | jstor = 486567| journal = American Speech | volume = 16 | issue = 4| pages = 278–284 }}
* [[Leonard Bloomfield|Bloomfield, Leonard]]. (1933). ''Language''. New York: H. Holt and Company. (Revised version of Bloomfield's 1914 ''An introduction to the study of language'').
* Brentari, Diane (1998). ''A prosodic model of sign language phonology.'' Cambridge, MA: [[MIT Press]].
* [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky, Noam]]. (1964). Current issues in linguistic theory. In J. A. Fodor and J. J. Katz (Eds.), ''The structure of language: Readings in the philosophy language'' (pp.&nbsp;91–112). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
* Chomsky, Noam; and [[Morris Halle|Halle, Morris]]. (1968). ''The sound pattern of English''. New York: Harper & Row.
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Clements | first1 = George N. |author-link=George N. Clements| year = 1985 | title = The geometry of phonological features | journal = Phonology Yearbook | volume = 2 | pages = 225–252 | doi=10.1017/S0952675700000440| s2cid = 62237665 }}
* Clements, George N.; and Samuel J. Keyser. (1983). ''CV phonology: A generative theory of the syllable''. Linguistic inquiry monographs (No. 9). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. {{ISBN|0-262-53047-3}} (pbk); {{ISBN|0-262-03098-5}} (hbk).
*{{Cite book |year=2007 |editor=de Lacy, Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84879-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7sxLaeZAhOAC&q=Cambridge+Handbook+of+Phonology |access-date=8 January 2011 }}
* Donegan, Patricia. (1985). On the Natural Phonology of Vowels. New York: Garland. {{ISBN|0-8240-5424-5}}.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Firth | first1 = J. R. | author-link = J. R. Firth | year = 1948 | title = Sounds and prosodies | journal = Transactions of the Philological Society | volume = 47 | issue =1 | pages = 127–152 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-968X.1948.tb00556.x }}
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0024-3841(97)00021-1 | last1 = Gilbers | first1 = Dicky | last2 = de Hoop | first2 = Helen | year = 1998 | title = Conflicting constraints: An introduction to optimality theory | journal = Lingua | volume = 104 | issue = 1–2| pages = 1–12 }}
* [[John Goldsmith (linguist)|Goldsmith, John A.]] (1979). The aims of [[autosegmental phonology]]. In D. A. Dinnsen (Ed.), ''Current approaches to phonological theory'' (pp.&nbsp;202–222). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
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==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*{{Commons category-inline|Phonology}}

{{Language phonologies}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Phonology| ]]
[[Category:Linguistics terminology|+]]