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{{Short description|Hellenistic Jewish philosopher (c. 20 BCE – c. 50 CE)}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox philosopher
|name             = Philo
|school_tradition = {{ubl|[[Middle Platonism]]|[[Hellenistic Judaism]]}}
|region           = [[Roman Egypt]]
|era              = [[Ancient philosophy]]
|image            = File:PhiloThevet.jpg
|caption          = Imaginative illustration of Philo made in 1584 by the French portrait artist [[André Thevet]]
|birth_date       = {{Circa|20 BCE}}
|birth_place      = [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman Egypt]]
|death_date       = {{Circa|50 CE|lk=no}}
|main_interests   = [[Cosmology]], [[philosophy of religion]]
|notable_ideas    = [[Allegorical interpretation]] of the [[Torah]]
}}

'''Philo of Alexandria''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|aɪ|l|oʊ}}; {{langx|grc|Φίλων|Phílōn}}; {{langx|he|יְדִידְיָה|Yəḏīḏyāh}}; {{Circa| 20&nbsp;BCE| 50&nbsp;CE|lk=on}}), also called '''{{lang|la|Philō Judæus|italics=no}}''',{{efn|"Philo" is the literal Greek translation of the Hebrew name {{tlit|he|Yəḏīḏyāh}} 'beloved of God', 'God loves me'; see [[Jedediah]].}} was a [[Hellenistic Jewish]] philosopher who lived in [[Alexandria]], in the [[Roman province of Egypt]].

The only event in Philo's life that can be decisively dated is his representation of the [[Alexandrian Jews]] in a delegation to the Roman emperor [[Caligula]] in 40 CE following civil strife between the Jewish and Greek communities of Alexandria.<ref>(''Embassy to Gaius'')</ref><ref>''Antiquities'' xviii.8, § 1; comp. ib. xix.5, § 1; xx.5, § 2</ref><ref>[[Richard Carrier]] (2014). ''On the Historicity of Jesus''. [[Sheffield Phoenix Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-909697-49-2}}. p. 304.</ref>

Philo was a leading writer of the [[History of the Jews in Alexandria|Hellenistic Jewish community in Alexandria]], Egypt. He wrote expansively in [[Koine Greek]] on [[philosophy]], [[politics]], and [[religion]] in his time; specifically, he explored the connections between Greek [[Platonic philosophy]] and late [[Second Temple Judaism]]. For example, he maintained that the Greek-language [[Septuagint]] and the [[Jewish law]] still being developed by the rabbis of the period together serve as a blueprint for the pursuit of individual enlightenment.

Philo's deployment of [[allegory]] to harmonize Jewish scripture, mainly the [[Torah]], with [[Greek philosophy]] was the first documented of its kind, and thereby often misunderstood. Many critics of Philo assumed his allegorical perspective would lend credibility to the notion of legend over historicity.<ref>''Philo and the Names of God'', JQR 22 (1931) pp. 295-306</ref> Philo often advocated a literal understanding of the Torah and the historicity of such described events, while at other times favoring allegorical readings.<ref>''De Opificio Mundi'', III.13, section regarding the necessity of the literal six days of creation.</ref>

==Life==
Philo's dates of birth and death are unknown but can be judged by Philo's description of himself as "old" when he was part of the delegation to [[Caligula|Gaius Caligula]] in 38 CE. Jewish history professor [[Daniel R. Schwartz]] estimates his birth year as sometime between 15 and 10 BCE. Philo's reference to an event under the reign of Emperor [[Claudius]] indicates that he died sometime between 45 and 50 CE.<ref name=Schwartz /> Philo also recounts that he visited the [[Second Temple]] in Jerusalem at least once in his lifetime.<ref>''On Providence'' 2.64.</ref>

=== Family ===
Although the names of his parents are unknown, it is known that Philo came from a family which was noble, honourable and wealthy. It was either his father or paternal grandfather who was granted [[Roman citizenship]] from Roman dictator Gaius [[Julius Caesar]]. [[Jerome]] wrote that Philo came ''de genere sacerdotum'' (from a priestly family).<ref>[[Jerome]], ''[[De Viris Illustribus (Jerome)|De Viris Illustribus]]'' ([http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/hieronym/viris_l.htm#Caput%20XI e-text]), Caput XI ([[wikisource:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume III/Lives of Illustrious Men/Jerome/Philo Judaeus|English translation]]).</ref><ref name=Schwartz>Daniel R. Schwartz, "Philo, His Family, and His Times", in Kamesar (2009).</ref> His ancestors and family had social ties and connections to the priesthood in [[Judea]], the [[Hasmonean dynasty]], the [[Herodian dynasty]] and the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] in [[Rome]].

Philo had one brother, Alexander Lysimachus, who was the general tax administrator of customs in [[Alexandria]]. He accumulated an immense amount of wealth, becoming not only the richest man in that city but also in the entire Hellenistic world. Alexander was so rich that he gave a loan to the wife of [[Herod Agrippa|king Herod Agrippa]], as well as gold and silver to overlay the nine gates of the [[Second Temple#Herod's Temple|temple in Jerusalem]]. Due to his extreme wealth, Alexander was also influential in imperial Roman circles as a friend of emperor Claudius.<ref>{{cite web |title=Philo Judaeus |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philo-Judaeus |website=www.britannica.com |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Through Alexander, Philo had two nephews, [[Tiberius Julius Alexander]] and [[Marcus Julius Alexander]]. The latter was the first husband of the Herodian princess [[Berenice (daughter of Herod Agrippa)|Berenice]]. Marcus died in 43 or 44. Some scholars identify Alexander Lysimachus as the Alexander referenced in the [[Acts of the Apostles|Book of Acts]], who presided over the [[Sanhedrin]] trial of [[John the Apostle|John]] and [[Saint Peter|Peter]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellicott |first=Charles John |title=A New Testament Commentary for English Readers, vol. 2 |publisher=Cassell and Co. |year=1897 |isbn=9781360285283 |location=London |pages=21}}</ref>

=== Diplomacy ===
Philo lived in an era of increasing ethnic tension in Alexandria, exacerbated by the new strictures of [[Roman Egypt|imperial rule]]. Some expatriate Hellenes (Greeks) in Alexandria condemned the Jews for a supposed alliance with Rome, even as Rome was seeking to suppress Jewish national and cultural identity in the [[Judaea (Roman province)|Roman province of Judaea]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Aberbach |first=David |title=The Roman-Jewish Wars and Hebrew Cultural Nationalism |date=2003 |url=https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403937339_3 |work=Major Turning Points in Jewish Intellectual History |pages=31–44 |editor-last=Aberbach |editor-first=David |access-date=2023-12-20 |place=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |language=en |doi=10.1057/9781403937339_3 |isbn=978-1-4039-3733-9|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=Schwartz/> In ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[Josephus]] tells of Philo's selection by the Alexandrian Jewish community as their principal representative before the Roman emperor Gaius Caligula. He says that Philo agreed to represent the Alexandrian Jews about the civil disorder that had developed between the Jews and the Greeks. Josephus also tells us that Philo was skilled in philosophy and that he was brother to the [[alabarch]] Alexander.<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities'' xviii. 8. 1.</ref> According to Josephus, Philo and the larger Jewish community refused to treat the emperor as a god, to erect statues in honour of the emperor, and to build altars and temples to the emperor. Josephus says Philo believed that God actively supported this refusal.

Josephus' complete comments about Philo:
{{Blockquote|There was now a tumult arisen at Alexandria, between the Jewish inhabitants and the Greeks; and three ambassadors were chosen out of each party that were at variance, who came to Gaius. Now one of these ambassadors from the people of Alexandria was [[Apion]], (29) who uttered many blasphemies against the Jews; and, among other things that he said, he charged them with neglecting the honors that belonged to Caesar; for that while all who were subject to the Roman empire built altars and temples to Gaius, and in other regards universally received him as they received the gods, these Jews alone thought it a dishonorable thing for them to erect statues in honor of him, as well as to swear by his name. Many of these severe things were said by Apion, by which he hoped to provoke Gaius to anger at the Jews, as he was likely to be. But Philo, the principal of the Jewish embassage, a man eminent on all accounts, brother to Alexander the Alabarch, (30) and one not unskillful in philosophy, was ready to betake himself to make his defense against those accusations; but Gaius prohibited him, and bid him begone; he was also in such a rage, that it openly appeared he was about to do them some very great mischief. So Philo being thus affronted, went out, and said to those Jews who were about him, that they should be of good courage, since Gaius's words indeed showed anger at them, but in reality had already set God against himself.<ref>''Antiquities of the Jews'', xviii.8, § 1, Whiston's translation (online)</ref>}}

This event is also described in Book 2, Chapter 5 of [[Eusebius]]'s ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Historia Ecclesiae]]''<ref>Eusebius, ''Church History,''https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm</ref>

=== Education ===
Philo along with his brothers received a thorough education. They were educated in the [[Hellenistic period#Culture|Hellenistic culture]] of Alexandria and the [[culture of ancient Rome]], to a degree in [[Ancient Egyptian religion]] and particularly in the traditions of [[Judaism]], in the study of Jewish traditional literature and in [[Greek philosophy]].

In his works, Philo shows extensive influence not only from philosophers such as [[Plato]] and the [[Stoics]], but also poets and orators, especially [[Homer]], [[Euripides]], and [[Demosthenes]].<ref>"On Consorting with the Preliminary Studies" 6 [i. 550]; "De Specialibus Legibus," ii. 229;</ref>{{sfn|Dillon|1996|p=140}} Philo's largest philosophical influence was Plato, drawing heavily from the ''Timaeus'' and the ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'', and also from the ''[[Phaedo]]'', ''[[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theaetetus]]'', ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'', and ''[[Laws (Plato)|Laws]]''.{{sfn|Dillon|1996|p=140}}

The extent of Philo's knowledge of Hebrew, however, is debated. Philo was more fluent in Greek than in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and read the [[Tanakh|Jewish Scriptures]] chiefly from the [[Septuagint]], a [[Koine Greek]] translation of Hebraic texts later compiled as the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[deuterocanonical books]].<ref name=Schwartz18>{{cite book |last1=Schwartz |first1=Daniel R. |editor1-last=Kamesar |editor1-first=Adam |title=The Cambridge Companion to Philo |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86090-1 |page=18 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P9nGKf_or4cC&pg=PA18 |chapter=1.1: Philo, His Family, and His Times |quote=At a very early stage, the use of Hebrew seems to have declined and the language of the Jews of Alexandria came to be Greek exclusively. The translation of the Torah (and in time the other books) allowed Greek to be a vehicle for Jewish culture. Indeed, there developed a very rich Jewish literature in Greek already in the second century BCE. By the time of the era of Philo, it is hardly surprising that he was a highly accomplished Greek stylist, and probably knew little to no Hebrew.}}</ref> His numerous etymologies of Hebrew names, which are along the lines of the [[etymologic]] ''[[midrash]]'' to Genesis and of the earlier [[Rabbinical Judaism|rabbinism]], although not modern Hebrew [[philology]], suggest some familiarity.<ref name="JE Knowledge of Hebrew">{{cite encyclopedia | url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12116-philo-judaeus#anchor8 | title=Philo Judaeus: His Knowledge of Hebrew | encyclopedia=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] | date=1901–1906}}</ref> Philo offers for some names three or four etymologies, sometimes including the correct Hebrew root (e.g., {{langx|he|[[wikt:י־ר־ד|י־ר־ד]]|y-r-d|descend}} as the origin of the name [[Jordan]]). However, his works do not display much understanding of [[Hebrew grammar]], and they tend to follow the translation of the Septuagint more closely than the Hebrew version.<ref name=Schwartz18 /><ref>Anthony Hanson, "Philo's Etymologies"; ''Journal of Theological Studies'' 18, 1967; pp. 128–139.</ref>{{efn|The Septuagint translates {{langx|he|מַלְאַךְ יְהוָה|[[Malakh]] [[YHWH]]|Messenger of [[Yahweh]]}} as {{langx|grc|ἄγγελος Κυρίου||[[angel of the Lord]]}})}}.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle= Angel |volume= 1 |last= Pope  |first= Hugh |author-link= Hugh Pope |short=1 }}</ref>

Philo identified the angel of the Lord (in the singular) with the [[Logos]].<ref>[[Frederick Copleston]], ''A History of Philosophy'', Volume 1, Continuum, 2003, p. 460.</ref><ref>J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines'', 5th ed., HarperOne, 1978, p. 11.</ref> In the text attributed to Philo, he "consistently uses {{lang|grc|[[Kyrios|Κύριος]]}} as a designation for God".<ref name=McDonough>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c0ZG4P8J1roC&pg=PA60 |author=[[Sean M. McDonough]] |title=YHWH at Patmos: Rev. 1:4 in Its Hellenistic and Early Jewish Setting, Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |year=1999 |isbn=978-31-6147055-4 |page=60|chapter=2: The Use of the Name YHWH}}</ref> According to David B. Capes, "the problem for this case, however, is that Christian scholars are responsible for copying and transmitting Philo's words to later generations", and adds,
{{quote|[[George Howard (Hebraist)|George Howard]] surveys evidence and concludes: "Although it is improbable that Philo varied from the custom of writing the Tetragram when quoting from Scripture, it is likely that he used the word {{lang|grc|Κύριος}} when making a secondary reference to the divine name in his exposition".<ref name=Stuckenbruck-North>{{cite book |last1=Stuckenbruck |first1=Loren T. |last2=North |first2=Wendy |title=Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism |date=2004 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-567-42917-9 |page=122 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_5hPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |language=en}}</ref>}} James Royse concludes:{{quote|(1) the exegete [Philo] knows and reads biblical manuscripts in which the tetragram is written in [[palaeo-Hebrew alphabet|palaeo-Hebrew]] or [[Aramaic script]] and not translated by ''kyrios'' and that (2) he quotes scriptures in the same way he would have pronounced it, that is, by translating it as ''kurios''."<ref name=Stuckenbruck-North/>}}

== Philosophy ==
{{see also|Hellenistic Judaism}}
{{Jewish philosophy|expanded=Hellenistic}}
Philo represents the apex of Jewish-Hellenistic [[syncretism]]. His work attempts to combine Plato and Moses into one philosophical system.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | first=Edward | last=Moore | date=June 28, 2005 | url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/midplato/#SH6a | title=Middle Platonism – Philo of Alexandria | access-date=December 20, 2012 | encyclopedia=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | issn=2161-0002}}</ref>

=== Allegorical interpretation ===
{{seealso|Allegorical interpretations of Plato}}
Philo bases his doctrines on the [[Hebrew Bible]], which he considers the source and standard not only of religious truth but of all truth.{{efn|The extent of his [[Biblical canon|canon]] cannot be exactly determined. He does not quote the Books of [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]], [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], [[Song of Songs|Canticles]], [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]], [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]], [[Ecclesiastes]], or [[Book of Esther|Esther]].}} Its pronouncements are the {{lang|grc|ἱερὸς λόγος}}, {{lang|grc|θεῖος λόγος}}, and {{lang|grc|ὀρθὸς λόγος}} (holy word, godly word, righteous word),<ref>"De Agricultura Noë," § 12 [i. 308]; "De Somniis," i. 681, ii. 25</ref> uttered sometimes directly and sometimes through the mouth of a prophet, and especially through [[Moses]], whom Philo considers the true medium of [[revelation]]. However, he distinguishes between the words uttered by God himself, such as the [[Ten Commandments]], and the [[Law of Moses|edicts of Moses]] (as the special laws).<ref>"De Specialibus Legibus", §§ 2 {{lang|la|[[et seq.]]}} [ii. 300 {{lang|la|et seq.}}]; "De Præmiis et Pœnis", § 1 [ii. 408]</ref>

Philo regards the Bible as the source not only of religious revelation but also of philosophical truth. Philo claims that [[Moses]] learned mathematics from the Egyptians, astronomy and astrology from the Chaldeans, and other subjects from the Greeks. He says that Moses advanced beyond his teachers, leading them to learn from him instead. Philo believed the Greeks such as [[Heraclitus]] took ideas from [[Mosaic law]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fuss |first=Abraham M. |date=1994 |title=The Study of Science and Philosophy Justified by Jewish Tradition |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40914819 |journal=The Torah U-Madda Journal |volume=5 |pages=101–114 |jstor=40914819 |issn=1050-4745}}</ref> By applying the Stoic mode of allegorical interpretation to the Hebrew Bible, he interpreted the stories of [[Torah|the first five books]] as elaborate [[metaphors]] and [[symbols]] to demonstrate that Greek philosophers' ideas had preceded them in the Bible: [[Heraclitus]]'s concept of [[binary opposition]]s, according to ''Who is the Heir of Divine Things?'' § 43 [i. 503]; and the conception of the wise man expounded by [[Zeno of Citium]], the founder of [[Stoicism]], in ''Every Good Man is Free'', § 8 [ii. 454].<ref>{{Cite Jewish Encyclopedia |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12116-philo-judaeus#anchor8 |title=Philo Judaeus: His Methods of Exegesis |author1=Crawford Howell Toy |authorlink1=Crawford Howell Toy |author2=Carl Siegfried |authorlink2=Carl Siegfried |author3=Jacob Zallel Lauterbach |authorlink3 = Jacob Zallel Lauterbach}}; {{cite book |last1=Engberg-Pedersen |first1=Troels |editor1-last=Zupko |editor1-first=J. |editor2-last=Strange |editor2-first=S. K. |title=Traditions and Transformations |date=2004 |page=58 |chapter=Stoicism in the Apostle Paul}}</ref> Philo did not reject the subjective experience of ancient Judaism; yet, he repeatedly explained that the Septuagint cannot be understood as a concrete, objective history. 
 
Philo's allegorical interpretation of scripture allows him to grapple with morally disturbing events and impose a cohesive explanation of stories. Specifically, Philo interprets the characters of the Bible as aspects of the human being and the stories of the Bible as episodes from universal human experience. For example, [[Adam]] represents the mind and [[Eve]], the senses. [[Noah]] represents tranquility, a stage of "relative"—incomplete but progressing—righteousness.<ref>Sandmel (1979), p. 24–25; 84–85.</ref> According to [[Josephus]], Philo was inspired mainly in this by [[Aristobulus of Alexandria]] and the [[Alexandrian school]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/aristobulus.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170621140849/http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/aristobulus.html | archive-date = 2017-06-21 | title = Jewish Hellenistic Philosopher Aristobolus of Alexandria | publisher= earlyjewishwritings.com | language = en | url-status = live}}</ref><ref name= "britannica.com">{{cite web | url = https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristobulus-of-Paneas | title = Aristobulus of Paneas | language = en | access-date = Aug 19, 2018| website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171030141240/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristobulus-of-Paneas | archive-date = October 30, 2017 | url-status = live}}</ref>

==== Numerology ====
Philo frequently engaged in [[Numerology#Pythagorean system|Pythagorean-inspired numerology]], explaining at length the importance of the first 10 numerals:<ref>Sandmel (1979), p. 22–23. [Sandmel notes that Philo's use of numbers differs entirely from [[gematria]] using Hebrew letters.]</ref>

# One is [[Divine simplicity|God’s number]] and the basis for all numbers.<ref>("De Allegoriis Legum," ii. 12 [i. 66])</ref> 
# Two is the number of [[schism]], that which has been created, and death.<ref>("De Opificio Mundi, § 9 [i. 7]; "De Allegoriis Legum," i. 2 [i. 44]; "De Somaniis," ii. 10 [i. 688])</ref> 
# Three is the number of the body ("De Allegoriis Legum," i. 2 [i. 44]) or of the Divine Being in connection with its fundamental powers ("De Sacrificiis Abelis et Caini," § 15 [i. 173]). 
# Four is potentially what ten is actually: the perfect number ("[[De Opificio Mundi]]," §§ 15, 16 [i. 10, 11], etc.); but in an evil sense, four is the number of the passions, πάθη ("De Congressu Quærendæ Eruditionis Gratia." § 17 [i. 532]). 
# Five is the number of the senses and of sensibility ("De Opificio Mundi," § 20 [i. 14], etc.). 
# Six, the product of the masculine and feminine numbers 3×2 and in its parts equal to 3+3, is the symbol of the movement of organic beings ("De Allegoriis Legum," i. 2 [i. 44]). 
# Seven has the most various attributes ("De Opiticio Mundi," §§ 30-43 [i. 21 et seq.]; comp. I. G. Müller, "Philo und die Weltschöpfung," 1841, p. 211). 
# Eight, the number of the cube, has many of the attributes determined by the [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagoreans]] ("Quæstiones in Genesin," iii. 49 [i. 223, Aucher]). 
# Nine is the number of strife, according to Gen. xiv. ("De Congressu Qu. Eruditionis Gratia," § 17 [i. 532]). 
# Ten is the number of perfection ("De Plantatione Noë," § 29 [i. 347]).

Philo also determines the values of the numbers 50, 70, 100, 12, and 120. There is also extensive symbolism of objects. Philo elaborates on the extensive symbolism of proper names, following the example of the Bible and the [[Midrash]], to which he adds many new interpretations.<ref>On the difference between the physical and ethical allegory, the first of which refers to natural processes and the second to the psychic life of man, see Siegfried, l.c. p. 197.</ref>

=== Theology{{anchor|View of God}}===
Philo stated his [[theology]] both through the [[Apophatic theology|negation of opposing ideas]] and through detailed, positive explanations of the [[God|nature of God]]; he contrasted the nature of God with the nature of the physical world. Philo did not consider God similar to [[Heaven]], the [[World (theology)|world]], or man; he affirmed a [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent God]] without physical features or emotional qualities resembling those of human beings. Following Plato, Philo equates matter to nothingness and sees its effect in fallacy, discord, damage, and decay of things.<ref>Who is the Heir of Divine Things, XXXII, 160</ref> Only God's existence is specific; no appropriate predicates can be conceived.<ref>''On the Unchangeableness of God'', XIII, 62</ref> To Philo, God exists beyond time and space and does not make [[Divine intervention|special interventions]] into the world because God already encompasses the entire cosmos.

Philo also integrated select theology from the rabbinic tradition,{{specify|date = October 2024}} including God's [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendence]],<ref>Isaiah 4:9.</ref> and humankind's inability to behold an [[Ineffability|ineffable]] God.<ref>Exodus xxxii. 20 et seq.</ref> He argued that God has no attributes (ἁπλοῡς)—in consequence, no name (ἅρρητος)—and, therefore, that God cannot be perceived by man (ἀκατάληπτος). Furthermore, he posited that [[Immutability (theology)|God cannot change]] (ἅτρεπτος): God is always the same (ἀΐδιος). God needs no other being (χρῄζει γὰρ οὐδενὸς τὸ παράπαν) for self-existence or the creation of material things,<ref>''Legum Allegoriae'' II, §2; ''The Works of Philo: Greek Text with Morphology'', ed. P. Borgen et al. (Bellingham, WA: 2005).</ref> and God is self-sufficient (ἑαυτῷ ἱκανός).<ref>''Legum Allegoriae'' I, §44: "...ἱκανὸς αὐτὸς ἑαυτῷ ὁ θεός..." (''The Works of Philo: Greek Text with Morphology'', ed. P. Borgen et al. (Bellingham, WA: 2005)).</ref> God can never perish (ἅφθαρτος), is self-existent (ὁ ὤν, τὸ ὄν), and has no relations with any other being (τὸ γὰρ ὄν, ᾗ ὄν ἐστιν, οὐχὶ τῶν πρός τι).<ref>''De mutatione nominum'', §27; ''The Works of Philo: Greek Text with Morphology'', ed. P. Borgen, et al. (Bellingham, WA: 2005).</ref>

==== Anthropomorphism ====
Philo considered the [[Anthropomorphism#In religion and mythology|anthropomorphism]] of the Bible to be an impiety that was incompatible with the Platonic conception of "God in opposition to matter", instead interpreting the ascription to God of [[Hand of God (art)|hands]] and feet, eyes and ears, tongue and windpipe, as allegories.<ref>"De Confusione Linguarum," § 27 [i. 425].</ref> In Philo's interpretation, Hebrew scripture adapts itself to human conceptions, and so God is occasionally represented as a man for [[pedagogy|pedagogic]] reasons.<ref>"Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis," § 11 [i. 281].</ref> The same holds true for God's [[Anthropopathy|anthropopathic]] attributes. God, as such, is untouched by unreasonable emotions, as appears in [[Ki Tissa|Exodus 32]]:12, wherein Moses, torn by his feelings, perceives God alone to be calm.<ref>"De Allegoriis Legum," iii. 12 [i. 943].</ref> He is free from sorrow, pain, and other affections. But God is frequently represented as endowed with human emotions, and this serves to explain expressions referring to human [[Repentance in Judaism|repentance]] in the ancient Jewish context.

Similarly, God cannot exist or change in space. He has no "where" (πού, obtained by changing the accent in Genesis 3:9: "Adam, where [ποῡ] art thou?"), is not in any place. He is Himself the place; the dwelling-place of God means the same as God Himself, as in the Mishnah  = "God is" (comp. Freudenthal, "Hellenistische Studien," p.&nbsp;73), corresponding to the tenet of Greek philosophy that the existence of all things is summed up in God.<ref>Compare [[Emil Schürer]], "Der Begriff des Himmelreichs," in ''Jahrbuch für Protestantische Theologie,'' 1876, i. 170.</ref> God as such is motionless, as the Bible indicates by the phrase "God stands".<ref>Deut. v. 31; Ex. xvii. 6.</ref>

==== Divine attributes ====
Philo endeavored to find the Divine Being active and acting in the world, in agreement with Stoicism, yet his Platonic 
conception of Matter as evil required that he place God outside of the world in order to prevent God from having any contact with evil. Hence, he was obliged to separate from the Divine Being the activity displayed in the world and to transfer it to the divine powers, which accordingly were sometimes inherent in God and at other times exterior to God. In order to balance these Platonic and Stoic conceptions, Philo conceived of these divine attributes as types or patterns of actual things ("archetypal ideas") in keeping with Plato, but also regarded them as the efficient causes that not only represent the types of things, but also produce and maintain them.<ref>("De Confusione Linguarum," § 34 [i. 431])</ref> Philo endeavored to harmonize this conception with the Bible by designating these powers as angels.<ref>("De Gigantibus," § 2 [i. 263]; "De Somniis," i. 22 [i. 641 et seq.])</ref> Philo conceives the powers both as independent hypostases and as immanent attributes of a Divine Being.

In the same way, Philo contrasts the two divine attributes of goodness and power (ἄγαθότης and ἀρχή, δίναμις χαριστική and συγκολαστική) as expressed in the names of God; designating "Yhwh" as Goodness, Philo interpreted "Elohim" (LXX. Θεός) as designating the "cosmic power"; and as he considered the Creation the most important proof of divine goodness, he found the idea of goodness especially in Θεός.<ref>"De Migratione Abrahami," § 32 [i. 464].</ref>{{efn|On the parallel activity of the two powers and the symbols used therefor in Scripture, as well as on their emanation from God and their further development into new powers, their relation to God and the world, their part in the Creation, their tasks toward man, etc., see Siegfried, "Philo," pp.&nbsp;214–218.}}

==== Logos ====
Philo also treats the divine powers of God as a single independent being, or [[demiurge]],<ref name="cdpPhilo">''Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy'' (2nd ed): Philo Judaeus, 1999.</ref> which he designates "[[Logos]]". Philo's conception of the Logos is influenced by [[Heraclitus]]' conception of the "dividing Logos" (λόγος τομεύς), which calls the various objects into existence by the combination of contrasts ("Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 43 [i. 503]), as well as the Stoic characterization of the Logos as the active and vivifying power.

But Philo followed the Platonic distinction between [[hyle|imperfect matter]] and perfect Form, and Philo's conception of the Logos is directly related to the Middle Platonic view of God as unmoved and utterly transcendent; therefore, intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world.<ref name="hpPhilo">[[Frederick Copleston]], ''A History of Philosophy'', Volume 1, Continuum, 2003, pp. 458–462.</ref> The Logos was the highest of these intermediary beings and was called by Philo "the first-born of God."<ref name="hpPhilo"/><ref>On the Confusion of Tongues</ref>

Philo also adapted Platonic elements in designating the Logos as the "idea of ideas" and the "archetypal idea".<ref>"De Migratione Abrahami," § 18 [i. 452]; "De Specialibus Legibus," § 36 [ii. 333].</ref>  Philo identified Plato's [[Theory of forms|Ideas]] with the demiurge's thoughts. These thoughts make the contents of Logos; they were the seals for making sensual things during world creation.<ref>On the Creation, XLIV, 129</ref> Logos resembles a book with creature paradigms.<ref>Allegorical Interpretation, I, VIII, 19</ref> An Architect's design before the construction of a city serves to Philo as another simile of Logos.<ref>On the Creation, VI, 24</ref> Since creation, Logos binds things together.<ref>On Flight and Finding, XX, 112</ref> As the receptacle and holder of ideas, Logos is distinct from the material world. At the same time, Logos pervades the world, supporting it.<ref>On the Posterity of Cain and His Exile, V, 14; On Dreams, XXXVII, 2.245</ref>  This image of God is the type for all other things (the "Archetypal Idea" of Plato), a seal impressed upon things. The Logos is a kind of shadow cast by God, having the outlines but not the blinding light of the Divine Being.<ref>On the Confusion of Tongues, XI, 41</ref><ref>On Flight and Finding, XX, 111</ref><ref>Philo, ''De Profugis'', cited in [https://archive.org/details/hellenismchristi00frieiala Gerald Friedlander, ''Hellenism and Christianity'', P. Vallentine, 1912, pp. 114–115.]</ref> He calls the Logos "second god [deuteros theos]"<ref>Questions and Answers on Genesis 2:62)</ref> the "name of God," <ref>Compare "The Confusion of Tongues," § 11 [i. 411].</ref>

There are, in addition, Biblical elements: Philo connects his doctrine of the Logos with Scripture, first of all, based on Genesis 1:27, the relation of the Logos to God. He translates this passage as follows: "He made man after the image of God," concluding from that place that an image of God existed.<ref>Questions and Answers on Genesis 2.62</ref> The Logos is also designated as "[[Kohen Gadol|high priest]]" in reference to the exalted position that the high priest occupied after the Exile as the physical center of the Jews' relationship with God. The Logos, like the high priest, is the expiator of the Jews' sins and the mediator and advocate for humankind before, and envoy to, God: ἱκέτης,<ref>"Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 42 [i. 501].</ref> and παράκλητος.<ref>"De Vita Mosis," iii. 14 [ii. 155].</ref><ref>Who is the Heir of Divine Things? XLII, 205-206</ref> He puts human minds in order.<ref>On the Creation, LI, 145-146</ref> The right reason is an infallible law, the source of any other laws. {{non sequitur|date=October 2024}}<ref>Every Good Man is Free, VII, 46-47</ref> The angel blocking [[Balaam]]'s way in [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 22:22–35 is interpreted by Philo as a manifestation of the Logos, which acts as Balaam's—or humankind's—conscience.<ref>On the Unchageableness of God, XXXVII, 181-182</ref> As such, the Logos becomes the aspect of the divine that operates in the world through whom the world is created and sustained.<ref>''Early Christian Doctrines'', J.N.D. Kelly, Prince Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;20.</ref>

[[Peter Schäfer]] argues that Philo's Logos was derived from his understanding of the "postbiblical [[Wisdom literature]], in particular the [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom of Solomon]]".<ref>{{cite book|last=Schäfer|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Schäfer|title=The Origins of Jewish Mysticism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eI-NbejlhlUC&pg=PA159|date=24 January 2011|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-14215-9|page=159|quote=It is more than likely that Philo knew the postbiblical Wisdom literature, in particular the [[Wisdom of Solomon]]. and was influenced by it. The obvious identification of Logos and Wisdom in the Wisdom of Solomon is a case in point. Wisdom (Greek ''sophia'') plays a prominent role in Philo as well and is yet another power among the divine powers that acts as an agent of creation. Whereas the Logos, as we have seen, is responsible for the intelligible world, Wisdom would seem to be responsible for the world perceived by the senses.}}</ref> The Wisdom of Solomon is a Jewish work composed in [[Alexandria]], [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], around the 1st century BCE, to bolster the faith of the Jewish community in a hostile Greek world. It is one of the seven [[Sapiential Books|Sapiential]] or Wisdom books included in the [[Septuagint]].

=== Soul ===
The Logos has a special relation to humankind. Philo seems to look at humans as a [[Trichotomy (philosophy)|trichotomy]] of [[nous]] (mind), [[wikt:psyche|psyche]] (soul), and [[wikt:soma|soma]] (body), which was common to the Hellenistic view of the [[Philosophy of mind|mind-body relationship]]. In Philo's writings, however, mind and spirit are used interchangeably.<ref>Frederick S. Tappenden, ''Resurrection in Paul: Cognition, Metaphor, and Transformation'' (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2016). p.100</ref> The soul is the type; man is the copy.{{Technical inline|date=October 2024}} The similarity is found in the mind (νοῦς) of humans. For the shaping of the nous, the individual has the Logos for a pattern to follow. The latter officiates here also as "the divider" (τομεύς), separating and uniting. {{Technical inline|date=October 2024}} The Logos, as "interpreter," announces God's designs to humankind, acting in this respect as prophet and priest. As the latter, the Logos softens punishments by making God's merciful power stronger than the punitive. The Logos has a special mystic influence upon the human soul, illuminating it and nourishing it with higher spiritual food, like the manna, of which the most diminutive piece has the same vitality as the whole.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

=== Ethics and politics ===
Philo's ethics were strongly influenced by [[Pythagoreanism]] and [[Stoicism]], preferring a morality of virtues without passions, such as lust/desire and anger, but with a "common human sympathy".<ref>{{cite book| title=The Works of Philo|others=Translated by [[Charles Duke Yonge|C.D. Yonke]]. Foreword by David M. Scholer Yonge|year=1993|publisher=Hendrickson Pub. | isbn=9780943575933}}</ref> Commentators can also infer from his mission to [[Caligula]] that Philo was involved in politics. However, the nature of his political beliefs, especially his viewpoint on the Roman Empire, is a matter of debate.<ref>[[David T. Runia]], "The Idea and the Reality of the City in the Thought of Philo of Alexandria"; ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 61(3), July 2000.</ref><ref>Goodenough (1983), pp. 1–3.</ref>

Philo did suggest in his writings that a prudent man should withhold his genuine opinion about tyrants:

{{Blockquote|he will of necessity take up caution as a shield, as a protection to prevent his suffering any sudden and unexpected evil; for as I imagine what a wall is to a city, that caution is to an individual. Do not these men then talk foolishly, are they not mad, who desire to display their inexperience and freedom of speech to kings and tyrants, at times daring to speak and to do things in opposition to their will? Do they not perceive that they have not only put their necks under the yoke like brute beasts, but that they have also surrendered and betrayed their whole bodies and souls likewise, and their wives and their children, and their parents, and all the rest of the numerous kindred and community of their other relations? ... when an opportunity offers, it is a good thing to attack our enemies and put down their power; but when we have no such opportunity, it is better to be quiet<ref>''[http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book21.html De somniis]'' ii, 82–92</ref>}}

==Works==
The works of Philo are mostly allegorical interpretations of the [[Torah]] (known in the Hellenic world as the [[Pentateuch]]) but also include histories and comments on philosophy. Most of these were preserved in Greek by the [[Church Fathers]]; some survive only through an Armenian translation, and a smaller number survive in a [[Latin]] translation. The exact dates of writing and original organization plans are unknown for many of the texts attributed to Philo.<ref name=Royse>James R. Royse, with Adam Kamesar, "The Works of Philo", in Kamesar, ed. (2009).</ref>

===Commentaries on the Pentateuch===
Most of Philo's surviving work deals with the [[Torah]] (the first five books of the [[Bible]]). Within this corpus are three categories:<ref name=Royse />
* ''Quaestiones'' ("[[wikt:quaestiones|Inquiries]]") – short verse-by-verse exposition: four books on the [[Book of Genesis]] and two on the [[Book of Exodus]]. All six books are preserved through an Armenian translation published by [[Jean-Baptiste Aucher]] in 1826. A comparison with surviving Greek and Latin fragments recommends the translation as literal and accurate as it goes, but it suggests that some original content is missing. There are thought to be twelve original books, six of which are about Genesis and six of which are about Exodus.
* ''Allegorical Commentary'' – a longer exegesis explaining esoteric meanings; the surviving text deals only with the Book of Genesis, with the notable omission of [[Genesis creation narrative|Genesis 1]].
* "Exposition of the Law" – a more straightforward synthesis of topics in the Pentateuch, probably written for Gentiles as well as Jews.

Philo's commentary on the Pentateuch is usually classified into three genres.

==== Quaestiones ====
The ''Quaestiones'' explain the Pentateuch catechetically, in the form of questions and answers ("Zητήματα καὶ Λύσεις, Quæstiones et Solutiones"). Only the following fragments have been preserved: abundant passages in Armenian – possibly the complete work – in explanation of Genesis and Exodus, an old Latin translation of a part of the "Genesis", and fragments from the Greek text in [[Eusebius]], in the "Sacra Parallela", in the "Catena", and also in [[Ambrosius]]. The explanation is confined chiefly to determining the literal sense, although Philo frequently refers to the allegorical sense as the higher.

==== Allegorical commentary of the Torah ====
Νόμων Ἱερῶν Ἀλληγορίαι, or "Legum Allegoriæ", deals, so far as it has been preserved, with selected passages from [[The Book of Genesis|Genesis]]. According to Philo's original idea, the history of primal humanity is here considered a symbol of the religious and moral development of the human soul. This commentary included the following treatises:
#"Legum allegoriae", books i.–iii., on Gen. ii. 1–iii. 1a, 8b–19 (on the original extent and contents of these three books and the probably more correct combination of i. and ii.)<ref>Schürer,  ''Geschichte'' iii. 503</ref>
#"De [[cherubim]]", on Gen. iii. 24, iv. 1;
#"De sacrificiis [[Cain and Abel|Abelis et Caini]]", on Gen. iv. 2–4;<ref>comp. Schürer, ''Geschichte'' iii. p.&nbsp;504</ref>
#"De eo quod deterius potiori insidiatur";
#"De [[Cainites|posteritate Caini]]", on Gen. iv. 16-25<ref>see [[Leopold Cohn (Author)|Cohn]] and [[Paul Wendland|Wendland]], "Philonis Alexandrini", etc., ii., pp. xviii. et seq., 1-41; "Philologus", lvii. 248-288);</ref>
#"De [[Nephilim|gigantibus]]", on Gen. vi. 1–4;
#"Quod Deus sit immutabilis", on Gen. vi. 4–12<ref>Schürer, ''Geschichte'' iii. p.&nbsp;506] correctly combines Nos. 6 and 7 into one book; Massebieau, ''Classement'', adds after No. 7 the lost books Περὶ Διαθηκῶν); ("Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes", p.&nbsp;23, note 2, Paris, 1889)</ref>
#"De Agricultura [[Noah|Noë]]", on Gen. ix. 20;<ref>Von Arnim, "Quellenstudien zu Philo von Alexandria", 1899, pp.&nbsp;101–140)</ref>
#"De Plantatione", on Gen. ix. 20b;<ref>Albert Geljon and David Runia, "Philo of Alexandria On Planting: Introduction, Translation, and Commentary", 2019, p.&nbsp;2</ref>
#"De [[Drunkenness|Ebrietate]]", on Gen. ix. 21<ref>on the lost second book see Schürer, l.c. p.&nbsp;507, and Von Arnim, l.c. pp.&nbsp;53–100)</ref>
#"Resipuit; Noë, seu De [[sobriety|Sobrietate]]", on Gen. ix. 24–27;
#"De [[Tower of Babel|Confusione Linguarum]]", on Gen. xi. 1–9;
#"De Migratione [[Abraham|Abrahami]]", on Gen. xii. 1–6;
#"Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit", on Gen. xv. 2–18;<ref>(on the work Περὶ Μισθῶν cited in this treatise see Massebieau, l.c. pp.&nbsp;27 et seq., note 3)</ref>
#"De Congressu Quærendæ Eruditionis Gratia", on Gen. xvi. 1–6;
#"De Profugis",<ref>This is often referred to nowadays as "De Fuga et Inventione".</ref> on Gen. xvi. 6–14;
#"De Mutatione Nominum", on Gen. xvii, 1–22;<ref>on the fragment "De Deo", which contains a commentary on Gen. xviii. 2, see Massebieau, l.c. p.&nbsp;29;</ref>
#"De Somniis", book i., on Gen. xxviii. 12 et seq., xxxi. 11 et seq. ([[Jacob's ladder|Jacob's dreams]]); "De Somniis", book ii., on [[Joseph (Genesis)#Joseph in prison|Gen. xxxvii. 40 et seq.]] (the dreams of Joseph, of the cupbearer, the baker, and Pharaoh). Philo's three other books on dreams have been lost. The first of these (on the dreams of [[Abimelech]] and [[Laban (Bible)|Laban]]) preceded the present book i., and discussed the dreams in which God Himself spoke with the dreamers, this fitting in very well with Gen. xx. 3.<ref>On a doxographic source used by Philo in book i., § 4 [i. 623], see Wendland in "Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Akademie". 1897. No. xlix. 1–6.</ref>

==== Exposition of the Law ====
{{seealso|Moses in rabbinic literature}}
Philo wrote a systematic work on [[Moses]] and his laws, which is usually prefaced by the treatise "[[De Opificio Mundi]]". The Creation is, according to Philo, the basis for the [[Halakha|Mosaic]] legislation, which is in complete harmony with nature ("De Opificio Mundi", § 1 [i. 1]). The exposition of the Law then follows in two sections. First come the biographies of the men who antedated the several written laws of the Torah, as [[Enos (biblical figure)|Enos]], [[Enoch (ancestor of Noah)|Enoch]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]], and [[Jacob]]. These were the Patriarchs, who were the living impersonations of the active law of virtue before there were any written laws.

Then, the laws are discussed in detail: first, the chief ten commandments (the Decalogue), and then the precepts in amplification of each law. The work is divided into the following treatises: 
#"De Opificio Mundi" (comp. Siegfried in "Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Theologie", 1874, pp.&nbsp;562–565; L Cohn's important separate edition of this treatise, Breslau, 1889, preceded the edition of the same in "Philonis Alexandrini", etc., 1896, i.).
#"De Abrahamo", on Abraham, the representative of the virtue acquired by learning. The lives of Isaac and Jacob have been lost. The three patriarchs were intended as types of the ideal cosmopolitan condition of the world.
#"De Josepho", the life of Joseph, intended to show how the wise man must act in the actually existing state.
#"De Vita Mosis", books i.-iii.; Schürer, l.c. p.&nbsp;523, combines the three books into two; but, as Massebieau shows (l.c. pp.&nbsp;42 et seq.), a passage, though hardly an entire book, is missing at the end of the present second book (Wendland, in "Hermes", xxxi. 440). Schürer (l.c. pp.&nbsp;515, 524) excludes this work here, although he admits that from a literary point of view, it fits into this group, but he considers it foreign to the work in general, since Moses, unlike the Patriarchs, can not be conceived as a universally valid type of moral action, and can not be described as such. The latter point may be admitted. However, the question remains whether it is necessary to consider the matter in this light. It seems most natural to preface the discussion of the law with the biography of the legislator. In contrast, the transition from Joseph to the legislation, from the statesman who has nothing to do with the divine laws to the discussion of these laws themselves, is forced and abrupt. As the perfect man, Moses unites in himself, in a way, all the faculties of the patriarchal types. His is the "most pure mind" ("De Mutatione Nominum", 37 [i. 610]), he is the "lover of virtue", who has been purified from all passions ("De Allegoriis Legum", iii. 45, 48 [i. 113, 115]). As the person awaiting the divine revelation, he is also specially fitted to announce it to others after receiving it in the form of the Commandments (ib. iii. 4 [i. 89 et seq.]).
#"De Decalogo", the introductory treatise to the chief ten commandments of the Law.
#"De Specialibus Legibus", in which treatise Philo attempts to systematize the several laws of the Torah and to arrange them in conformity with the Ten Commandments. To the first and second commandments he adds the laws relating to priests and sacrifices; to the third (misuse of the name of God), the laws on oaths, vows, etc.; to the fourth (on the Sabbath), the laws on festivals; to the fifth (to honor father and mother), the laws on respect for parents, old age, etc.; to the sixth, the marriage laws; to the seventh, the civil and criminal laws; to the eighth, the laws on theft; to the ninth, the laws on truthful testifying; and to the tenth, the laws on lust.<ref>Compare [[Bernhard Stade]]-[[Oskar Holtzmann]], ''Geschichte des Volkes Israel'', 1888, ii. 535-545; on Philo as influenced by the Halakah, see B Ritter, "Philo und die Halacha", Leipsic, 1879, and Siegfried's review of the same in the "Jenaer Literaturzeitung", 1879, No. 35.</ref> The first book includes the following treatises of the current editions: "De Circumcisione"; "De Monarchia", books i. and ii.; "De Sacerdotum Honoribus"; "De Victimis". On the division of the book into these sections, the titles of the latter, and newly found sections of the text, see Schürer, l.c. p.&nbsp;517; Wendland, l.c. pp.&nbsp;136 et seq. The second book includes in the editions a section also entitled "De Specialibus Legibus" (ii. 270–277), to which is added the treatise "De Septenario", which is, however, incomplete in [[Thomas Mangey|Mangey]]. The greater part of the missing portion was supplied under the title "De Cophini Festo et de Colendis Parentibus" by Mai (1818) and was printed in Richter's edition, v. 48–50, Leipsic, 1828. The complete text of the second book was published by [[Lobegott Friedrich Konstantin von Tischendorf|Tischendorf]] in his "Philonea" (pp.&nbsp;1–83). The third book is included under the title "De Specialibus Legibus" in ed. Mangey, ii. 299–334. The fourth book also is entitled "De Specialibus Legibus"; to it, the last sections are added under the titles "De Judice" and "De Concupiscentia" in the usual editions, and they include, also, as an appendix, the sections "De Justitia" and "De Creatione Principum". 
#The treatises "De Fortitudine", "De Caritate", and "De Pœnitentia" are a kind of appendix to "De Specialibus Legibus".<ref>Schürer, ''Geschichte'' pp.&nbsp;519 [note 82], 520-522</ref> combines them into a special book, which, he thinks, was composed by Philo.
#"De Præmiis et Pœnis" and "De Execratione". On the connection of both <ref>Schürer, ''Geschichte''pp.&nbsp;522 et seq.</ref> This is the conclusion of the exposition of the Mosaic law.

This exposition is more exoteric than allegorical and might have been intended for [[gentile]] audiences.<ref name="Royse"/>

=== Independent works ===
Philo is also credited with writing:<ref name=Royse />
* [[Apologetics|Apologies]] for Judaism, including ''On the Life of Moses'', ''On the Jews'', and ''On the Contemplative Life''.
* Historical works (describing current events in Alexandria and the Roman Empire), including ''Ad Flaccum'' and ''De legatione ad Gaium''
* Philosophical works including ''Every Good Man Is Free'', ''On the Eternity of the World'', ''On Animals'', and ''On Providence'', the latter two surviving only through Armenian translation.
* Works now lost, but mentioned by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm|title=CHURCH FATHERS: Church History, Book II (Eusebius)|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref>

#"On Providence", preserved only in Armenian, and printed from Aucher's Latin translation in the editions of Richter and others (on Greek fragments of the work see Schürer, l.c. pp.&nbsp;531 et seq.).
#"De Animalibus" (on the title, see Schürer, l.c. p.&nbsp;532; in Richter's ed. viii. 101–144).
#ϓποθετικά ("Counsels"), a work known only through fragments in Eusebius, ''[[Præparatio Evangelica]]'', viii. 6, 7. The meaning of the title is open to discussion; it may be identical with the following
#Περὶ Ἰουδαίων an apology for the Jews (Schürer, l.c. pp.&nbsp;532 et seq.).

==== That all good men are free ====
This is the second half of a work on the freedom of the just according to [[stoicism|Stoic]] principles. The genuineness of this work has been disputed by [[Zecharias Frankel|Frankel]] (in "Monatsschrift", ii. 30 et seq., 61 et seq.), by [[Heinrich Grätz|Grätz]] ("Gesch." iii. 464 et seq.), and more recently by [[Ansfeld]] (1887), [[Hilgenfeld]] (in "Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Theologie", 1888, pp.&nbsp;49–71), and others. Now [[Paul Wendland|Wendland]], [[Ohle]], [[Emil Schürer|Schürer]], [[Massebieau]], and [[Emil Krell|Krell]] consider it genuine, except the partly interpolated passages on the Essenes.

==== ''Embassy to Gaius'' ====
{{See also|Alexandrian riots (38)}}
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles f 097r 3.png|thumb|right|220px|Woodcut from ''Die [[Hartmann Schedel|Schedelsche]] Weltchronik'' ([[Nuremberg Chronicle]])]]
In {{lang|la|Legatio ad Gaium}} (''Embassy to Gaius''), Philo describes his diplomatic mission to [[Caligula|Gaius Caligula]], one of the few events in his life which is explicitly known. He relates that he was carrying a petition describing the sufferings of the Alexandrian Jews and asking the emperor to secure their rights. 

==== ''Against Flaccus'' ====
In ''Against Flaccus'', Philo describes the situation of the Jews in Egypt, writing that they numbered not less than a million and inhabited two of the five districts in Alexandria. He recounts the abuses of the prefect [[Aulus Avilius Flaccus]], who he says retaliated against the Jews when they refused to worship Caligula as a god.<ref>''Flaccus'', Chapters 6–9 (43, 53–56, 62, 66, 68, 71–72), Yonge's translation (online)</ref> Daniel Schwartz surmises that given this tense background, it may have been politically convenient for Philo to favor abstract monotheism instead of overt pro-Judeanism.<ref name=Schwartz/>

Philo considers Caligula's plan to erect a statue of himself in the [[Second Temple]] to be a provocation, asking, "Are you making war upon us, because you anticipate that we will not endure such indignity, but that we will fight on behalf of our laws, and die in defence of our national customs? For you cannot possibly have been ignorant of what was likely to result from your attempt to introduce these innovations respecting our temple." In his entire presentation, he implicitly supports the Jewish commitment to rebel against the emperor rather than allow such sacrilege to take place.<ref name=EtG>''Embassy to Gaius'', Chapter 28-31, Yonge's translation (online)</ref>

This account, consisting initially of five books, has been preserved in fragments only (see Schürer, l.c. pp.&nbsp;525 et seq.).<ref>See also commentary by Pieter W. van der Horst, 'Philo's Flaccus: The First Pogrom. Introduction, Translation, and Commentary' 2005</ref> Philo intended to show the fearful punishment meted out by God to the persecutors of the Jews (on Philo's predilection for similar discussions see Siegfried, "Philo von Alexandria", p.&nbsp;157). Philo says he was regarded by his people as having unusual prudence due to his age, education, and knowledge. This indicates that he was already an older man at this time (40 CE).<ref name=EtG/>

==== ''On the Contemplative Life'' ====
This work<ref>regarding other titles see Schürer, ''Geschichte'', p.&nbsp;535.</ref> describes the mode of life and the religious festivals of a society of Jewish ascetics, who, according to the author, are widely scattered over the earth and are found predominantly in every [[Nome (Egypt)|nome]] in [[Egypt]]. The writer, however, confines himself to describing the [[Therapeutae]], a colony of hermits settled on [[Lake Mareotis]] in Egypt, where each lives separately in his own dwelling. Six days of the week they spend in pious contemplation, chiefly in connection with Scripture. On the seventh day, both men and women assemble together in a hall, and the leader delivers a discourse consisting of an allegorical interpretation of a scriptural passage. The feast of the fiftieth day is the most celebrated. The ceremony begins with a frugal meal consisting of bread, salted vegetables, and water, during which a passage of Scripture is interpreted. After the meal, the members of the society, in turn, sing religious songs of various kinds, to which the assembly answers with a refrain. The ceremony ends with a choral representation of the triumphal festival Moses and Miriam arranged after the passage through the [[Red Sea]], the voices of the men and the women uniting in a choral symphony until the sun rises. After a common morning prayer, each goes home to resume contemplation. Such is the contemplative life (βίος θεωρητικός) led by these Θεραπευταί ("servants of Yhwh").

The ancient Christian Church regarded these ''[[Therapeutæ]]'' as disguised Christian monks. This view has found advocates even recently [[P. E. Lucius]]'s opinion, particularly that the Christian monastery of the third century was here glorified in a Jewish disguise, was widely accepted ("Die Therapeuten", 1879).

[[Massebieau]] ("Revue de l'Histoire des Religions", 1887, xvi. 170 et seq., 284 et seq.), [[F. C. Conybeare|Conybeare]] ("Philo About the Contemplative Life", Oxford, 1895), and [[Paul Wendland|Wendland]] ("Die Therapeuten", etc., Leipsig, 1896) ascribe the entire work to Philo, basing their argument wholly on linguistic reasons, which seem sufficiently conclusive. However, there are significant dissimilarities between the fundamental conceptions of the author of the "De Vita Contemplativa" and those of Philo. The latter looks upon Greek culture and philosophy as allies, and the former is hostile to Greek philosophy (see Siegfried in "Protestantische Kirchenzeitung", 1896, No.42). He repudiates a science that numbered among Its followers the sacred band of the [[Pythagoreans]], inspired men like [[Parmenides]], [[Empedocles]], [[Zeno of Elea|Zeno]], [[Cleanthes]], [[Heraclitus]], and [[Plato]], whom Philo prized ("Quod Omnis Probus", i., ii.; "Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit", 43; "De Providentia", ii. 42, 48, etc.). He considers the [[symposium]] a detestable, common drinking bout. This can not be explained as a Stoic diatribe, for Philo would not have repeated it in this case. And Philo would have been the last to interpret the Platonic [[Eros]] in the vulgar way in which it is explained in the "De Vita Contemplativa", 7 (ii. 480), as he repeatedly uses the myth of double man allegorically in his interpretation of Scripture ("[[De Opificio Mundi]]", 24; "De Allegoriis Legum", ii. 24). It must furthermore be remembered that Philo in none of his other works mentions these colonies of allegorizing ascetics, in which he would have been highly interested had he known of them. However, pupils of Philo may subsequently have founded similar colonies near Alexandria that endeavored to realize his ideal of a pure life triumphing over the senses and passions, and they might also have been responsible for the one-sided development of certain of the master's principles. While Philo desired to renounce the lusts of this world, he held fast to the scientific culture of Hellenism, which the author of this book denounces. Although Philo liked to withdraw from the world to give himself up entirely to contemplation and bitterly regretted the lack of such repose ("De Specialibus Legibus", 1 [ii. 299]), he did not abandon the work that was required of him by the welfare of his people.

===Other works ascribed to Philo===
{{seealso|Pseudo-Philo}}
*"De Mundo", a collection of extracts from Philo, especially from the preceding work<ref>comp. Wendland, "Philo", ii., pp. vi.-x.).</ref>
*"De Sampsone" and "De Jona", in Armenian, published with Latin translation by [[Jean-Baptiste Aucher]].
*"Interpretatio Hebraicorum Nominum", a collection, by an anonymous Jew, of the Hebrew names occurring in Philo. [[Origen]] enlarged it by adding New Testament names, and [[Jerome]] revised it. See below for the etymology of names occurring in Philo's exegetical works.<ref>Further down in the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' article.</ref>
*A "Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum", which was printed in the sixteenth century and then disappeared, has been discussed by Cohn in "J. Q. R." 1898, x. 277–332. It narrates Biblical history from Adam to Saul<ref>see Schürer, ''Geschichte'' iii., p.&nbsp;542.</ref>
*The pseudo-Philonic "Breviarium Temporum", published by [[Annius of Viterbo]]<ref>Schürer, ''Geschichte'' iii. note 168).</ref>
For a list of Philo's lost works, see Schürer, l.c. p.&nbsp;534.
*"De Incorruptibilitate Mundi". [[Jakob Bernays]] has argued convincingly that this work is spurious. Its [[wikt:peripatetic|peripatetic]] basic idea that the world is eternal and indestructible contradicts all those Jewish teachings that were, for Philo, an indisputable presupposition. Bernays has proved simultaneously that the text has been confused through wrong pagination, and he has cleverly restored it.<ref>"Gesammelte Abhandlungen", 1885, i. 283-290; "Abhandlung der Berliner Akademie", 1876, Philosophical-Historical Division, pp.&nbsp;209–278; ib. 1882, sect. iii. 82; Von Arnim, l.c. pp.&nbsp;1–52</ref>

== Legacy ==
Although Philo was a Jewish Middle Platonist, his influence on both Platonism and Judaism was limited compared to his adaptation by the early Christian Church fathers. His impact on Platonism was mainly restricted to Christian Middle Platonists such as [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Origen]], and even potential connections to [[Numenius of Apamea]], a 2nd-century CE Middle Platonist who also wrote on Judaism and was influenced by [[Pythagoreanism]], cannot be definitively proven.{{sfn|Dillon|1996|p=144}}

=== Judaism ===
Though never properly attributed, Philo's marriage of [[Jewish exegesis]] with [[Stoicism]] and [[Platonism]] provided a formula later picked up by other [[Midrash]] content from the 3rd and 4th centuries. Philo's ideas were further developed by later Judaism in the doctrines of the [[Voice of God|Divine Word]] creating the world, the divine throne-chariot and its cherub, the divine splendor and its [[Shekhinah]], the name of God, as well as the names of the angels.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marmorstein |first=A. |date=1920 |title=The Old Rabbinic Doctrine of God, Two Volumes: I. The Names and Attributes of God and II, Essays in Anthropomorphism  |location=New York |publisher=JQR |pages=41–45 and 295–306}}</ref>

Some claimed this lack of credit or affinity for Philo by the Rabbinic leadership at the time was due to his adoption of [[Allegorical interpretation of the Bible|allegorical]] instead of [[Biblical literalism|literal interpretations]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. However, this was more likely due to his criticism of Rabbinic scholars,<ref>{{cite journal |author=N. A. Dahl and Alan F. Segal |date=1978 |title=Philo and the Rabbis on the Names of God |journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1163/157006378X00012 |jstor=24656850}}</ref> as Philo argued their works and ideas were "full of Sybaritic profligacy and licentiousness to their everlasting shame",<ref>''De Vita Mosis, I'', I.1</ref> "eager to give a specious appearance to infamous actions, so as to secure notoriety for disgraceful deeds",<ref>''De Vita Mosis, I'', I.3</ref> and ultimately, that he "disregards the envious disposition of such men, and shall proceed to narrate the true events of Moses' life," of which he felt were unjustly hidden.<ref>''De Vita Mosis, I'', I.4</ref>

For a long time, Philo was read and analyzed chiefly by Christian authors. [[Azariah dei Rossi]]'s ''Me'or Enayim: Imre Binah'' (1575), one of the first Jewish commentaries on Philo, describes four "serious defects" of Philo: reading the Torah in Greek, not Hebrew; belief in primordial matter rather than {{lang|la|[[creatio ex nihilo]]}}; unbelief in the Lord as evidenced by excessively allegorical interpretation of scripture; and neglect of the [[Oral Torah|Jewish oral tradition]]. Dei Rossi later gives a possible defense of Philo and writes that he can neither absolve nor convict him.<ref>Naomi G. Cohen, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/23263764 Philo Judaeus and the True Torah Library]"; ''Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought'' 41(3), Fall 2008.</ref>

== List of extant works ==
Some 50 works by Philo have survived, and he is known to have written some 20 to 25 further works which have been lost.
The following list gives conventional Latin and English titles and abbreviations commonly used in reference works.

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|-
!Latin title!!  English title || RGG<ref>''Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart '' (1909ff., 4th ed. 1998 ff.)</ref> || Kittel<ref>Kittel, ''Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament''</ref> || Stud. Philonica<ref>Studia Philonica Annual, ISSN: 1052-4533 (1989 ff.)</ref>
|-
| Apologia pro Judaeis ||  [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book37.html Hypothetica: Apology for the Jews] || apol. ||? || Hypoth.
|-
| De Abrahamo ||  [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book22.html On Abraham] || Abr. || Abr || Abr.
|-
| De aeternitate mundi || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book35.html On the Eternity of the World] || aet. || Aet Mund || Aet.
|-
| De agricultura  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book11.html On Husbandry] || agr. || Agric || Agr.
|-
| De animalibus  || On Animals || anim. ||? ||Anim.
|-
| De Cherubim  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book5.html On the Cherubim] || Cher. || Cher || Cher.
|-
| De confusione linguarum  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book15.html On the Confusion of Tongues] || conf. || Conf Ling || Conf.
|-
| De congressu eruditionis gratia   ||[http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book18.html On Mating with the Preliminary Studies] || congr. || Congr || Congr.
|-
| De decalogo  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book26.html The Decalogue] || decal. || Decal || Decal.
|-
| De ebrietate  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book13.html On Drunkenness] || ebr. || Ebr || Ebr.
|-
| De fuga et inventione   || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book19.html On Flight and Finding] ||? || Fug || Fug.
|-
| De gigantibus || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book9.html On the Giants] || gig. || Gig || Gig.
|-
| De Josepho  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book23.html On Joseph] || Jos. || Jos || Ios.
|-
| De migratione Abrahami  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book16.html On the Migration of Abraham] || migr. || Migr Abr || Migr.
|-
| De mutatione nominum  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book20.html On the Change of Names] || mut. || Mut Nom || Mut.
|-
| De opificio mundi || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book1.html On the creation] || opif. || Op Mund || Opif.
|-
| De plantatione  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book12.html Concerning Noah's Work as a Planter] || plant. || Plant || Plant.
|-
| De posteritate Caini || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book8.html On the Posterity of Cain and His Exile] || post. || Poster C || Post.
|-
| De praemiis et poenis  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book32.html On Rewards and Punishments] || praem. || Praem Poen || Praem.
|-
| De providentia  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book38.html On Providence I] [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book39.html II] || prov. ||? || Prov.
|-
| De sacrificiis Abelis et Caini || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book6.html On the Birth of Abel] || sacr. || Sacr AC || Sacr.
|-
| De sobrietate   || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book14.html On Sobriety] || sobr. || Sobr || Sobr.
|-
| De somniis  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book21.html On Dreams I-II] || somn. || Som || Somn.
|-
| De specialibus legibus  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book27.html The Special Laws I] [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book28.html II] [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book29.html III] [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book30.html IV] || spec. || Spec Leg || Spec.
|-
| De virtutibus  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book31.html On the Virtues] ||  virt. || Virt || Virt.
|-
| De vita contemplativa   || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book34.html On the Contemplative Life] || cont. || Vit Cont || Contempl.
|-
| De vita Mosis   || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book24.html On the Life of Moses I] [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book25.html II] || Mos. || Vit Mos || Mos.
|-
| In Flaccum  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book36.html Flaccus] || Flacc. || Flacc || Flacc.
|-
| Legatio ad Gajum || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book40.html On the Embassy to Gaius] || legat. || Leg Gaj || Legat.
|-
| Legum allegoriae   || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book2.html Allegorical Interpretation I] [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book3.html II] [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book4.html III] || LA || Leg All || Leg.
|-
| Quaestiones in Exodum  ||Questions and Answers on Exodus || QE || Quaest in Ex || QE
|-
| Quaestiones in Genesim   || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book41.html Questions and Answers on Genesis I] [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book42.html II] [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book43.html III] || QG || Quaest in Gn || QG
|-
| Quis rerum divinarum heres sit   || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book17.html Who is the Heir of Divine Things] || her. || Rer Div Her || Her.
|-
| Quod deterius potiori insidiari soleat  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book7.html Worse is Wont to Attack Better] || det. || Det Pot Ins || Det.
|-
| Quod Deus sit immutabilis  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book10.html On the Unchangeableness of God] || Deus || Deus Imm || Deus
|-
| Quod omnis probus liber sit  || [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book33.html Every Good Man is Free] || prob. || Omn Prob Lib || Prob.
|}

== Editions and translations ==
* {{cite book | others=Translated by [[Charles Duke Yonge]] | url=http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/philo.html | title=The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged | year=1854–1855 }}
* [[Leopold Cohn (author)|Cohn, Leopold]] & [[Paul Wendland]], ''Philonis Alexandrini Opera quæ supersunt'' (The Surviving Works of Philo of Alexandria) [Greek and Latin]. Berlin: George Reimer.
** [https://archive.org/details/philonisalexandr0103philuoft Volumes 1–3] (1896, 1897, 1898)
** [https://archive.org/details/philonisalexandr0406philuoft Volumes 4–6] (1902, 1906, 1915)
** [https://archive.org/details/p1philonisalexan07philuoft Volume 7] (1926; indexed by Hans Leisegang)
* {{cite web | url=https://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/50_10_10-_De_Philosophia.html | format=PDF | title=Index of Philosophical Writings | work=Documenta Catholica Omnia | language=el}} [Online Greek text of Volumes 1-7 above. Under "Graecum - Greco - Greek" section]
* {{cite book |title=Philo of Alexandria: An Exegete for His Time |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_AGsQqjlJgQC |others=by Peder Borgen |publisher=Brill |place=Leiden |year=1997 |isbn = 9004103880}}
* {{cite book |title=Philo with an English Translation |others=Translated by F.H. Colson & G.H. Whitaker |volume=1-10 |publisher=Harvard University Press |place=Cambridge, Mass. |year=1929–62}}
* {{cite book |title=Philonis Alexandrini de animalibus: The Armenian Text with an Introduction, Translation, and Commentary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1EG4AAAAIAAJ |year=1981 |editor=Terian, Abraham |place=Chico, CA |publisher=Scholars Press |isbn=9780891304722 }}

== See also ==
* [[Land of Onias]]
* [[Cairo Geniza]]
* [[Elephantine papyri and ostraca]]

== Notes ==
=== Explanatory notes ===
{{notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite book |last1=Dillon |first1=John M. |title=The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220 |date=1996 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-8316-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aJQ9dvgh6BwC |access-date=23 June 2023 |language=en}}
* Kamesar, Adam, ed. (2009). ''The Cambridge Companion to Philo''. Cambridge University Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-521-86090-1}}
* {{cite EB1911 | wstitle=Philo (philosopher) |first1=Emil |last1=Schürer |first2=Charles |last2=Bigg |display=Philo}}
* {{Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Philo Judæus |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12116-philo-judaeus |author1=Crawford Howell Toy |authorlink1=Crawford Howell Toy |author2=Carl Siegfried |authorlink2=Carl Siegfried |author3=Jacob Zallel Lauterbach |authorlink3 = Jacob Zallel Lauterbach |volume=10 |page=11–13}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_AGsQqjlJgQC |title=Philo of Alexandria: An Exegete for His Time |first=Peder |last=Borgen |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=1997 |isbn=9789004103887}}
* {{CathEncy|wstitle= Philo Judæus |volume= 12 |last= Bréhier |first= Émile |author-link= Émile Bréhier |short=1 }}
* [[Erwin R. Goodenough|Goodenough, Erwin R.]] (1938). ''The Politics of Philo Judaeus: Practice and Theory''. With a "General Bibliography of Philo" by [[Howard L. Goodhart]] and Erwin R. Goodenough. Yale University Press.
* {{cite IEP |url-id=philo |title=Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 B.C.E.—40 C.E.) |first=Marian |last=Hillar |date=April 21, 2005}}
* {{cite book |author=Hillar, Marian |year=2012 |title=From Logos to Trinity: The Evolution of Religious Beliefs from Pythagoras to Tertullian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sq0BLd1HbUwC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107013308 |place=New York}}
* {{cite SEP|url-id=philo |title=Philo of Alexandria |first=Carlos |last=Lévy |date=February 6, 2018}}
* [[Louis Massebieau|Massebieau, Louis]]. ''[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015026455751 Le classement des oeuvres de Philon]''. Extrait du tome I de la Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études, Section des Sceicne religieuses. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1889.
* {{cite journal |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.530617/2015.530617.revue-de#page/n31/mode/2up | title="Essai sur la Chronologie de la Vie et des Œuvres de Philon" | author = [[Louis Massebieau]] | author2 = [[Émile Bréhier]] | journal = Revue de l'Histoire des Religions |editor = Jean Réville |volume=53 |year=1906 |pages= 25–64}} 
* [[Sarah Pearce|Pearce, Sarah]] (2007) ''The Land of the Body: Studies in Philo's Representation of Egypt'' Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck. {{ISBN|978-3-16-149250-1}}
* Runia, David T. (1986). ''Philo of Alexandria and the Timaeus of Plato''. Philosophia antiqua, 44. Brill, Leiden.
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nsjWAAAAMAAJ |title=Exegesis and Philosophy: Studies on Philo of Alexandria | author=Runia, D. T. |year=1990 |isbn=9780860782872|publisher=Variorum}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPvsph6TNYAC&q=editions%3AISBN9023227131 |title=Philo in Early Christian Literature: A Survey |isbn=9789023227137 |author=Runia, D. T. |year=1993 |publisher=Fortress Press |place=Minneapolis}}
* Runia, D. T. (2001). ''On the Creation of the Cosmos according to Moses''. Number 1 in Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series. Brill, Leiden.
* Sandmel, Samuel. (1979). ''Philo of Alexandria: An Introduction''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-502514-8}}.
* [[Emil Schürer|Schürer, Emil]]. ''Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi'' (1886–1890)
* {{cite book |author=Sly, Dorothy I. |year=1996 |title=Philo's Alexandria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E0DhKd-9GEUC |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415096799 |location=New York}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456612/Philo-Judaeus |title=Philo Judaeus (Jewish philosopher) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=yes|others=yes|about=yes|lcheading=Philo, of Alexandria}}
{{Sister project links |1=Philo |display=Philo |author=yes |b=no |commons=Category:Philo of Alexandria |n=no |q=Philo |s=Philo |v=no |wikt=no}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Philo of Alexandria" OR "Philo Judaeus")}}
* Lecture on [https://jewishhistorylectures.org/2013/10/10/philo-judaeus-of-alexandria-jews-in-the-greek-world/ Philo Judaeus of Alexandria: Jews in the Greek World] by [[Henry abramson|Dr. Henry Abramson]]
* {{cite web |url=https://divinity.yale.edu/philo-alexandria |title=Studia Philonica Annual |work=Society of Biblical Literature}}
* {{cite web |first=Rob |last=Bradshaw |url=https://earlychurch.org.uk/philo.php |title=Philo of Alexandria |work=EarlyChurch.org.uk}}
* {{cite web |url=https://torreys.org/bible/resource_page_3-1/ |title=Philo Resource Page 3.1 |first=Torrey |last=Seland |work=torreys.org}}
* Open source XML versions of [https://opengreekandlatin.github.io/philo-dev/ Philo's works] have been made available by the [http://www.dh.uni-leipzig.de/wo/projects/open-greek-and-latin-project/ Open Greek and Latin Project] at the University of Leipzig. English translations of Philo's writings are also available [https://opengreekandlatin.github.io/english_trans-dev/ here].{{Gutenberg|no=14657| name=Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria}}
*[http://patrologia.ct.aegean.gr/downloads/vivlia/Philo%20Judaeus/ The Works of Philo - searchable text from University of the Aegean]{{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{in lang|el}} (site currently offline)
*[http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/philo/ Works of Philo - searchable text] (in Russian)

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[[Category:Philo| ]]
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