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{{short description|German Lutheran reformer and theologian (1497–1560)}}
{{Redirect|Melanchthon|the Indian Lutheran priest|G. D. Melanchthon|other uses|Melancthon (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Oxford spelling |date=November 2017}}
{{Infobox theologian
| name               = Philip Melanchthon
| image              = Portrait of Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560), by Lucas Cranach the Elder - Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Kassel.jpg
| caption            = Portrait by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], 1543
| era                = [[Reformation]]
| birth_name         = Philipp Schwartzerdt
| birth_date         = 16 February 1497
| birth_place        = [[Bretten]], [[Electoral Palatinate]],<br> [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| death_date         = {{Death date and age|1560|04|19|1497|02|16|df=yes}}
| death_place        = [[Wittenberg]], [[Electoral Saxony]],<br> [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| language           = German
| tradition_movement = [[Lutheranism]]
| alma_mater         = {{unbulleted list | [[University of Heidelberg]] | [[University of Tübingen]]}}
| signature          = Melanchton_sig.jpg
| signature_size     = 200px
}}
{{lutheranism}}
'''Philip Melanchthon'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|l|æ|ŋ|k|θ|ən}} {{respell|mə|LANK|thən}}; {{IPA|de|ˈfɪlɪp meˈlançtɔn|o|De-melanchton-p.ogg}}; {{langx|la|Philippus Melanchthon}}.}} (born '''Philipp Schwartzerdt''';{{efn|{{IPA|de|ˈʃvaʁtsʔeːɐ̯t|o|De-schwartzerdt-p.ogg}}.}} 16 February 1497 – 19 April 1560) was a German [[Lutheran]] [[Protestant Reformers|reformer]], collaborator with [[Martin Luther]], the first systematic [[theologian]] of the [[Protestant Reformation]], an intellectual leader of the [[Lutheran Reformation]], and influential designer of educational systems.

He stands next to Luther and [[John Calvin]] as a reformer, theologian, and shaper of [[Protestantism]].{{sfn|Richard|1898|p=379}}

==Early life and education==

He was born Philipp Schwartzerdt on 16 February 1497 at [[Bretten]], where his father Georg Schwarzerdt (1459–1508) was armorer to [[Philip, Count Palatine of the Rhine]].{{sfn|Richard|1898|p=3}} His mother was Barbara Reuter (1476/77-1529). Bretten was burned in 1689 by French troops during the [[War of the Palatinate Succession]]. The town's [[Melanchthonhaus (Bretten)|Melanchthonhaus]] was built on the site of his place of birth in 1897.

In 1507 he was sent to the Latin school at [[Pforzheim]], where the rector, Georg Simler of [[Wimpfen]], introduced him to the Latin and Greek poets and to [[Aristotle]]. He was influenced by his great-uncle [[Johann Reuchlin]], a [[Renaissance humanist]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peacham |first=Henry |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctv2n7n11.14. |title=Renaissance Debates on Rhetoric |chapter=Philip Melanchthon |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2000 |location=Ithaca, NY |pages=97–110|jstor=10.7591/j.ctv2n7n11.14 |isbn=978-0-8014-3008-4 }}</ref> who suggested Philipp follow a custom common among humanists of the time and change his surname from "Schwartzerdt" (literally 'black earth'), into the Greek equivalent "Melanchthon" ({{lang|grc|Μελάγχθων}}).{{sfn|Richard|1898|p=11}}

Philipp was 11 years old in 1508 when both his grandfather (d. 17 October) and father (d. 27 October) died within eleven days of each other.{{sfn|Manschreck|2011}} He and a brother were brought to [[Pforzheim]] to live with his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth Reuter, sister of Reuchlin.{{sfnm |1a1=Löffler |1y=1911 |1p=151 |2a1=Pauck |2y=1969 |2p=4}}

The next year he entered the [[University of Heidelberg]], where he studied [[philosophy]], [[rhetoric]], [[astronomy]], and [[astrology]], and became known as a scholar of Greek thought.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wyk|first1=Van|last2=(Natie)|first2=Ignatius W. C.|year=2017|title=Philipp Melanchthon: A short introduction|journal=HTS Theological Studies|volume=73|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.4102/hts.v73i1.4672|issn=0259-9422|doi-access=free|hdl=2263/62958|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 1509, Melanchthon received his B.A. at the University of Heidelberg, and in 1512, his M.A. at Tübingen, where he would teach after obtaining his degrees. In 1518, he was called to Wittenberg at the request of his uncle to teach Greek.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rebhorn |first=Wayne A. |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctv2n7n11.14. |title=Renaissance Debates on Rhetoric |chapter=Philip Melanchthon |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2000 |pages=97–110|jstor=10.7591/j.ctv2n7n11.14 |isbn=978-0-8014-3008-4 }}</ref> While there, he was also taught the technical aspects of astrology by [[Johannes Stöffler]].{{sfn|Brosseder|2005}}

After gaining a master's degree in 1512, he began to study theology at Tübingen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wagener |first=A. Pelzer |date=1929 |title=Melanchthon: A German Humanist |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4389299 |journal=The Classical Weekly |language=en |volume=22 |issue=20 |pages=155–160 |doi=10.2307/4389299|jstor=4389299 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Under the influence of Reuchlin, [[Erasmus]], and others, he became convinced that true Christianity was something different from the [[scholastic theology]] taught at the university. In 1519, he received a B.D. and quickly began collaborating with Martin Luther on a translation of the Bible.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rebhorn |first=Wayne A. |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctv2n7n11.14. |title=Renaissance Debates on Rhetoric |chapter=Philip Melanchthon |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2000|pages=97–110 |jstor=10.7591/j.ctv2n7n11.14 |isbn=978-0-8014-3008-4 }}</ref> 

His first publications included a number of poems in a collection edited by [[Jakob Wimpfeling]] ({{circa|1511}}),{{sfn|Rupp|1996}} the preface to Reuchlin's ''{{lang|la|Epistolae clarorum virorum}}'' (1514), an edition of [[Terence]] (1516), and a book of Greek grammar (1518).

==Professor at Wittenberg==
[[File:Luther-melanch-kreuzkirche-bretten.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Melanchthon and [[Martin Luther|Luther]] with Christ crucified in the middle]]
Already recognized as a reformer, he was opposed at Tübingen. He accepted a call to the [[Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg|University of Wittenberg]] from Martin Luther on the recommendation of his great-uncle, and became professor of Greek there in 1518 at the age of 21.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvzcz4b8 |title=Most Certainly True: Lutheran History at a Glance - 75 Stories About Lutherans Since 1517 |date=2020-03-01 |publisher=1517 Media |isbn=978-1-942304-69-2 |editor-last=Granquist |editor-first=Mark |doi=10.2307/j.ctvzcz4b8.7|jstor=j.ctvzcz4b8 }}</ref>{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} He studied the [[Bible|Scriptures]], especially of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], and [[Protestant Reformation|evangelical]] doctrine. He attended the [[disputation of Leipzig]] (1519) as a spectator, but participated with his own comments. After his views were attacked by [[Johann Eck]], he replied based on the authority of Scripture in his ''Defensio contra Johannem Eckium'' (Wittenberg, 1519).

Following lectures on the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Epistle to the Romans]], together with his investigations into Pauline doctrine, he was granted the degree of [[bachelor of theology]], and transferred to the theological faculty.{{sfn|Richard|1898|pp=57–58}} He married [[Katharina Krapp]] (Katharina Melanchthon), (1497–1557) daughter of Wittenberg's [[mayor]], on 25 November 1520.{{sfnm |1a1=Lohrmann |1y=2012 |1p=432 |2a1=Manschreck |2y=2011 |3a1=Schofield |3y=2006 |3p=20}} They had four children: [[:de:Anna Melanchthon|Anna]], Philipp, Georg, and Magdalen.{{sfn|Manschreck|2011}}

==Theological disputes==
[[File:Loci-communes.jpg|thumb|''[[Loci Communes]]'', 1552 edition]]
In the beginning of 1521, Melanchthon defended Luther in his ''Didymi Faventini versus Thomam Placentinum pro M. Luthero oratio'' (Wittenberg, n.d.). He argued that Luther rejected only [[Pope|papal]] and [[ecclesiastic]]al practises which were at variance with Scripture.{{sfn|Richard|1898|p=71}} But while Luther was absent at [[Wartburg Castle]], during the disturbances caused by the [[Zwickau prophets]], Melanchthon wavered.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=Carter |title=The European reformations |date=2021 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-64081-3 |edition=3rd |location=Chichester, United Kingdom Hoboken, New Jersey |pages=86–87}}</ref>

The appearance of Melanchthon's ''[[Loci Communes|Loci communes rerum theologicarum seu hypotyposes theologicae]]'' (Wittenberg and [[Basel]], 1521) was of subsequent importance to the Reformation. Melanchthon discussed the "leading thoughts" of Paul's [[Epistle to the Romans|Letter to the Romans]] and used this platform to present a new doctrine of Christianity; one where faith in God was more important than good deeds. ''Loci communes'' contributed to the gradual rise of the [[Lutheran scholasticism|Lutheran scholastic]] tradition, and the later theologians [[Martin Chemnitz]],{{efn|For an example of this from Chemnitz, see {{harvnb|Chemnitz|2004}}, which is excerpted from his ''Loci Theologici''.}} [[Mathias Haffenreffer]], and [[Leonhard Hutter]] expanded upon it.{{sfn|Jacobs|1899}} Melanchthon continued to lecture on the classics.

On a journey in 1524 to his native town, he encountered the [[papal legate]], [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] [[Lorenzo Campeggio]], who tried to draw him from Luther's cause.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.vr-elibrary.de/doi/10.13109/9783666550478.79|title=Philip Melanchthon's Last Word to Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio, Papal Legate at the 1530 Diet of Augsburg|first=Timothy J.|last=Wengert|date=24 October 2012|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|pages=79–103|via=CrossRef|doi=10.13109/9783666550478.79|isbn=978-3-525-55047-2 }}</ref> In his ''Unterricht der Visitatorn an die Pfarherrn im Kurfürstentum zu Sachssen'' (1528) Melanchthon presented the evangelical doctrine of salvation as well as regulations for churches and schools.

In 1529, Melanchthon accompanied the [[prince-elector|elector]] to the [[Second Diet of Speyer|Diet of Speyer]]. His hopes of persuading the [[Holy Roman Empire]] to recognize the Reformation were not fulfilled. A friendly attitude towards the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] at the Diet was something he later changed, calling [[Huldrych Zwingli]]'s doctrine of the [[Eucharist|Lord's Supper]] "an impious [[dogma]]".{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

==Augsburg Confession==
{{one source|section|date=March 2024}}
[[File:Hans Holbein the Younger - Philipp Melanchthon (Lower Saxony State Museum).JPG|thumb|Portrait by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], {{circa|1530-1535}}]]
The composition now known as the ''[[Augsburg Confession]]'' was presented at the [[Diet of Augsburg]] in 1530, and would come to be considered perhaps the most significant document of the [[Protestant Reformation]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

While the confession was based on Luther's [[Marburg]] and [[Schwabach]] articles, it was mainly the work of Melanchthon; although it was commonly thought of as a unified statement of doctrine by the two reformers, Luther did not conceal his dissatisfaction with its [[irenic]] tone. Indeed, some would criticize Melanchthon's conduct at the Diet as unbecoming of the principle he promoted, implying that faith in the truth of his cause should logically have inspired Melanchthon to a firmer and more dignified posture.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} Others point out that he had not sought the part of a political leader, suggesting that he seemed to lack the requisite energy and decision for such a role and may simply have been a lackluster judge of human nature.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

Melanchthon represented Luther at the conference, as Luther was barred from attending. [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] had called the Diet of Augsburg in order to unite religious groups in the face of a potential war with the Ottoman Empire. However, despite all efforts and attempts at compromise, there was no reconciliation between Catholics and Lutherans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/philip_melanchton|title=World History website}}</ref>

After the confession was discussed and official response, the [[Confutatio Augustana|Pontifical Confutation of the Augsburg Confession]] was produced. Melanchthon wrote a reply to this which became known as the [[Apology of the Augsburg Confession]].

Melanchthon then settled into the comparative quiet of his academic and literary labours. His most important theological work of this period was the ''Commentarii in Epistolam Pauli ad Romanos'' (Wittenberg, 1532), noteworthy for introducing the idea that "to be justified" means "to be accounted just", whereas the Apology had placed side by side the meanings of "to be made just" and "to be accounted just".{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} Melanchthon's increasing fame gave occasion for prestigious invitations to Tübingen (September 1534), France, and England but consideration of the elector{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} caused him to refuse them.

In 1540, he produced a revised edition, the [[Augsburg Confession Variata|Variata]], which was signed by [[John Calvin]]. The main difference is in the treatment of the real presence in the Lord's Supper. Many Lutheran churches specify that they subscribe to the "Unaltered Augsburg Confession", as opposed to the Variata.

==Controversies in the 1530s==
Melanchthon played an important role in discussions concerning the Lord's Supper which began in 1531.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=Carter |title=The European reformations |date=2021 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-64074-5 |edition=3rd |location=Chichester, United Kingdom ; Hoboken, NJ |pages=115–116}}</ref> He approved of [[Martin Bucer|Bucer]]'s [[Wittenberg Concord]] and discussed the question with Bucer in [[Kassel]] in 1534.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} He worked for an agreement on this question, as his [[patristic]] studies and the ''Dialogue'' (1530) of [[Johannes Oecolampadius]] had made him doubt the correctness of Luther's doctrine.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

Zwingli's death and the change of the political situation changed his earlier stance in regard to a union. Bucer did not go so far as to believe with Luther that the true body of Christ in the Lord's Supper is bitten by the teeth, but admitted the offering of the body and blood in the symbols of bread and wine. Melanchthon discussed Bucer's views with Luther's adherent, but Luther himself would not agree to a ''veiling'' of the dispute.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} Melanchthon's relationship with Luther was not changed by his mediation work, although for a time Luther suspected that Melanchthon was "almost of the opinion of Zwingli".{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=280}}

During his time in Tübingen in 1536 Melanchthon was heavily criticised by [[Cordatus (preacher)|Cordatus]], [[preacher]] in [[Niemeck]], as he had taught that works are necessary for salvation. In the second edition of his ''Loci'' (1535), he abandoned his earlier strict doctrine of determinism and instead taught what he called [[Synergism (theology)|Synergism]]. He repudiated Cordatus' criticism in a letter to Luther and his other colleagues, stating that he had never departed from their common teachings on this subject and in the [[Antinomianism#First antinomian controversy|Antinomian Controversy]] of 1537 Melanchthon was in harmony with Luther.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=280}}

==Controversies in the 1540s==
[[File:Lucas Cranach (I) and-or Workshop - Portrait of Philip Melanchton.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Philip Melanchthon, 1537, by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]]]
Melanchthon faced controversies over the Interims and the [[Adiaphora]] (1547). He rejected the [[Augsburg Interim]], which the [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] wished to impose.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} During negotiations concerning the [[Leipzig Interim]] he made controversial concessions.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} In agreeing to various Catholic usages, Melanchthon held the opinion that they are [[adiaphora]], if nothing is changed in the pure doctrine and the sacraments which [[Jesus]] instituted.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} However he disregarded the position that concessions made under such circumstances have to be regarded as a denial of Evangelical convictions.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=281}}

Melanchthon later regretted his actions.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

After Luther's death he became seen by many as the "theological leader of the German Reformation"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tondo|first=Douglas J. Del|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4V8tMJ75bnwC&q=After+Luther's+death+he+became+seen+by+many+as+the+%22theological+leader+of+the+German+Reformation%22&pg=PR28|title=Jesus' Words on Salvation|date=February 2008|publisher=Infinity|isbn=978-0-7414-4357-1|language=en}}</ref> although the [[Gnesio-Lutherans]] led by [[Matthias Flacius]] accused him and his followers of [[heresy]] and [[apostasy]]. Melanchthon bore the accusations with patience, dignity, and self-control.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=281}}

In his controversy on justification with [[Andreas Osiander]] Melanchthon satisfied all parties. He took part also in a controversy with [[Francesco Stancaro|Stancaro]], who held that Christ was our [[Justification (theology)|justification]] only according to his human nature.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=281}}

==Controversies in the 1550s==
[[File:Lutherstadt Wittenberg 09-2016 photo10.jpg|upright=1.1|thumb|[[Melanchthonhaus (Wittenberg)|Melanchthon's house]] in [[Wittenberg]]]]

In 1552 the Elector of Saxony declared himself ready to send deputies to a council to be convened at [[Trento|Trent]], but only under the condition that the Protestants should have a share in the discussions, and that the [[Pope]] should not be considered as the presiding officer and judge. This declaration was partly due to advice from Melanchthon. As it was agreed upon to send a confession to Trent, Melanchthon drew up the Confessio Saxonica, a repetition of the Augsburg Confession, discussing in greater detail the points of controversy with Rome. On his way to Trent at [[Dresden]] in March 1552, he saw the military preparations of [[Maurice, Elector of Saxony|Maurice of Saxony]], and after reaching [[Nuremberg]], he returned to Wittenberg, as Maurice had turned against the emperor. After his return, the condition of the Protestants became more favourable and were still more so at the [[Peace of Augsburg]] (1555). However Melanchthon's difficulties increased from that time.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=281}}

The last years of his life were embittered by disputes over the Interim and the freshly started controversy on the Lord's Supper. As the statement "good works are necessary for salvation" appeared in the Leipzig Interim, in 1551 its Lutheran opponents attacked [[Georg Major]], Melanchthon's friend and disciple. Melanchthon dropped the formula altogether, seeing how easily it could be misunderstood.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=281}}

His opponents continued to go against him, accusing him of synergism and [[Zwinglianism]]. At the [[Colloquy of Worms (1557)|Colloquy of Worms]] in 1557 which he had reluctantly attended, the adherents of Flacius and the Saxon theologians tried to humiliate him as a heretic. Melanchthon persevered in his efforts for the peace of the church, suggesting a [[synod]] of the Evangelical party and drawing up the Frankfurt Recess, which he defended later against attacks.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=281}}

The controversies on the Lord's Supper embittered the last years of his life. The renewal of this dispute was due to the growing acceptance of [[Calvinism|Calvinistic]] doctrine and its influence upon Germany. He never agreed with this, and the personal presence and self-impartation of Christ in the Lord's Supper were especially important for him, although he did not definitely state how body and blood are related to this. Although rejecting the physical act of [[mastication]], he nevertheless assumed the real presence of the body of Christ and therefore also a real self-impartation. He also differed from Calvin in emphasizing the relation of the Lord's Supper to justification.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|pp=281-282}}

==Views on the Virgin Mary==
Melanchthon viewed any veneration of [[saint]]s rather critically but he developed positive commentaries about [[Virgin Mary|Mary]].

In his ''Annotations in Evangelia'', he wrote a study on Luke 2:52, and discussed Mary's faith. He noted that "she kept all things in her heart" which to him was a call to the church to follow her example.{{sfn|Bäumer|1992|p=424}}{{sfn|Bäumer|1992|p=425}} He believed that Mary was negligent when she lost her son in the temple, but she did not sin.{{sfn|Bäumer|1992|p=425}} He also believed that Mary was conceived with original sin like every other human being, but she was spared the consequences of it. As such, he opposed the feast of the [[Immaculate Conception]], which at the time, was not dogma, but was celebrated in several cities and had been approved at the [[Council of Basel]] in 1439.{{sfn|Heal|2007|p=25}} He declared that the Immaculate Conception was an invention of monks.{{sfn|Bäumer|1992|p=424}} He saw Mary as a representation (Typus) of the church and believed that in the [[Magnificat]], Mary spoke for the whole church. Standing under the cross, Mary suffered like no other human being; as such, he believed that Christians have to unite with her under the cross, in order to become Christ-like.{{sfn|Bäumer|1992|p=424}}

==Views on natural philosophy==
In lecturing on the ''Librorum de judiciis astrologicis'' of [[Ptolemy]] in 1535–1536, Melanchthon expressed to students his interest in [[Greek mathematics]], [[astronomy]] and [[astrology]]. He considered that a purposeful God had reasons to exhibit [[comet]]s and [[eclipse]]s.{{sfn|Billeskov Jansen|1991|pp=107-108}} He was the first to print a paraphrased edition of Ptolemy's ''[[Tetrabiblos]]'' in Basel, 1554.{{sfn|Heilen|2010|p=70}} [[Natural philosophy]], in his view, was directly linked to [[Divine Providence|Providence]], a point of view that was influential in curriculum change after the [[Protestant Reformation]] in Germany.{{sfn|Kusukawa|1995|pp=185-186}} In the period 1536-1539 he was involved in three academic innovations: the refoundation of Wittenberg along Protestant lines, the reorganization at Tübingen, and the foundation of the [[University of Leipzig]].{{sfn|Kusukawa|1999|p=xxxiii}}

==Death==
[[File:The room in which Melanchthon died, Melanchthon's house. Wittenberg.jpg|thumb|upright|The room in which Melanchthon died, Melanchthon's house. Wittenberg]]
Before these theological dissensions were settled, Melanchthon died. Only a few days before his death, he had written a note which gave his reasons for not fearing death. On the left hand side of the note were the words, "You will be delivered from sins, and be freed from the acrimony and fury of theologians"; on the right, "You will go to the light, see God, look upon his Son, learn those wonderful mysteries which you have not been able to understand in this life." The immediate cause of death was a severe cold which he had contracted on a journey to [[Leipzig]] in March 1560, followed by a fever that consumed his strength, although his body had already been weakened.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=282}} He was pronounced dead on 19 April 1560.{{sfn|Kolb|2012|p=142}} His body was buried beside Luther's in the [[All Saints' Church, Wittenberg|Schloßkirche]] in [[Wittenberg]].{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=282}}

In Melanchthon's last moments, he continued to worry over the desolate condition of the church. He prayed continually and listened to passages of Scripture. The words of ''John 1:11-12'' were especially significant to him - "His own received him not; but as many as received him, to them gave he power to become the sons of God." When [[Caspar Peucer]], his son-in-law, asked him if he wanted anything, he replied, "Nothing but heaven."

He is commemorated in the [[Calendar of Saints (Lutheran)|Calendar of Saints]] of the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] on 16 February, his birthday, and in the calendar of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] on 25 June, the date of the presentation of the [[Augsburg Confession]].{{citation needed|date=November 2017}}

==Estimation of his works and character==
===Relationship with Luther===
[[File:Melanchthon with Luther behind, by Schadow, Melanchthon House Museum, Wittenberg.jpg|thumb|Melanchthon with Luther behind, by [[Johann Gottfried Schadow]], Melanchthon House Museum, Wittenberg]]
Melanchthon's importance for the Reformation lay essentially in the fact that he systematized Luther's ideas, defended them in public, and made them the basis of a religious education. These two figures, by complementing each other, could be said to have harmoniously achieved the results of the Reformation. Melanchthon was impelled by Luther to work for the Reformation; his own inclinations would have kept him in academia. Without Luther's influence he could have been "a second Erasmus", although he had a deep religious interest in the Reformation. While Luther scattered the sparks among the people, Melanchthon had the sympathy of educated people and scholars. Both Luther's strength of faith and Melanchthon's calmness, temperance and love of peace, had a share in the success of the movement.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=282}}

Both were aware of their mutual position and they thought of it as a "divine necessity". Melanchthon wrote in 1520, "I would rather die than be separated from Luther", whom he also compared to [[Elijah]], and called him "the man full of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Ghost]]". In spite of the strained relations between them in the last years of Luther's life, Melanchthon said at Luther's death, "Dead is the horseman and chariot of Israel who ruled the church in this last age of the world!"{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=282}}
[[File:Portrait of Philipp Melanchthon.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Philip Melanchthon by [[Lucas Cranach the Younger]], c. 1562]]

In the preface to Melanchthon's ''[[Kolosserkommentar]]'' (1529), Luther wrote, "I had to fight with rabble and [[devil]]s, for which reason my books are very warlike. I am the rough pioneer who must break the road; but Master Philip comes along softly and gently, sows and waters heartily, since God has richly endowed him with gifts." Luther also praised Melanchthon's revised ''Loci'' and called him "a divine instrument which has achieved the very best in the department of theology to the great rage of the devil and his scabby tribe." Luther never spoke directly against Melanchthon.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=282}} However often he was dissatisfied with Melanchthon's actions, he never uttered a word against his private character, although Melanchthon sometimes evinced a lack of confidence in Luther.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=282}} In a letter to Carlowitz, before the Diet of Augsburg, he protested that Luther, with his hot-headed nature, exercised a personally humiliating pressure upon him.

The distinction between Luther and Melanchthon is well brought out in Luther's letters to the latter (June 1530):{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=282}}
{{blockquote|To your great anxiety by which you are made weak, I am a cordial foe; for the cause is not ours. It is your philosophy, and not your theology, which tortures you so, - as though you could accomplish anything by your useless anxieties. So far as the public cause is concerned, I am well content and satisfied; for I know that it is right and true, and, what is more, it is the cause of Christ and God himself. For that reason, I am merely a spectator. If we fall, Christ will likewise fall; and if he fall, I would rather fall with Christ than stand with the emperor.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|pp=282–83}}}}

===His work as reformer===
[[File:Philipp Melanchthon - Helsinki Lutheran Cathedral - DSC05396.JPG|thumb|upright=.8|right|The statue of Melanchthon at the [[Helsinki Cathedral|Helsinki Lutheran Cathedral]] in [[Helsinki|Helsinki, Finland]]]]
As a reformer, Melanchthon's work was characterized by moderation, conscientiousness, caution, and love of peace; however these qualities were sometimes said to only be lack of decision, consistence, and courage. His main priority was for the welfare of the community and for the quiet development of the church.

[[File:PhilippMelanchthonWin.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|left|The Melanchthon window attributed to the Quaker City Stained Glass Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at [[St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church]] in Charleston, South Carolina]]

Melanchthon had an innate aversion to quarrels and discord; yet, often he was very irritable. His irenical character often led him to adapt himself to the views of others, as may be seen from his correspondence with Erasmus and from his public attitude from the Diet of Augsburg to the Interim. It was said not to be merely a personal desire for peace, but his conservative religious nature that guided him in his acts of conciliation. He never could forget that his father on his death-bed had besought his family "never to leave the church." He stood toward the history of the church in an attitude of piety and reverence that made it much more difficult for him than for Luther to be content with the thought of the impossibility of a reconciliation with the Catholic Church. He laid stress upon the authority of the [[Church Fathers]], not only of [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], but also of the [[Greek Fathers]].{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=283}}

His attitude in matters of worship was [[Conservatism|conservative]], and in the Leipsic Interim he was said by Cordatus and Schenk even to be Crypto-Catholic. He did not look for a reconciliation with Catholicism at the price of pure doctrine. He attributed more value to the external appearance and organization of the Church than Luther did, as can be seen from his treatment of the "doctrine of the church". The ideal conception of the church, which he expressed in ''Loci'' in 1535, later lost its prominence when he began to emphasize the conception of the true visible church as it may be found among the Protestants.

He believed that the relation of the church to God was that the church held the divine office of the ministry of the Gospel. The universal priesthood was for Melanchthon as for Luther no principle of an ecclesiastical constitution, but a purely religious principle. In accordance with this idea he tried to keep the traditional church constitution and government, including the bishops. He did not want, however, a church altogether independent of the state, but rather, in agreement with Luther, he believed it the duty of the secular authorities to protect religion and the church. He looked upon the [[Consistory (Protestantism)|consistories]] as ecclesiastical courts which therefore should be composed of spiritual and secular judges, as he believed that the official authority of the church did not lie in a special class of priests, but rather in the whole congregation, to be represented therefore not only by ecclesiastics, but also by laymen. In advocating church union he did not overlook differences in doctrine for the sake of common practical tasks.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=283}}

The older he grew, the less he distinguished between the Gospel as the announcement of the will of God, and right doctrine as the human knowledge of it. He took pains to safeguard unity in doctrine by theological formulas of union, but these were made as broad as possible and were restricted to the needs of practical religion.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=283}}
{{clear}}

===As scholar===
[[File:Melanchthon Unterricht der Visitatorn 1539 detail.jpg|thumb|Detail from ''Unterricht der Visitatorn, an die Pfarherrn in Hertzog Heinrichs zu Sachsen Fürstenthum, Gleicher form der Visitation im Kurfürstenthum gestellet'', woodcut by [[Lucas Cranach the Younger]], Wittenberg, 1539]]

As a scholar Melanchthon embodied the spiritual culture of his age. His writing was simple and clear; his manuals, even if they were not always original, were quickly introduced into schools and kept their place for more than a century. For him, knowledge existed only for the service of moral and religious education, and so the teacher of Germany prepared the way for the religious thoughts of the Reformation. He was an important figure in the movement known as [[Christian humanism]], which exerted a lasting influence upon scientific life in Germany.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=283}}

Melanchthon wrote many treatises on education and learning that present some of his views on the basis, method, and goal of reformed education. In his "Book of Visitation", Melanchthon outlines a school plan that recommends schools to teach Latin only. He suggests children should be broken up into three distinct groups: children who are learning to read, children who know how to read and are ready to learn grammar, and children who are well-trained in grammar and syntax.{{sfn|Eby|1931}} Melanchthon also believed that the disciplinary system of the classical "seven liberal arts", and the sciences studied in the higher faculties could not encompass the new revolutionary discoveries of the age in terms of either content or method. He expanded the traditional categorization of science in several directions, incorporating not only history, geography and poetry but also the new natural sciences in his system of scholarly disciplines.{{citation needed|date=November 2017}}

===As theologian===
As a theologian, his strength lay in collecting and systematizing the ideas of others, especially of Luther, for the purpose of instruction. He kept to the practical, and did not look at the connection of the parts, and his ''Loci'' were in the form of isolated paragraphs. His [[Christian humanism|humanistic]] mode of thought formed the basis of his theology so that he acknowledged moral and religious truths outside of Christianity, and brought Christian truth into closer contact with them, to mediate between Christian revelation and ancient [[philosophy]].{{sfn |Kirn|1910|p=283}}

Melanchthon's views differed from Luther's only in some modifications of ideas. Melanchthon looked upon the law as not only the correlate of the Gospel, but as the unchangeable order of the spiritual world with its basis in God himself. He distilled Luther's view of redemption to that of legal satisfaction. He did not focus on the mysticism running through Luther's theology, but emphasized the ethical and intellectual elements.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=283}}

After giving up determinism and absolute predestination and ascribing a certain moral freedom to humanity, he tried to ascertain the share of [[free will]] in conversion, naming three causes as concurring in the work of conversion - the [[Bible|Word]], the Spirit, and the human will, which was not passive, but resisting its own weakness. After 1548 he used Erasmus' definition of freedom, "the capability of applying oneself to [[divine grace|grace]]."{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=283}} <!--rather than see this deleted, can it be linked to a specific passsage?:e was certainly right in thinking it impossible to change one's character without surrender of the will; but by correlating the divine and the human will he lost sight of the fundamental religious experience that the desire and realization of good actions is a gift of divine grace.-->

In dividing faith into knowledge, assent, and trust, he made the participation of the heart subsequent to that of the intellect, which gave rise to the view of the later orthodoxy that the establishment and acceptation of pure doctrine should precede the personal attitude of faith. His conception of faith corresponded with his view that the Church is the communion of those who adhere to the true belief and that her visible existence depends upon the consent of her unregenerated members to her teachings.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|pp=283–284}}

Melanchthon's doctrine of the Lord's Supper lacked the mysticism of faith by which Luther united the sensual elements and supersensual realities. It did however demand their formal distinction.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=284}}

The development of Melanchthon's beliefs may be seen from the history of the ''Loci''. Originally he intended a development of the leading ideas representing the Evangelical conception of salvation, while the later editions approached a plan of a text-book of dogma. At first he insisted on the necessity of every event, rejected the philosophy of [[Aristotle]], and had not fully developed his doctrine of the sacraments. In 1535 he treated for the first time the doctrine of God and that of the [[Trinity]]; he rejected the doctrine of the necessity of every event and named free will as a concurring cause in conversion. The doctrine of justification received its forensic form and the necessity of good works was emphasized in the interest of moral discipline. The last editions are distinguished from the earlier ones by the prominence given to the theoretical and rational element.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=284}}

===As moralist===
In ethics he preserved and renewed the tradition of ancient morality and represented the Protestant conception of life. His books on morals were chiefly drawn from the classics, and were influenced not so much by Aristotle as by [[Cicero]]. His principal works in this line were ''Prolegomena'' to Cicero's ''[[De officiis]]'' (1525); ''Enarrationes librorum Ethicorum Aristotelis'' (1529); ''Epitome philosophiae moralis'' (1538); and ''Ethicae doctrinae elementa'' (1550).{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=284}}

In his ''Epitome philosophiae moralis'' he considers the relation of philosophy to the law of God and the Gospel. Moral principles are knowable in the light of [[reason]]. Melanchthon calls these the law of God, and being [[Endowment (philosophy)#Natural endowment|endowed]] in human nature by God, so also the law of nature. The [[virtuous pagan]]s had not yet developed the ideas of [[Original Sin]] and the Fall, or the fallen aspect of human nature itself, and so could not articulate or explain why humans did not always act virtuously. If virtue was the true law of human nature (having been put there by God himself) than the light of reason could only be darkened by sin.{{sfn|Angier|2019|page=161}} The revealed law, necessitated because of [[sin]], is distinguished from natural law only by its greater completeness and clearness. The fundamental order of moral life can be grasped also by reason; therefore the development of moral philosophy from natural principles must not be neglected. Melanchthon therefore made no sharp distinction between natural and revealed morals.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=284}}

His contribution to Christian ethics in the proper sense can be seen in the [[Augsburg Confession]] and its Apology as well as in his ''Loci'', where he followed Luther in depicting the Protestant ideal of life, the free realization of the divine law by a personality blessed in faith and filled with the spirit of God.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=284}}
[[File:Crest of Philipp Melanchthon.jpg|thumb|upright|Crest of Philip Melanchthon, featuring the [[Nehushtan|bronze serpent]] of [[Moses]] ]]

===As exegete===
Melanchthon's formulation of the authority of Scripture became the norm for some time. The principle of his [[hermeneutics]] is expressed in his words: "Every theologian and faithful interpreter of the heavenly doctrine must necessarily be first a grammarian, then a [[dialectic]]ian, and finally a witness." By "grammarian" he meant the [[philology|philologist]] who is master of [[history]], [[archaeology]], and ancient [[geography]]. For the method of interpretation, he insisted on the unity of the sense and upon the literal sense in contrast to the four senses of the scholastics. He further stated that whatever is looked for in the words of Scripture, outside of the literal sense, is only dogmatic or practical application.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=284}}

His commentaries are full of theological and practical matter, confirming the doctrines of the Reformation. The most important are those on [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]], [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], the [[Psalms]], [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] (edited in 1522 against his will by Luther), [[Colossians]] (1527), and [[Gospel of John|John]] (1523). Melanchthon worked with Luther in his translation of the Bible, and both the books of the [[Maccabees]] in Luther's Bible are ascribed to him. A [[Latin]] Bible published in 1529 at Wittenberg is designated as a joint work of Melanchthon and Luther.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=284}}

===As historian and preacher===
[[File:Melanchton dli 0613700392.jpg|thumb|upright|Anonymous Netherlands, ''Portrait of Melanchthon'', early 18th century, engraving and etching]]
[[File:Melanchthonstube-WB.jpg|thumb|Melanchthon's room in [[Wittenberg]]]]

Melanchthon's influence in historical theology was felt until the seventeenth century, especially in the method of treating [[church history]] in connection with [[political history]]. His was the first Protestant attempt at a history of dogma with both ''Sententiae veterum aliquot patrum de caena domini'' (1530) and ''De ecclesia et auctoritate verbi Dei'' (1539).{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=284}}

Melanchthon exerted a wide influence in homiletics, and has been regarded in the Protestant church as the author of the methodical style of preaching. He stayed aloof from dogmatizing or [[rhetoric]] in the ''Annotationes in Evangelia'' (1544), the ''Conciones in Evangelium Matthaei'' (1558), and in his [[German language|German]] sermons prepared for George of Anhalt. He never preached from the pulpit and his Latin sermons ''(Postilla)'' were prepared for the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] students at Wittenberg who did not understand German.

In 1548 he published the ''History of the Life and Acts of Luther''. In this book, he includes the image of Luther nailing the [[95 Theses]] to the Door of Castle Church in Wittenberg. However, he had not met Luther at this time and Luther himself never mentioned this event.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Philip_Melanchthon/|title=Philip Melanchthon|first=Joshua J.|last=Mark|website=World History Encyclopedia |date=21 December 2021 }}</ref>

Melanchthon also produced the first Protestant work on the method of theological study, as well as his ''Catechesis puerilis'' (1532), a religious manual for younger students, and a German [[catechism]] (1549).{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=284}}

===As professor and philosopher===
{{further|Melanchthon Circle}}
[[File:Philipp-Melanchton Kopf Lessing-Gymnasium-Frankfurt LWS2962.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Head of Melanchthon statue at [[Lessing-Gymnasium (Frankfurt)]], whose founder had been influenced by personal contacts with Melanchthon]]
As a philologist and pedagogue Melanchthon was the spiritual heir of the South German Humanists, such as [[Johann Reuchlin|Reuchlin]], [[Jakob Wimpfeling]], and [[Rodolphus Agricola]], who represented an [[ethic]]al conception of the [[humanities]]. He saw the [[liberal arts]] and a classical [[education]] as paths, not only towards natural and ethical philosophy, but also towards divine philosophy. The ancient classics were seen as the sources of a purer knowledge, and also the best means of educating the youth both by their beauty of form and by their ethical content. By his activity in educational institutions and his compilations of Latin and Greek [[grammar]]s and commentaries, he became the founder of the learned schools of Evangelical Germany, using a combination of humanistic and Christian ideals. The influence of his philosophical compendia ended only with the rule of the [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]]–[[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Wolff]] school.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|pp=284–85}}

He came to Wittenberg with the plan of editing the complete works of Aristotle and he edited the ''[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]]'' (1519) and the ''Dialectic'' (1520).{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=285}}

He believed that the relation of philosophy to theology is characterized by the distinction between Law and Gospel. The former, as a light of nature, is innate; it also contains the elements of the natural knowledge of God which, however, have been obscured and weakened by sin. Therefore, renewed promulgation of the Law by revelation became necessary and was furnished in the Decalogue; and all law, including that in the form of natural philosophy, contains only demands, shadowings; its fulfillment is given only in the Gospel, the object of certainty in theology, by which also the philosophical elements of knowledge - experience, principles of reason, and [[syllogism]] - receive only their final confirmation. As the law is a divinely ordered pedagogue that leads to Christ, philosophy, its interpreter, is subject to revealed truth as the principal standard of opinions and life.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=285}}

He published ''De dialecta libri iv'' (1528), ''Erotemata dialectices'' (1547), ''Liber de anima'' (1540), ''Initia doctrinae physicae'' (1549), and ''Ethicae doctrinae elementa'' (1550).{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=285}}

===Personal appearance and character===
[[File:ADurerMelancthonengraving1526.jpg|thumb|right|Engraving of Melanchthon in 1526 by [[Albrecht Dürer]] captioned, "Dürer was able to draw the living Philip's face, but the learned hand could not paint his spirit" (translated from [[Latin]])]]
There have been preserved original portraits of Melanchthon by three famous painters of his time - [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] with one version in the Royal Gallery of [[Hanover]], [[Albrecht Dürer]] and [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]].{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=285}} Melanchthon was described as being dwarfish, misshapen, and physically weak,<ref>{{Cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IJc4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT187 |title=The Quotable Atheist: Ammunition for Nonbelievers, Political Junkies, Gadflies, and Those Generally Hell-Bound|last=Huberman|first=Jack|date=March 3, 2008|publisher=PublicAffairs |access-date= February 14, 2019|isbn= 978-1-56858419-5}}</ref> although he is said to have had a bright and sparkling eye, which kept its colour till the day of his death.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=285}}

He did not value money and possessions; his hospitality was often misused in such a way that his [[Swabia]]n servant sometimes had difficulty in managing the household. His domestic life was happy. He called his home "a little church of God", always found peace there, and showed a tender solicitude for his wife and children. A French scholar once found him rocking the cradle with one hand, and holding a book in the other.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=285}}

His closest friend was [[Joachim Camerarius]], whom he called the half of his soul. His extensive correspondence forms a commentary on his life. He wrote speeches and scientific treatises for others, permitting them to use their own signatures. He acknowledged his faults even to opponents like [[Matthias Flacius|Flacius]], and was open to criticism. He laid great stress upon prayer, daily meditation on the Bible, and attendance of public service.{{sfn|Kirn|1910|p=285}}

==See also==
* [[Dimitrije Ljubavić]]
* [[Gottlob Frege]], notable descendant of Melanchthon
* [[List of Erasmus's correspondents]]
* [[Lotharian legend]], disproven theory disseminated by Philip Melanchthon
* [[Philippists]]
* [[Ubiquitarians]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|35em}}

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Bäumer |first= Remigius |year=1992 |chapter= Reformation |title=Marienlexikon
|language=de |location=St. Ottilien |publisher=EOS}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Angier
|editor-first=Tom
|year=2019
|title=The Cambridge Companion to Natural Law Ethics
|location=United Kingdom
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-1-108-42263-5
}}
* {{cite book |contributor-last= Billeskov Jansen |contributor-first= F. J. |last=Sinning |first=Jens Andersen |year=1991 |contribution= Postscript |editor-last=Jacobsen
|editor-first=Eric
|title=Oration on the Philosophical Studies Necessary for the Student of Theology
|translator1-last=Høgel
|translator1-first=Christian
|translator2-last=Fisher
|translator2-first=Peter
|translator3-last=Stoner
|translator3-first=David
|location=Copenhagen
|publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press
|isbn=978-87-7289-144-6
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Brosseder
|first=Claudia
|s2cid=170230348
|year=2005
|title=The Writing in the Wittenberg Sky: Astrology in Sixteenth-Century Germany
|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas
|volume=66
|issue=4
|pages=557–576
|issn=0022-5037
|doi=10.1353/jhi.2005.0049
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Chemnitz
|first=Martin
|author-link=Martin Chemnitz
|year=2004
|title=On Almsgiving
|url=https://www.lcms.org/graphics/assets/media/WRHC/On%20Almsgiving.pdf
|translator-last=Kellerman
|translator-first=James A.
|location=St. Louis, Missouri
|publisher=LCMS World Relief and Human Care
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318170612/https://www.lcms.org/graphics/assets/media/WRHC/On%20Almsgiving.pdf
|archive-date=18 March 2009
|access-date=5 November 2017
}}
* {{cite EB1911
|wstitle=Melanchthon, Philipp
|volume=18
|page=88
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Eby
|first=Frederick
|year=1931
|title=Early Protestant Educators: The Educational Writings of Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Other Leaders of Protestant Thought
|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.75224
|location=New York
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Heal
|first=Bridget
|year=2007
|title=The Cult of the Virgin Mary in Early Modern Germany
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Heilen
|first=Stephan
|title=Ptolemy in Perspective
|chapter=Ptolemy's Doctrine of the Terms and its Reception
|year=2010
|editor-last=Jones
|editor-first=Alexander
|series=Archimedes: New Studies in the History of Science and Technology
|volume=23
|location=Dordrecht, Netherlands
|publisher=Springer
|pages=45–93
|isbn=978-90-481-2787-0
|issn=1385-0180
|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-2788-7_3
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=Jacobs
|first=Henry Eyster
|author-link=Henry Eyster Jacobs
|year=1899
|title=Scholasticism in the Luth. Church
|url=https://archive.org/details/lutherd00jaco
|editor1-last=Jacobs
|editor1-first=Henry Eyster
|editor1-link=Henry Eyster Jacobs
|editor2-last=Haas
|editor2-first=John A. W.
|encyclopedia=The Lutheran Cyclopedia
|location=New York
|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
|pages=434–435
|access-date=4 November 2017
|via=Internet Archive
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Kirn |first= Otto |year=1910 |title= Melanchthon, Philipp |url= http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc07.m.viii.html |editor-last= Jackson |editor-first=Samuel Macauley |editor-link= Samuel Macauley Jackson |encyclopedia= [[New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]] |volume=7 |edition=3rd |location=New York |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls |pages= 279–86 |access-date=18 February 2021
|via=Christian Classics Ethereal Library}}<br/>This article incorporates material from this public-domain publication.
* {{cite book |last=Kolb|first= Robert
|author-link=Robert Kolb
|year=2012
|chapter=Melanchthon's Doctrinal Last Will and Testament: The Responsiones ad articulos Bavaricae inquisitionis as His Final Confession of Faith
|editor1-last=Dingel
|editor1-first=Irene
|editor2-last=Kolb
|editor2-first=Robert
|editor2-link=Robert Kolb
|editor3-last=Kuropka
|editor3-first=Nicole
|editor4-last=Wengert
|editor4-first=Timothy J.
|title=Philip Melanchthon: Theologian in Classroom, Confession, and Controversy
|location=Göttingen, Germany
|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht
|pages=141–160
|isbn=978-3-525-55047-2
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Kusukawa
|first=Sachiko
|year=1995
|title=The Transformation of Natural Philosophy: The Case of Philip Melanchthon
|series=Ideas in Context
|location=Cambridge, England
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-47347-7
|issn=0962-4945
}}
* {{cite book
|contributor-last=Kusukawa
|contributor-first=Sachiko
|contributor-mask={{long dash}}
|last=Melanchthon
|first=Philip
|year=1999
|contribution=Chronology
|editor-last=Kusukawa
|editor-first=Sachiko
|title=Orations on Philosophy and Education
|translator-last=Salazar
|translator-first=Christine F.
|location=Cambridge, England
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-58677-1
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=Löffler
|first=Klemens
|year=1911
|title=Philipp Melanchthon
|editor-last=Herbermann
|editor-first=Charles
|editor-link=Charles George Herbermann
|encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]
|volume=10
|location=New York
|publisher=Robert Appleton Company
|pages=151–154
|via=Wikisource
|title-link=wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Philipp Melanchthon
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=Lohrmann
|first=Martin
|year=2012
|title=Melanchthon, Philip, 1497-1560
|editor-last=Whitford
|editor-first=David M.
|encyclopedia=T&T Clark Companion to Reformation Theology
|location=London
|publisher=T&T Clark
|publication-date=2014
|pages=432–433
|isbn=978-0-567-15366-1
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=Manschreck
|first=Clyde L.
|year=2011
|title=Philipp Melanchthon
|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philipp-Melanchthon
|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica
|access-date=5 November 2017
}}
* {{cite book
|year=1969
|chapter=''Loci Communes Theologici'': Editor's Introduction
|editor-last=Pauck
|editor-first=Wilhelm
|editor-link=Wilhelm Pauck
|title=Melanchthon and Bucer
|series=Library of Christian Classics
|location=Philadelphia
|publisher=Westminster Press
|pages=3–17
|isbn=978-0-664-24164-3
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Richard
|first=James William
|year=1898
|title=Philip Melanchthon: The Protestant Preceptor of Germany, 1497–1560
|url=https://archive.org/details/philipmelanchtho00richuoft
|location=New York
|publisher=G. P. Putnam's Sons
|access-date=4 November 2017
|via=Internet Archive
}}{{link note|note=also at [https://www.forgottenbooks.com/en/download/Philip_Melanchthon_the_Protestant_Preceptor_of_Germany_1497-1560_1000554730.pdf Forgotten Books]}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Rupp
|first=Horst F.
|year=1996
|title=Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560)
|department=Profiles of Famous Educators
|journal=Prospects
|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers
|volume=26
|issue=3 |pages=610–21 |issn= 1573-9090 |doi=10.1007/BF02195060 |s2cid=189873577}}
* {{cite book |last=Schofield
|first=John |year=2006 |title=Philip Melanchthon and the English Reformation |series=St Andrews Studies in Reformation History |location=Aldershot, England
|publisher=Ashgate |isbn= 978-0-7546-5567-1}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Whiton |first=James Maurice |year=1905 |title=Melanchthon, Philipp |editor1-last=Gilman |editor1-first= Daniel Coit |editor1-link=Daniel Coit Gilman |editor2-last=Peck |editor2-first= Harry Thurston
|editor3-last=Colby |editor3-first= Frank Moore |encyclopedia=[[New International Encyclopedia]]
|volume=13 |edition=1st |location= New York |publisher=Dodd, Mead & Co
|pages=285–86
|via=Wikisource
|title-link=wikisource:The New International Encyclopædia/Melanchthon, Philipp
}}<br/>This article incorporates material from this public-domain publication.
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book
|last=Andreatta
|first=Eugenio
|year=1996
|title=Lutero e Aristotele
|language=it
|location=Padova, Italy
|publisher=Cusl Nuova Vita
|isbn=978-88-8260-010-5
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Birnstein
|first=Uwe
|year=2010
|title=Der Humanist: Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte
|language=de
|location=Berlin
|publisher=Wichern-Verlag
|isbn=978-3-88981-282-7
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=Caemmerer
|first=Richard R.
|year=2000
|title=Melanchthon, Philipp
|url=http://cyclopedia.lcms.org/display.asp?t1=m&word=MELANCHTHON.PHILIPP
|editor1-last=Lueker
|editor1-first=Erwin L.
|editor2-last=Poellot
|editor2-first=Luther
|editor3-last=Jackson
|editor3-first=Paul
|encyclopedia=Christian Cyclopedia
|location=St. Louis, Missouri
|publisher=Concordia Publishing House
|access-date=5 November 2017
|via=Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Cuttini
|first=Elisa
|year=2005
|title=Unità e pluralità nella tradizione europea della filosofia pratica di Aristotele: Girolamo Savonarola, Pietro Pomponazzi e Filippo Melantone
|language=it
|location=Soveria Mannelli, Italy
|publisher=Rubbettino
|isbn=978-88-498-1575-7
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=DeCoursey
|first=Matthew
|year=2001
|title=Continental European Rhetoricians, 1400–1600, and Their Influence in Renaissance England
|editor-last=Malone
|editor-first=Edward A.
|encyclopedia=[[Dictionary of Literary Biography]]. Volume 236: British Rhetoricians and Logicians, 1500-1660, First Series
|location=Detroit, Michigan
|publisher=Gale
|pages=[https://archive.org/details/britishrhetorici0236unse/page/309 309–343]
|isbn=978-0-7876-4653-0
|url=https://archive.org/details/britishrhetorici0236unse/page/309
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Estes
|first=James M.
|year=1998
|title=The Role of Godly Magistrates in the Church: Melanchthon as Luther's Interpreter and Collaborator
|journal=Church History
|volume=67
|issue=3
|pages=463–483
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|issn=0009-6407
|jstor=3170941
|doi=10.2307/3170941
|s2cid=162335827
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Fuchs
|first=Thorsten
|year=2008
|title=Philipp Melanchthon als neulateinischer Dichter in der Zeit der Reformation
|language=de
|location=Tübingen, Germany
|publisher=Gunter Narr
|isbn=978-3-8233-6340-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Graybill
|first=Gregory B.
|year=2010
|title=Evangelical Free Will: Philipp Melanchthon's Doctrinal Journey on the Origins of Faith
|location=Oxford
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-958948-7
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Jung
|first=Martin H.
|year=2010
|title=Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit
|language=de
|location=Göttingen, Germany
|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht
|isbn=978-3-525-55006-9
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Kusukawa
|first=Sachiko
|year=2004
|chapter=Melanchthon
|editor1-last=Bagchi
|editor1-first=David
|editor2-last=Steinmetz
|editor2-first=David C.
|editor2-link=David Steinmetz (historian)
|title=The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology
|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bagc
|url-access=limited
|location=Cambridge, England
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bagc/page/n67 57]–67
|isbn=978-0-521-77662-2
|doi=10.1017/CCOL0521772249.007
}}
* {{cite thesis
|last=Laitakari-Pyykkö
|first=Anja-Leena
|year=2013
|title=Philip Melanchthon's Influence on English Theological Thought During the Early English Reformation
|type=PhD dissertation
|location=Helsinki
|publisher=University of Helsinki
|hdl=10138/41764
|hdl-access=free
|isbn=978-952-10-9447-7
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Ledderhose
|first=Karl Friedrich
|year=1855
|title=The Life of Philip Melanchthon
|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39734
|translator-last=Krotel
|translator-first=G. F.
|location=Philadelphia
|publisher=Lindsay & Blakiston
|publication-date=2012
|lccn=22011423
|access-date=5 November 2017
|via=Project Gutenburg
}}
* {{cite book
|year=1999
|editor-last=Maag
|editor-first=Karin
|title=Melanchthon in Europe: His Work and Influence beyond Wittenberg
|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan
|publisher=Baker Books
|isbn=978-0-8010-2223-4
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Mack
|first=Peter
|author-link=Peter Mack (academic)
|year=2011
|chapter=Northern Europe, 1519-1545: The Age of Melanchthon
|title=A History of Renaissance Rhetoric, 1380–1620
|location=Oxford
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|pages=104–135
|isbn=978-0-19-959728-4
|doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199597284.003.0006
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Manschreck
|first=Clyde L.
|year=1958
|title=Melanchthon: The Quiet Reformer
|location=New York
|publisher=Abingdon Press
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wj9XAAAAMAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Meerhoff
|first=Kees
|year=1994
|chapter=The Significance of Philip Melanchthon's Rhetoric in the Renaissance
|editor-last=Mack
|editor-first=Peter
|editor-link=Peter Mack (academic)
|title=Renaissance Rhetoric
|location=New York
|publisher=St. Martin's Press
|pages=46–62
|isbn=978-0-312-10184-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Melanchthon
|first=Philip
|year=1969
|chapter=''Loci Communes Theologici''
|editor-last=Pauck
|editor-first=Wilhelm
|editor-link=Wilhelm Pauck
|title=Melanchthon and Bucer
|translator1-last=Satre
|translator1-first=Lowell J.
|translator2-last=Pauck
|translator2-first=Wilhelm
|translator2-link=Wilhelm Pauck
|series=Library of Christian Classics
|location=Philadelphia
|publisher=Westminster Press
|pages=18–152
|isbn=978-0-664-24164-3
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Melanchthon
|first=Philip
|author-mask={{long dash}}
|year=2002
|chapter=History of the Life and Acts of Dr Martin Luther
|editor1-last=Vandiver
|editor1-first=Elizabeth
|editor1-link=Elizabeth Vandiver
|editor2-last=Keen
|editor2-first=Ralph
|editor2-link=Ralph Keen
|editor3-last=Frazel
|editor3-first=Thomas D.
|title=Luther's Lives: Two Contemporary Accounts of Martin Luther
|translator-last=Frazel
|translator-first=Thomas D.
|location=Manchester
|publisher=Manchester University Press
|publication-date=2003
|pages=14–39
|isbn=978-0-7190-6802-7
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Rogness
|first=Michael
|year=1969
|title=Philip Melanchthon: Reformer without Honor
|location=Minneapolis, Minnesota
|publisher=Augsburg Publishing House
|oclc=905626473
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Scheible
|first=Heinz
|year=1990
|title=Luther and Melanchthon
|journal=Lutheran Quarterly
|volume=4
|issue=3
|pages=317–339
|issn=0024-7499
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=Scheible
|first=Heinz
|author-mask={{long dash}}
|year=1996
|title=Melanchthon, Philipp
|editor-last=Hillerbrand
|editor-first=Hans J.
|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation
|location=Oxford
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-506493-3
|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195064933.001.0001
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Smith
|first=Preserved
|author-link=Preserved Smith
|year=1911
|title=The Life and Letters of Martin Luther
|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeandlettersm00smitgoog
|location=Boston
|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company
|lccn=11015608
|access-date=5 November 2017
|via=Internet Archive
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Sotheby
|first=Samuel Leigh
|author-link=Samuel Leigh Sotheby
|year=1839
|title=Observations upon the Handwriting of Philip Melanchthon
|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_xPFJAAAAcAAJ
|location=London
|oclc=13625108
|access-date=5 November 2017
|via=Internet Archive
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Servetus
|first=Michael
|author-link=Michael Servetus
|year=2015
|orig-year=1553
|title=Regarding the Mystery of the Trinity and the Teaching of the Ancients to Philip Melanchthon and his Colleagues
|translator1-last=Hillar
|translator1-first=Marian
|translator1-link=Marian Hillar
|translator2-last=Hoffman
|translator2-first=Christopher A.
|location=Lewiston, New York
|publisher=Edwin Mellen Press
|isbn=978-1-4955-0336-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Stupperich
|first=Robert
|year=2006
|orig-year=1965
|title=Melanchthon: The Enigma of the Reformation
|translator-last=Fischer
|translator-first=Robert H.
|location=Cambridge, England
|publisher=James Clarke & Co.
|isbn=978-0-227-17244-5
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Wengert
|first=Timothy J.
|year=1998
|title=Human Freedom, Christian Righteousness: Philip Melanchthon's Exegetical Dispute with Erasmus of Rotterdam
|location=New York
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-511529-1
}}
* {{cite book
|year=1997
|editor1-last=Wengert
|editor1-first=Timothy J.
|editor2-last=Graham
|editor2-first=M. Patrick
|title=Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560) and the Commentary
|location=Sheffield
|publisher=Sheffield Academic Press
|isbn=978-1-85075-684-2
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Internet Archive author |sname= Philipp Melanchthon}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=156}}
* {{Librivox author |id=1727}}
*[https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL135729A Works] at [https://openlibrary.org/ Open Library]
* {{PRDL|9}}
* {{MathGenealogy|id=126956}}
* [http://www.obc.opole.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=1529&from=pubstats Examen eorum, qui oudiuntur ante ritum publicae ordinotionis, qua commendatur eis ministerium Evangelli: Traditum Vuitebergae, Anno 1554], at Opolska Biblioteka Cyfrowa

{{Early Lutheran Controversies}}
{{Martin Luther}}
{{Subject bar|Biography|Christianity |commons=yes |commons-search=Category:Philipp Melanchthon |s=yes |s-search= Author:Philipp Melanchthon |q=yes |d=yes |d-search=Q76325}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Melanchthon, Philipp}}
[[Category:1497 births]]
[[Category:1560 deaths]]
[[Category:16th-century astrologers]]
[[Category:16th-century German astronomers]]
[[Category:16th-century German Lutheran clergy]]
[[Category:16th-century German Protestant theologians]]
[[Category:16th-century German male writers]]
[[Category:16th-century writers in Latin]]
[[Category:16th-century Lutheran theologians]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Wittenberg]]
[[Category:Burials at All Saints' Church, Wittenberg]]
[[Category:Christian humanists]]
[[Category:Critics of the Catholic Church]]
[[Category:German astrologers]]
[[Category:German Lutheran theologians]]
[[Category:German male non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:German Protestant Reformers]]
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[[Category:German evangelicals]]
[[Category:Heidelberg University alumni]]
[[Category:Lay theologians]]
[[Category:Lutheran biblical scholars]]
[[Category:Lutheran saints]]
[[Category:Lutheran sermon writers]]
[[Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar]]
[[Category:People from Bretten]]
[[Category:People from the Margraviate of Baden]]
[[Category:Philippists| ]]
[[Category:Systematic theologians]]
[[Category:Translators of the Bible into German]]
[[Category:Rhetoric theorists]]