View source for Permaculture

{{Short description|Approach to agriculture and land management}}
{{good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
[[File:Permaculture garden.JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|A garden cultivated on permaculture principles]]

'''Permaculture''' is an approach to land management and settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural [[ecosystem]]s. It includes a set of design principles derived using [[Systems theory|whole-systems thinking]]. It applies these principles in fields such as [[regenerative agriculture]], town planning, [[rewilding (conservation biology)|rewilding]], and [[community resilience]]. The term was coined in 1978 by [[Bill Mollison]] and [[David Holmgren]], who formulated the concept in opposition to modern industrialized methods, instead adopting a more traditional or "natural" approach to agriculture.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Birnbaum Fox |first=Juliana |date=9 June 2010 |title=Indigenous Science |url=http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/handle/10535/7956 |journal=Cultural Survival Quarterly |volume=33 |issue=1 |quote=Bill Mollison, often called the 'father of permaculture,' worked with indigenous people in his native Tasmania and worldwide, and credits them with inspiring his work. "I believe that unless we adopt sophisticated aboriginal belief systems and learn respect for all life, then we lose our own," he wrote in the seminal Permaculture: A Designers' Manual. |via=Indiana University}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Holmgren |first=David |date=2007 |title=Essence of Permaculture |url=https://www.transitionmonty.org/uploads/6/5/4/9/6549206/essence_of_pc_ebook_1.pdf |journal=Permaculture: Principles & Pathways Beyond Sustainability |page=7 |quote=This focus in permaculture on learning from indigenous, tribal and cultures of place is based on the evidence that these cultures have existed in relative balance with their environment, and survived for longer than any of our more recent experiments in civilisation.}}</ref><ref name=":4" />

Multiple thinkers in the early and mid-20th century explored [[no-dig gardening]], [[no-till farming]], and the concept of "permanent agriculture", which were early inspirations for the field of permaculture.<ref name="Ferguson Lovell">{{cite journal |last1=Ferguson |first1=Rafter Sass |last2=Lovell |first2=Sarah Taylor |title=Permaculture for agroecology: design, movement, practice, and worldview. A review |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |date=25 October 2013 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=251–27 |doi=10.1007/S13593-013-0181-6 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/S13593-013-0181-6}}</ref> Mollison and Holmgren's work from the 1970s and 1980s led to several books, starting with ''Permaculture One'' in 1978, and to the development of the "Permaculture Design Course" which has been one of the main methods of diffusion of permacultural ideas.<ref name="Scott" /> Starting from a focus on land usage in [[Southern Australia]], permaculture has since spread in scope to include other regions and other topics, such as [[appropriate technology]] and [[intentional community]] design.<ref name = "Holmgren Essence" />

Several concepts and practices unify the wide array of approaches labelled as permaculture. Mollison and Holmgren's three foundational ethics and Holmgren's twelve design principles are often cited and restated in permaculture literature.<ref name="Scott" /> Practices such as [[companion planting]], extensive use of [[perennial]] crops, and designs such as the [[herb spiral]] have been used extensively by permaculturists.

Permaculture as a popular movement has been largely isolated from scientific literature, and has been criticised for a lack of clear definition or rigorous methodology.<ref name="For Sceptics 2021" /> Despite a long divide, some 21st century studies have supported the claims that permaculture improves soil quality and biodiversity,<ref name="Reiff 1–14">{{Cite journal |last1=Reiff |first1=Julius |last2=Jungkunst |first2=Hermann F. |last3=Mauser |first3=Ken M. |last4=Kampel |first4=Sophie |last5=Regending |first5=Sophie |last6=Rösch |first6=Verena |last7=Zaller |first7=Johann G. |last8=Entling |first8=Martin H. |date=2024-07-04 |title=Permaculture enhances carbon stocks, soil quality and biodiversity in Central Europe |journal=Communications Earth & Environment |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=305 |doi=10.1038/s43247-024-01405-8 |bibcode=2024ComEE...5..305R |issn=2662-4435|doi-access=free }}</ref> and have identified it as a [[social movement]] capable of promoting [[agroecology|agroecological transition]] away from conventional agriculture.<ref name="Ferguson Lovell" /><ref name="Reiff 1–14" />

== Background ==

=== History ===

[[File:Franklin Hiram King.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|[[Franklin Hiram King]] introduced the term "permanent agriculture" in 1911.]]

In 1911, [[Franklin Hiram King]] wrote ''Farmers of Forty Centuries: Or Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea and Japan'', describing farming practices of East Asia designed for "permanent agriculture".{{sfn|King|1911|p=Title page}} In 1929, [[Joseph Russell Smith]] appended King's term as the subtitle for ''Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture'', which he wrote in response to widespread deforestation, plow agriculture, and erosion in the eastern mountains and hill regions of the United States. He proposed the planting of tree fruits and nuts as human and animal food crops that could stabilize watersheds and restore soil health.<ref name="jrsjs">{{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Joseph Russell |last2=Smith |first2=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0PQvqpVnFbAC&pg=PP1 |title=Tree Crops: A permanent agriculture |publisher=Island Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-1-59726873-8}}</ref> Smith saw the world as an inter-related whole and suggested mixed systems of trees with understory crops. This book inspired individuals such as [[Toyohiko Kagawa]] who pioneered [[forest farming]] in Japan in the 1930s.{{Sfn|Hart|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N01940btQAQC&pg=PA41 41]}} Another pioneer, [[George Washington Carver]], advocated for practices now common in permaculture, including the use of [[crop rotation]]<!--which he was not claiming to have invented--> to restore nitrogen to the soil and repair damaged farmland, in his work at the [[Tuskegee Institute]] between 1896 and his death in 1947.<ref>[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/119838 "Biodiversity Heritage Library"] ''How to build up and maintain the virgin fertility of our soils'', Holding institute: U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library; Sponsor: U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library; Date Scanned: 08/10/2016. Retrieved 2022-08-19</ref><ref>[https://www.thehenryford.org/collections-and-research/digital-collections/artifact/370968/#slide=gs-240553 "Henry Ford Collections and Research"] ''How to Build Up and Maintain the Virgin Fertility of Our Soils, October 1936''. Retrieved 2022-08-19</ref><ref>[https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/ipd/carver/ "National Agricultural Library, George Washington Carver: A national agricultural digital exhibit"] About George Washington Carver, scans of multiple publications by Carver. Retrieved 2022-08-19.</ref>

In his 1964 book ''Water for Every Farm'', the Australian agronomist and engineer [[P. A. Yeomans]] advanced a definition of permanent agriculture as one that can be sustained indefinitely. Yeomans introduced both an observation-based approach to land use in Australia in the 1940s and in the 1950s the Keyline Design as a way of managing the supply and distribution of water in semi-arid regions. Other early influences include [[Stewart Brand]]'s works, [[Ruth Stout]] and [[Esther Deans]], who pioneered [[no-dig gardening]], and [[Masanobu Fukuoka]] who, in the late 1930s in Japan, began advocating [[No-till farming|no-till]] orchards and gardens and [[natural farming]].<ref name = "Holmgren Essence">{{Cite web |last=Holmgren |first=David |year=2006 |title=The Essence of Permaculture |url=http://www.holmgren.com.au/frameset.html?http://www.holmgren.com.au/html/Writings/weeds.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526225318/http://www.holmgren.com.au/frameset.html?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.holmgren.com.au%2Fhtml%2FWritings%2Fweeds.html |archive-date=26 May 2008 |access-date=10 September 2011 |publisher=Holmgren Design Services }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mollison |first=Bill |date=15–21 September 1978 |title=The One-Straw Revolution by Masanobu Fukuoka |page=18 |work=[[Nation Review]]}}</ref>

[[File:Bill Mollison 01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bill Mollison]], who has been described as the "father of permaculture", cites Aboriginal Tasmanian belief systems as an inspiration of the practice.<ref name=":3" />]]

In the late 1960s, [[Bill Mollison]], senior lecturer in Environmental Psychology at [[University of Tasmania]], and [[David Holmgren]], graduate student at the then Tasmanian College of Advanced Education started developing ideas about stable agricultural systems on the southern Australian island of [[Tasmania]]. Their recognition of the unsustainable nature of modern industrialized methods and their inspiration from Tasmanian Aboriginal and other traditional practises were critical to their formulation of permaculture.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Schaeffer |first=John |title=Real Goods Solar Living Sourcebook |publisher=New Society Publishers |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-86571-784-8 |pages=292 |quote=Bill Mollison and a younger David Holmgren, who were studying the unstable and unsustainable characteristics of Western industrialized culture [...] They were drawn to indigenous worldviews...}}</ref><ref name="Permaculture 1991">''Introduction to Permaculture'', 1991, Mollison, p.v</ref> In their view, industrialized methods were highly dependent on non-[[renewable resource]]s, and were additionally poisoning land and water, reducing [[biodiversity]], and removing billions of tons of [[topsoil]] from previously fertile landscapes. They responded with permaculture. This term was first made public with the publication of their 1978 book ''Permaculture One''.<ref name="Permaculture 1991" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=Permaculture One |publisher=Transworld Publishers |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-552-98075-3 |pages=128}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Permaculture is a philosophy of working with, rather than against nature; of protracted and thoughtful observation rather than protracted and thoughtless labor; and of looking at plants and animals in all their functions, rather than treating any area as a [[Monocropping|single product system]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mollison, B. C. |title=Introduction to permaculture |date=1991 |publisher=Tagari Publications |others=Slay, Reny Mia., Jeeves, Andrew. |isbn=0-908228-05-8 |location=Tyalgum, Australia |oclc=24484204}}</ref>|Bill Mollison}}

Following the publication of ''Permaculture One'', Mollison responded to widespread enthusiasm for the work by traveling and teaching a three-week program that became known as the Permaculture Design Course. It addressed the application of permaculture design to growing in major climatic and soil conditions, to the use of renewable energy and natural building methods, and to "invisible structures" of human society. He found ready audiences in Australia, New Zealand, the USA, Britain, and Europe, and from 1985 also reached the Indian subcontinent and southern Africa. By the early 1980s, the concept had broadened from agricultural systems towards [[Sustainable habitat|sustainable human habitats]] and at the 1st Intl. Permaculture Convergence, a gathering of graduates of the PDC held in Australia, the curriculum was formalized and its format shortened to two weeks. After ''Permaculture One'', Mollison further refined and developed the ideas while designing hundreds of properties. This led to the 1988 publication of his global reference work, ''Permaculture: A Designers Manual''. Mollison encouraged graduates to become teachers and set up their own institutes and demonstration sites.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lillington |first1=Ian |last2=Holmgren |first2=David |last3=Francis |first3=Robyn |last4=Rosenfeldt |first4=Robyn |title=The Permaculture Story: From 'Rugged Individuals' to a Million Member Movement |url=https://www.pipmagazine.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/what-is-permaculture.pdf |access-date=9 July 2015 |website=Pip Magazine |date=21 March 2014 }}</ref> Critics suggest that this success weakened permaculture's social aspirations of moving away from industrial social forms. They argue that the self-help model (akin to [[franchising]]) has had the effect of creating market-focused social relationships that the originators initially opposed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Massicotte |first1=Marie-Josée |last2=Kelly-Bisson |first2=Christopher |date=1 September 2019 |title=What's wrong with permaculture design courses? Brazilian lessons for agroecological movement-building in Canada |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=581–594 |doi=10.1007/s10460-018-9870-8 |issn=1572-8366 |s2cid=158253671}}</ref>

=== Foundational ethics ===

The ethics on which permaculture builds are:{{sfn|Mollison|1988|p=2}}<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Holmgren |first=David |title=Permaculture: Principles & Pathways Beyond Sustainability |publisher=Holmgren Design Services |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-646-41844-5 |page=1}}</ref>

# "Care of the Earth: Provision for all life systems to continue and multiply".{{sfn|Mollison|1988|p=2}}
# "Care of people: Provision for people to access those resources necessary for their existence".{{sfn|Mollison|1988|p=2}}
# "Setting limits to population and consumption: By governing our own needs, we can set resources aside to further the above principles".{{sfn|Mollison|1988|p=2}}

Mollison's 1988 formulation of the third ethic was restated by Holmgren<ref name=":14"/> in 2002 as "Set limits to consumption and reproduction, and redistribute surplus" and is elsewhere condensed to "''share the surplus"''.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last=Rhodes |first=Christopher J. |date=2015 |title=Permaculture: regenerative - not merely sustainable |journal=Science Progress |volume=98 |issue=4 |page=405 |doi=10.3184/003685015X14467291596242 |pmid=26790178 |s2cid=31694833|pmc=10365330 }}</ref>

Permaculture emphasizes patterns of [[landscape]], function, and species assemblies. It determines where these elements should be placed so they can provide maximum benefit to the local environment. Permaculture maximizes [[synergy]] of the final design. The focus of permaculture, therefore, is not on individual elements, but rather on the relationships among them. The aim is for the whole to become [[Emergence|greater than the sum of its parts]], minimizing [[waste]], human labour, and energy input, and to and maximize benefits through [[synergy]].<ref name="Edible Forest Gardening">{{cite web |title=Edible Forest Gardening |url=http://www.edibleforestgardens.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101061331/http://www.edibleforestgardens.com/ |archive-date=1 November 2011 |access-date=5 April 2012}}</ref>

Permaculture design is founded in replicating or imitating natural patterns found in ecosystems because these solutions have emerged through evolution over thousands of years and have proven to be effective. As a result, the implementation of permaculture design will vary widely depending on the region of the Earth it is located in. Because permaculture's implementation is so localized and place specific, scientific literature for the field is lacking or not always applicable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ferguson |first1=Rafter Sass |last2=Lovell |first2=Sarah Taylor |date=1 April 2014 |title=Permaculture for agroecology: design, movement, practice, and worldview. A review |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=251–274 |doi=10.1007/s13593-013-0181-6 |issn=1773-0155 |s2cid=15089504|doi-access=free |bibcode=2014AgSD...34..251F }}</ref> Design principles derive from the science of [[systems ecology]] and the study of pre-industrial examples of [[Sustainability|sustainable]] land use.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Veteto |first1=James R. |last2=Lockyear |first2=Joshua |date=2008 |title=Environmental Anthropology Engaging Permaculture: Moving Theory and Practice Toward Sustainability |url=https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1556-486X.2008.00007.x |journal=Culture & Agriculture |volume=30 |issue=1–2 |pages=50–53 |doi=10.1111/j.1556-486X.2008.00007.x |via=AnthroSource|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="David Holmgren 1997">{{Cite web |last=Holmgren |first=David |year=1997 |title=Weeds or Wild Nature |url=http://holmgren.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/23_weeds_or_wild_nature.pdf |access-date=10 September 2011 |publisher=Permaculture International Journal}}</ref>

A core theme of permaculture according to Mollison is the idea of "people care". Seeking prosperity begins within a local community or culture that can apply the tenets of permaculture to sustain an environment that supports them and vice versa. This is in contrast, in Mollison's view, to typical modern industrialized societies, where locality and generational knowledge is often overlooked in the pursuit of wealth or other forms of societal leverage.<ref name="Mollison on people">{{Cite web |last=Mollison |first=Bill |author-link=Bill Mollison |title=A quote from Permaculture |url=https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/10593799-the-tragic-reality-is-that-very-few-sustainable-systems-are |access-date=27 December 2022 |website=www.goodreads.com}}</ref>

{{blockquote|The tragic reality is that very few sustainable systems are designed or applied by those who hold power, and the reason for this is obvious and simple: to let people arrange their own food, energy and shelter is to lose economic and political control over them. We should cease to look to power structures, hierarchical systems, or governments to help us, and devise ways to help ourselves. - Bill Mollison<ref name="Mollison on people"/>}}

== Theory ==

=== Design principles ===

Holmgren articulated twelve permaculture design principles in his ''Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainability'':<ref name="H's 12 Ps">{{Cite web |title=Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainability |url=https://store.holmgren.com.au/product/principles-and-pathways/ |access-date=21 October 2013 |publisher=Holmgren Design}}</ref>

* ''Observe and interact'': Take time to engage with nature to design solutions that suit a particular situation.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Catch and store energy'': Develop systems that collect resources at peak abundance for use in times of need.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Obtain a yield'': Emphasize projects that generate meaningful rewards.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Apply self-regulation and accept feedback'': Discourage inappropriate activity to ensure that systems function well.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Use and value renewable resources and services'': Make the best use of nature's abundance: reduce consumption and dependence on non-renewable resources.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Produce no waste'': Value and employ all available resources: waste nothing.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Design from patterns to details'': Observe patterns in nature and society and use them to inform designs, later adding details.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Integrate rather than segregate'': Proper designs allow relationships to develop between design elements, allowing them to work together to support each other.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Use small and slow solutions'': Small and slow systems are easier to maintain, make better use of local resources, and produce more sustainable outcomes.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Use and value diversity'': Diversity reduces system-level vulnerability to threats and fully exploits its environment.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Use edges and value the marginal'': The border between things is where the most interesting events take place. These are often the system's most valuable, diverse, and productive elements.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>
* ''Creatively use and respond to change'': A positive impact on inevitable change comes from careful observation, followed by well-timed intervention.<ref name="H's 12 Ps"/>

=== Guilds ===

[[File:Mycorrhizal network.svg|thumb|[[Mycorrhizal fungi]] usually function in a mutualistic [[Symbiosis|symbiotic relationship]] with plants.]]

[[File:Ladybug aphids.JPG|thumb|[[Coccinellidae|Ladybugs]] are seen as [[beneficial insect]]s in permaculture because of their help with [[aphid]] control.]]

A [[Guild (ecology)|guild]] is a mutually beneficial group of species that form a part of the larger ecosystem. Within a guild each species of insect or plant provides a unique set of diverse services that work in harmony. Plants may be grown for food production, drawing nutrients from deep in the soil through tap roots, balancing nitrogen levels in the soil ([[legumes]]), for attracting [[beneficial insects]] to the garden, and repelling undesirable insects or pests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Simberloff |first1=D. |last2=Dayan |first2=T. |year=1991 |title=The Guild Concept and the Structure of Ecological Communities |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=115 |doi=10.1146/annurev.es.22.110191.000555 |bibcode=1991AnRES..22..115S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=S.E. |last2=Hero |first2=J.M. |year=1998 |title=Rainforest frogs of the Australian Wet Tropics: guild classification and the ecological similarity of declining species |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |volume=265 |issue=1396 |pages=597–602 |doi=10.1098/rspb.1998.0336 |pmc=1689015 |pmid=9881468}}</ref> There are several types of guilds, such as community function guilds, mutual support guilds, and resource partitioning guilds.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last1=Bloom |first1=Jessi |title=Practical Permaculture: For Home Landscapes, Your Community, and the Whole Earth |last2=Boehnlein |first2=Dave |publisher=Timber Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-60469-443-7 |pages=223–24; 232–33}}</ref>

* Community function guilds group species based on a specific function or niche that they fill in the garden. Examples of this type of guild include plants that attract a particular beneficial insect or plants that restore nitrogen to the soil. These types of guilds are aimed at solving specific problems which may arise in a garden, such as infestations of harmful insects and poor nutrition in the soil.<ref name=":11" />
* Establishment guilds are commonly used when working to establish target species (the primary vegetables, fruits, herbs, etc. you want to be established in your garden) with the support of pioneer species (plants that will help the target species succeed). For example, in [[temperate climate]]s, plants such as [[comfrey]] (as a weed barrier and [[dynamic accumulator]]), [[Lupine (flower)|lupine]] (as a nitrogen fixer), and [[daffodil]] (as a [[gopher]] deterrent) can together form a guild for a fruit tree. As the tree matures, the support plants will likely eventually be shaded out and can be used as compost.<ref name=":11" />
* Mature guilds form once your target species are established. For example, if the tree layer of your landscape closes its [[Canopy (biology)|canopy]], sun-loving support plants will be shaded out and die. Shade loving [[medicinal herbs]] such as [[ginseng]], [[Black Cohosh]], and [[goldenseal]] can be planted as an [[understory]].<ref name=":11" />
* Mutual support guilds group species together that are complementary by working together and supporting each other. This guild may include a plant that fixes nitrogen, a plant that hosts insects that are predators to pests, and another plant that attracts pollinators.<ref name=":11" /> 
* Resource partitioning guilds group species based on their abilities to share essential resources with one another through a process of niche differentiation. An example of this type of guild includes placing a [[Fibrous root system|fibrous- or shallow-rooted plant]] next to a [[Taproot|tap-rooted plant]] so that they draw from different levels of soil nutrients.<ref name=":11" />

=== Zones ===

[[File:Permaculture Zones.svg|thumb|Permaculture zones 0-5]]

Zones intelligently organize design elements in a human environment based on the frequency of human use and plant or animal needs. Frequently manipulated or harvested elements of the design are located close to the house in zones 1 and 2. Manipulated elements located further away are used less frequently. Zones are numbered from 0 to 5 based on positioning.{{sfn|Burnett|2001|p=26}}
; Zone 0
: The house, or home center. Here permaculture principles aim to reduce energy and water needs harnessing natural resources such as sunlight, to create a harmonious, sustainable environment in which to live and work. Zone 0 is an informal designation, not specifically defined in Mollison's book.{{sfn|Burnett|2001|p=26}}
; Zone 1
: The zone nearest to the house, the location for those elements in the system that require frequent attention, or that need to be visited often, such as salad crops, herb plants, soft fruit like [[Strawberry|strawberries]] or [[Raspberry|raspberries]], [[greenhouse]] and [[cold frame]]s, propagation area, [[Vermicompost|worm compost]] bin for kitchen waste, etc. [[Raised bed gardening|Raised beds]] are often used in Zone 1 in [[Urban agriculture|urban areas]].{{sfn|Burnett|2001|p=26}}
; Zone 2
: This area is used for siting [[perennial]] plants that require less frequent maintenance, such as occasional [[weed control]] or [[pruning]], including currant bushes and orchards, pumpkins, sweet potato, etc. Also, a good place for [[beehive]]s, larger-scale [[compost]]ing bins, etc.{{sfn|Burnett|2001|p=26}}
; Zone 3
: The area where main crops are grown, both for domestic use and for trade purposes. After establishment, care and maintenance required are fairly minimal (provided [[mulch]]es and similar things are used), such as watering or weed control maybe once a week.{{sfn|Burnett|2001|p=26}}
; Zone 4
: A semi-wild area, mainly used for [[forage]] and collecting wild plants as well as production of timber for construction or firewood.{{sfn|Burnett|2001|p=26}}
; Zone 5
: A wilderness area. Humans do not intervene in zone 5 apart from observing natural [[ecosystem]]s and cycles. This zone hosts [[Biological pest control|a natural reserve of bacteria, molds, and insects]] that can aid the zones above it.{{sfn|Burnett|2001|p=26}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Permacultuur course |url=http://edepot.wur.nl/115721 |place=[[Netherlands]] |publisher=WUR}}</ref>

=== Edge effect ===

The [[edge effect]] in ecology is the increased diversity that results when two [[habitat]]s meet.{{sfn|Hemenway|2009|pp=45–47, 286}} Permaculturists argue that these places can be highly productive. An example of this is a coast. Where land and sea meet is a rich area that meets a disproportionate percentage of human and animal needs. This idea is reflected in permacultural designs by using spirals in herb gardens, or creating ponds that have wavy undulating shorelines rather than a simple circle or oval (thereby increasing the amount of edge for a given area).<ref name="DeepGreen 2013">{{Cite news |title=10. Edge Effect |work=Deep Green Permaculture |url=https://deepgreenpermaculture.com/permaculture/permaculture-design-principles/10-edge-effect/ |date=3 April 2013 |access-date=19 January 2017}}</ref> On the other hand, in a keyhole bed, edges are minimized to avoid wasting space and effort.{{sfn|Hemenway|2009|pp=45–47, 286}}

== Common practices ==

=== Hügelkultur ===

[[File:Sketch of Hugelkulture bed in cross section.jpg|thumb|Sketch of a Hügelkultur bed]]

[[Hügelkultur]] is the practice of burying wood to increase soil water retention. The porous structure of wood acts like a sponge when decomposing underground. During the rainy season, sufficient buried wood can absorb enough water to sustain crops through the dry season.<ref>Wheaton, Paul. [http://www.richsoil.com/hugelkultur/ "Raised garden beds: hugelkultur instead of irrigation"] Richsoil. Retrieved 15 July 2012.</ref>{{Sfn|Hemenway|2009|pp=84–85}}<ref>Feineigle, Mark. [http://permaculture.org.au/2012/01/04/hugelkultur-composting-whole-trees-with-ease/#more-6825 "Hugelkultur: Composting Whole Trees With Ease"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928110713/http://permaculture.org.au/2012/01/04/hugelkultur-composting-whole-trees-with-ease/#more-6825 |date=28 September 2015 }}. Permaculture Research Institute of Australia. Retrieved 15 July 2012.</ref> This technique is a traditional practice that has been developed over centuries in Europe and has been recently adopted by permaculturalists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gordon Glore |first=Angela |date=2014 |title=A worldwide tour of (almost) permaculture |url=https://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:G3R1P9vwzr4J:scholar.google.com/+H%C3%BCgelkultur+permaculture&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 |journal=Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development |volume=5 |page=151}}</ref> The Hügelkultur technique can be implemented through building mounds on the ground as well as in [[Raised-bed gardening|raised garden beds]]. In raised beds, the practice "imitates natural [[nutrient cycling]] found in wood decomposition and the high water-holding capacities of organic detritus, while also improving bed structure and drainage properties." This is done by placing wood material (e.g. logs and sticks) in the bottom of the bed before piling organic soil and compost on top. A study comparing the water retention capacities of Hügel raised beds to non-Hügel beds determined that Hügel beds are both lower maintenance and more efficient in the long term by requiring less irrigation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Laffoon |first1=Megan |last2=Meier |first2=Albert |last3=Groves |first3=Chris |date=2015 |title=Potential Application of Hugelkultur to Increase Water Holding Capacity of Karst Rocky Desertified Lands |url=https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1057&context=nckms |journal=National Cave and Karst Management Symposium |volume=21 |pages=9–11}}</ref>

=== Sheet mulching ===

{{main|Sheet mulching}}

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|image1=Préparation d'une lasagne.jpg
|caption1=Preparation of a [[Sheet mulching|sheet mulch]] 
|image2=Tomates sur lasagnes.jpg
|caption2=Tomato plants growing on a "lasagna" or sheet mulch
}}

Mulch is a protective cover placed over soil. Mulch material includes leaves, cardboard, and wood chips. These absorb rain, reduce evaporation, provide nutrients, increase soil organic matter, create habitat for soil organisms, suppress weed growth and seed germination, moderate diurnal temperature swings, protect against frost, and reduce erosion.<ref name="agroforestry"/> [[Sheet mulching]] or lasagna gardening<ref>{{cite web |last1=Toensmeier |first1=Eric |title=Sheet Mulching in 9 Easy Steps |url=https://www.permaculture.co.uk/articles/sheet-mulching-in-9-easy-steps/ |website=Permaculture.co.uk |date=24 November 2022 |access-date=18 October 2023}}</ref> is a gardening technique that attempts to mimic the leaf cover that is found on forest floors.<ref name="agroforestry">{{cite web |date=3 September 2011 |title=Sheet Mulching: Greater Plant and Soil Health for Less Work |url=http://www.agroforestry.net/pubs/Sheet_Mulching.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021210053204/http://www.agroforestry.net/pubs/Sheet_Mulching.html |archive-date=10 December 2002 |access-date=21 October 2011 |publisher=Agroforestry }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stratton |first1=Margie Lynn |last2=Barker |first2=Allen |last3=Ragsdale |first3=James |date=April 2000 |title=Sheet composting overpowers weeds in restoration project |journal=BioCycle |volume=41 |issue=4 |page=57}}</ref>

=== No-till gardening ===

{{further|No-dig gardening}}
{{distinguish|No-till farming}}

Edward Faulkner's 1943 book ''Plowman's Folly'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Faulkner |first1=Edward |title=Plowman's Folly |date=1943 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |oclc=563317}}</ref> King's 1946 pamphlet "Is Digging Necessary?",<ref>{{cite book|last=King|first=F. C.|title=Is Digging Necessary?|publisher=[[New Times Media|New Times]]|year=1946 |url=http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/135484}}</ref> A. Guest's 1948 book "Gardening without Digging",<ref>{{cite book|last=Guest|first=A.|title=Gardening without Digging|publisher=Wigfield|year=1948}}</ref> and Fukuoka's "[[Do Nothing Farming]]" all advocated forms of no-till or no-dig gardening.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://oceanofpdf.com/authors/masanobu-fukuoka/pdf-epub-the-one-straw-revolution-an-introduction-to-natural-farming-download/ |title=Resource: The One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farming |access-date=2023-07-30| work=oceanofpdf.com}}</ref><!--https://empressofdirt.net/history-no-dig-gardening/ useful but not citable--> No-till gardening seeks to minimise disturbance to the soil community so as to maintain soil structure and organic matter.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.motherearthnews.com/organic-gardening/building-fertile-soil-zmaz03jjzgoe/ |title=Michael Rothman, Building Fertile Soil |work=www.motherearthnews.com| access-date=2023-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/soilmgmt.html |title=Preston Sullivan, NCAT Agriculture Specialist, ''Sustainable Soil Management'' |access-date=2009-03-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305021221/http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/soilmgmt.html |archive-date=2009-03-05 }}</ref>

=== Cropping practices ===

{{further|Crop rotation|Intercropping|Companion planting}}

Low-effort permaculture favours [[perennial crop]]s which do not require tilling and planting every year. [[Annual crop]]s inevitably require more cultivation. They can be incorporated into permaculture by using traditional techniques such as [[crop rotation]], [[intercropping]], and [[companion planting]] so that pests and weeds of individual annual crop species do not build up, and minerals used by specific crop plants do not become successively depleted.<ref name="Engels 2016">{{cite web |last1=Engels |first1=Jonathon |title=How and Why to Rotate Your Annual Crops |url=https://www.permaculturenews.org/2016/11/18/rotate-annual-crops/ |website=Permaculture Research Institute |access-date=18 October 2023 |date=18 November 2016}}</ref>

Companion planting aims to make use of beneficial interactions between species of cultivated plants.<ref name="Ludwig-Cooper 2011">{{cite web |last=Ludwig-Cooper |first=Stephanie |title=Companion Planting Information and Chart |date=2 December 2011 |url=https://www.permaculturenews.org/2011/12/02/companion-planting-information-and-chart/ |website=Permaculture News |access-date=18 October 2023}}</ref> Such interactions include [[pest control]], [[pollination]], providing habitat for [[beneficial insect]]s, and maximizing use of space; all of these may help to increase productivity.<ref name="mcclure">{{cite web |last=McClure |first=Susan |year=1995 |title=Companion Planting Made Easy |website=Hpfb.org |pages=4–6 |url=https://www.hpfb.org/uploads/companionplanting.pdf |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209082558/https://www.hpfb.org/uploads/companionplanting.pdf }} excerpted from {{cite book |last=McClure |first=Susan |year=1994 |title=Companion Planting |publisher=[[Rodale, Inc.|Rodale Press]] |isbn=978-0-87596-616-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/companionplantin0000mccl }}</ref>

=== Rainwater harvesting ===

{{further|Rainwater harvesting}}

[[File:Rainwater Collection.JPG|thumb|Rainwater collection is a common practice of permaculture.]]

[[Rainwater harvesting]] is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse before it runs off or reaches the [[aquifer]].<ref name="Rainwater harvesting">{{Cite web |year=2012 |title=Rainwater harvesting |url=http://aramo.de/rain.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130606063516/http://aramo.de/rain.html |archive-date=6 June 2013 |access-date=19 August 2015 |publisher=Aramo |place=Germany }}</ref> It has been used to provide [[drinking water]], water for livestock, and water for [[irrigation]], as well as other typical uses. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rainwater harvesting: regulatory position statement |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/rainwater-harvesting-regulatory-position-statement/rainwater-harvesting-regulatory-position-statement |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=GOV.UK }}</ref> and local institutions can make an important contribution to the availability of drinking water. It can supplement the water table and increase urban greenery. Water collected from the ground, sometimes from areas which are specially prepared for this purpose, is called [[stormwater harvesting]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stormwater harvesting {{!}} Melbourne Water |url=https://www.melbournewater.com.au/building-and-works/stormwater-management/stormwater-harvesting#:~:text=Stormwater%20harvesting%20involves%20collecting,%20treating,from%20drains%20rather%20than%20roofs. |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=www.melbournewater.com.au}}</ref>

[[Greywater]] is [[wastewater]] generated from domestic activities such as laundry, dishwashing, and bathing, which can be recycled for uses such as landscape irrigation and [[constructed wetland]]s. Greywater is largely sterile, but not [[potable]] (drinkable).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Greywater Recycling |url=https://www.thegreenage.co.uk/tech/greywater-recycling/ |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=TheGreenAge|date=14 April 2013 }}</ref>

[[Keyline design]] is a technique for maximizing the beneficial use of water resources. It was developed in Australia by farmer and engineer [[P. A. Yeomans]]. ''Keyline'' refers to a [[contour line]] extending in both directions from a keypoint. Plowing above and below the keyline provides a watercourse that directs water away from a purely downhill course to reduce erosion and encourage infiltration.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yeomas |first=P.A |title=The Keyline plan |publisher=Authour |year=1954 |location=Australia |page=120}}</ref> It is used in designing drainage systems.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tipping |first=Don |date=4 January 2013 |title=Creating Permaculture Keyline Water Systems |publisher=Beaver State Permaculture |location=UK |type=video |url=http://www.permaculture.co.uk/videos/creating-permaculture-keyline-water-systems-don-tipping |archive-date=12 March 2013 |access-date=7 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312014330/http://www.permaculture.co.uk/videos/creating-permaculture-keyline-water-systems-don-tipping |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Compost production ===

[[File:Worm.bin.jpg|thumb|Healthy population of [[red wiggler]]s in a vermicomposting bin]]

[[Vermicompost]]ing is a common practice in permaculture. The practice involves using [[earthworm]]s, such as [[red wiggler]]s, to break down [[Green waste|green]] and [[brown waste]]. The worms produce worm castings, which can be used to [[Organic fertilizer|organically fertilize]] the garden. Worms are also introduced to garden beds, helping to [[Soil aeration|aerate the soil]] and improve [[Permeability of soils|water retention]]. Worms may multiply quickly if provided conditions are ideal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beyers |first1=R |last2=MacLean |first2=S |title=Developing an educational curriculum for organic farming and permaculture in theDistrict of Santa Fe |url=https://www.mcgill.ca/pfss/files/pfss/developing_an_educational_curriculum_for.pdf |journal=La Foundación Héctor Gallego |page=16 |quote=All the permaculture farms we visited had large, fully-functioning vermicompost which produced fertilizer that was naturally rich in nutrients and acid that was used as a substance for fumigation instead of synthetic based substances.}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Reza |first=Shamim |date=24 March 2016 |title=Vermicomposting – A Great Way to Turn the Burdens into Resources |url=https://www.permaculturenews.org/2016/03/24/vermicomposting-a-great-way-to-turn-the-burdens-into-resources/ |publisher=Permaculture Research Institute}}</ref> For example, a permaculture farm in [[Cuba]] began with 9 [[tiger worm]]s in 2001 and 15 years later had a population of over 500,000.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de la Vega |first=Anna |date=2016 |title=Vermicomposting: The Future of Sustainable Agriculture and Organic Waste Management |url=https://www.pcc.edu/sustainability/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2017/10/DeLaVega_VermicompostChurchillReport2016Final.pdf |journal=Winston Churchill Report |pages=29–31}}</ref> The worm castings are particularly useful as part of a seed starting mix and regular fertilizer. Worm castings are reportedly more successful than conventional compost for seed starting.<ref name=":12" />

[[Sewage]] or [[Blackwater (waste)|blackwater]] contains [[human waste|human or animal waste]]. It can be [[compost]]ed, producing [[biogas]] and manure. Human waste can be sourced from a [[composting toilet]], [[outhouse]] or dry bog (rather than a plumbed toilet).<ref name="Tilley Ulrich 2014">{{cite book |last1=Tilley |first1=E. |last2=Ulrich |first2=L. |last3=Lüthi |first3=C. |last4=Reymond |first4=Ph. |last5=Zurbrügg |first5=C. |title=Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies |edition=2nd Revised  |year=2014 |publisher=Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag) |location=Duebendorf, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-906484-57-0 |page=10 |url=http://www.eawag.ch/en/department/sandec/publications/compendium/}}</ref> <!-- This can be surrounded by trees, which in turn can be [[Coppicing|coppiced]] for wood fuel.-->

=== Economising on space ===

{{further|Herb spiral}}

[[File:Kräuterspirale.JPG|thumb|A [[herb spiral]] provides varied conditions in a small space for multiple species to grow together.]]

Space can be saved in permaculture gardens with techniques such as [[herb spiral]]s which group plants closely together. A herb spiral, invented by Mollison, is a round cairn of stones packed with earth at the base and sand higher up; sometimes there is a small pond on the south side (in the northern hemisphere). The result is a series of [[microclimate]] zones, wetter at the base, drier at the top, warmer and sunnier on the south side, cooler and drier to the north. Each herb is planted in the zone best suited to it.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Engels |first1=Jonathon |title=The Magic and Mystery of Constructing a Herb Spiral and Why Every Suburban Lawn Should Have One |url=https://www.permaculturenews.org/2015/04/17/the-magic-and-mystery-of-constructing-an-herb-spiral-and-why-every-suburban-lawn-should-have-one/ |website=Permaculture News |publisher=Permaculture Research Institute |access-date=9 September 2023 |date=17 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Advantages of an Herb Spiral |url=https://theherbexchange.com/advantages-of-an-herb-spiral/ |website=The Herb Exchange |date=12 July 2018 |publisher=The Growers Exchange |access-date=9 September 2023}}</ref>

=== Domesticated animals ===
{{see also|Rice-duck farming}}

[[File:Garden chicks and herbs - Flickr - hardworkinghippy , La Ferme de Sourrou.jpg|thumb|Chicken roaming in an herb garden]]

[[List of domesticated animals|Domesticated animals]] are often incorporated into site design.{{sfn|Mollison|1988|p=5|ps=: '[[Deer]], rabbits, sheep, and [[herbivorous]] fish are very useful to us, in that they convert unusable herbage to acceptable human food. Animals represent a valid method of storing inedible vegetation as food.'}}<ref name="permaculture.org">{{Cite web |title=Backyard Animals |url=http://www.permaculture.org/resources/backyard-animals/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217221136/http://www.permaculture.org/resources/backyard-animals/ |archive-date=17 December 2014 |access-date=6 April 2017 |website=Permaculture.org}}</ref> Activities that contribute to the system include: foraging to cycle nutrients, clearing fallen fruit, weed maintenance, spreading seeds, and pest maintenance. Nutrients are cycled by animals, transformed from their less digestible form (such as grass or twigs) into more nutrient-dense manure.<ref name="permaculture.org" />

Multiple animals can contribute, including cows, goats, chickens, geese, turkey, rabbits, and worms. An example is chickens who can be used to scratch over the soil, thus breaking down the [[topsoil]] and using fecal matter as manure. Factors such as timing and habits are critical. For example, animals require much more daily attention than plants.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2016 |title=Permaculture Animals as a Discipline to the System |url=http://permaculturenews.org/2016/03/07/permaculture-animals-as-a-discipline-to-the-system/ |access-date=6 April 2017 |website=The Permaculture Research Institute}}</ref>

=== Fruit trees ===

[[Masanobu Fukuoka]] experimented with no-pruning methods on his family farm in Japan, finding that trees which were never pruned could grow well, whereas previously-pruned trees often died when allowed to grow without further pruning.<ref name="Natural Way Farming-Pruning">{{Citation |last=Masanobu |first=Fukuoka |title=The Natural Way of Farming – The Theory and Practice of Green Philosophy |page=204 |year=1987 |orig-date=1985 |edition=rev |place=Tokyo |publisher=Japan Publications}}</ref>{{sfn|Fukuoka|1978|pp=13, 15–18, 46, 58–60}} He felt that this reflected the [[Tao]]-philosophy of [[Wu wei|Wú wéi]], meaning no action against nature or "do-nothing" farming. He claimed yields comparable to intensive arboriculture with pruning and chemical fertilisation.<ref name="Natural Way Farming-Pruning"/><!--{{sfn|Fukuoka|1978}}--><ref name="Ramon Magsaysay Award-Bio">{{Citation |title=Public Service |year=1988 |type=biography |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115211020/http://www.rmaf.org.ph/Awardees/Biography/BiographyFukuokaMas.htm |contribution=Masanobu Fukuoka |contribution-url=http://www.rmaf.org.ph/Awardees/Biography/BiographyFukuokaMas.htm |place=[[Philippines]] |publisher=The Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation |access-date=27 November 2013 |archive-date=15 January 2009 }}.</ref>

== Applications ==

=== Agroforestry ===

[[File:Faidherbia albida.JPG|thumb|[[Agroforestry]] in Burkina Faso, with maize under trees]]

[[Agroforestry]] uses the interactive benefits from combining trees and shrubs with crops or livestock. It combines agricultural and [[forestry]] technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.<ref>{{cite web |date=1 August 2011 |title=USDA National Agroforestry Center (NAC) |url=http://nac.unl.edu |access-date=21 October 2011 |publisher=UNL |archive-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812062112/http://nac.unl.edu/ }}</ref> Trees or shrubs are intentionally used within agricultural systems, or [[non-timber forest product]]s are cultured in forest settings.<ref>{{cite web |date=1 August 2011 |title=USDA Agroforestry Strategic Framework |url=https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/FactSheet_final_8-1-11.pdf |access-date=19 January 2017 |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref>

=== Forest gardens ===

[[File:Claire Gregorys Permaculture garden.jpg|thumb|Suburban forest garden in [[Sheffield]], UK, with different layers of vegetation]]

[[Forest gardening|Forest gardens]] or food forests are permaculture systems designed to mimic natural forests. Forest gardens incorporate processes and relationships that the designers understand to be valuable in natural ecosystems.<ref name="Edible Forest Gardening"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Graham Bell's Forest Garden |url=http://permaculture.mediamice.net/?page_id=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308060346/http://permaculture.mediamice.net/?page_id=26 |archive-date=8 March 2012 |website=Permaculture |publisher=Media mice}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 February 2009 |title=Establishing a Food Forest |url=http://transitionculture.org/2009/02/11/film-review-%E2%80%9Cestablishing-a-food-forest-the-permaculture-way-series/ |publisher=Transition culture |type=film review}}</ref> A mature forest ecosystem is organised into layers with constituents such as trees, [[understory]], [[ground cover]], [[soil]], fungi, insects, and other animals. Because plants grow to different heights, a diverse community of organisms can occupy a relatively small space, each at a different layer.<ref name="TCP 2013">{{cite web |title=Nine layers of the edible forest garden |date=27 May 2013 |url=http://tcpermaculture.com/site/2013/05/27/nine-layers-of-the-edible-forest-garden/ |publisher=TC permaculture}}.</ref>

* [[Rhizosphere (ecology)|Rhizosphere]]: Root layers within the soil. The major components of this layer are the soil and the organisms that live within it such as plant roots and [[rhizomes|zomes]] (including [[root crop]]s such as potatoes and other edible [[tuber]]s), fungi, insects, nematodes, and earthworms.<ref name="TCP 2013"/>
* Soil surface/[[groundcover]]: Overlaps with the [[herbaceous layer]] and the [[groundcover layer]]; however plants in this layer grow much closer to the ground, densely fill bare patches, and typically can tolerate some foot traffic. [[Cover crop]]s retain soil and lessen [[erosion]], along with [[green manure]]s that add nutrients and [[organic matter]], especially [[Nitrogen fixation|nitrogen]].<ref name="TCP 2013"/>
* [[Herbaceous layer]]: Plants that die back to the ground every winter, if cold enough. No woody stems. Many beneficial plants such as culinary and medicinal herbs are in this layer; whether [[Annual plant|annuals]], [[Biennial plant|biennials]], or [[perennials]].<ref name="TCP 2013"/>
* [[Shrub layer]]: woody [[perennials]] of limited height. Includes most berry bushes.<ref name="TCP 2013"/>
* [[Understory]] layer: trees that flourish under the canopy.<ref name="TCP 2013"/>
* The [[canopy (biology)|canopy]]: the tallest trees. Large trees dominate, but typically do not saturate the area, ''i.e.,'' some patches are devoid of trees.<ref name="TCP 2013"/>
* Vertical layer: climbers or [[vine]]s, such as [[runner bean]]s and [[lima bean]]s (vine varieties).<ref name="TCP 2013"/><ref>{{Citation |title=Food forests |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150519011208/http://permacultureschool.ca/food-forests/seven-layers-of-a-forest/ |contribution=Seven layers of a forest |contribution-url=http://permacultureschool.ca/food-forests/seven-layers-of-a-forest/ |place=[[Canada|CA]] |publisher=Permaculture school |access-date=5 May 2014 |archive-date=19 May 2015 }}.</ref>

=== Suburban and urban permaculture ===

[[File:South Central Farm 4.jpg|thumb|[[South Central Farm]] was one of the largest urban gardens in the United States before its demolition in 2006.]]

The fundamental element of suburban and urban permaculture is the efficient utilization of space. ''Wildfire'' journal suggests using methods such as the [[keyhole garden]] which require little space.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ReBKAAAAYAAJ |title=Wildfire |date=1992 |publisher=University of Virginia |volume=6 |page=22}}</ref> Neighbors can collaborate to increase the scale of transformation, using sites such as recreation centers, neighborhood associations, city programs, faith groups, and schools. Columbia, an [[ecovillage]] in [[Portland, Oregon]], consisting of 37 apartment condominiums, influenced its neighbors to implement permaculture principles, including in front-yard gardens.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spencer |first=Jan |date=Winter 2017 |title=Green and Resilient Neighborhoods: Portland, Oregon and Beyond |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1970210389 |journal=Communities |volume=177 |pages=49–54 |id={{ProQuest|1970210389}} }}</ref> Suburban permaculture sites such as one in [[Eugene, Oregon]], include rainwater catchment, edible landscaping, removing paved driveways, turning a garage into living space, and changing a south side patio into passive solar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Suburban Permaculture |url=https://www.suburbanpermaculture.org/ |access-date=12 January 2021 |website=Suburban Permaculture}}</ref>

[[Vacant lot farm]]s are community-managed farm sites, but are often seen by authorities as temporary rather than permanent.<ref name="Korsunsky 2019">{{Cite journal |last=Korsunsky |first=Alex |date=2019 |title=From vacant land to urban fallows: a permacultural approach to wasted land in cities and suburbs |url=http://206.189.126.38:8081/index.php/JPE/article/view/22949 |journal=Journal of Political Ecology |volume=26 |pages=293–294 |doi=10.2458/v26i1.22949 |bibcode=2019JPolE..2622949K |s2cid=199175607|doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, Los Angeles' [[South Central Farm]] (1994–2006), one of the largest urban gardens in the United States, was bulldozed with approval from property owner Ralph Horowitz, despite community protest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kuipers |first=Dean |date=23 April 2020 |title=Digging the Dirt on an L.A. Farm |url=https://www.altaonline.com/dispatches/a7718/dean-kuipers-los-angeles-farm/ |website=Alta Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ngo |first=Audrey |date=20 August 2018 |title=Hope Grows at the Once 'Magical' Site Of LA's South Central Farm |url=https://laist.com/2018/08/20/new_hope_sprouts_in_fight_to_bring_back_las_historic_south_central_farm.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820181314/http://www.laist.com/2018/08/20/new_hope_sprouts_in_fight_to_bring_back_las_historic_south_central_farm.php |archive-date=20 August 2018 |website=LAist}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Alpert Reyes |first=Emily |date=2 July 2019 |title=Latest battle over South Central Farm ends – this time not with arrests, but a vote |url=https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-south-central-farm-alameda-industrial-businesses-20190702-story.html |website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref>

The possibilities and challenges for suburban or urban permaculture vary with the built environment around the world. For example, land is used more ecologically in [[Jaisalmer]], [[India]] than in American [[planned city|planned cities]] such as Los Angeles:<ref name="Korsunsky 2019"/>

{{blockquote|the application of universal rules regarding setbacks from roads and property lines systematically creates unused and purposeless space as an integral part of the built landscape, well beyond the classic image of the vacant lot. ... Because these spaces are created in accordance with a general pattern, rather than responding to any local need or desire, many if not most are underutilized, unproductive, and generally maintained as ecologically disastrous lawns by unenthusiastic owners. In this broadest understanding of wasted land, the concept is opened to reveal how our system of urban design gives rise to a ubiquitous pattern of land that, while not usually conceived as vacant, is in fact largely without ecological or social value.<ref name="Korsunsky 2019"/>|author=Korsunsky (2019) |title="From vacant land to urban fallows: a permacultural approach to wasted land in cities and suburbs" }}

=== Marine systems ===

[[File:Harvesting seaweed in Jambiani.jpg|thumb|Harvesting of [[seaweed]] in [[Jambiani]], [[Tanzania]] ]]

Permaculture derives its origin from agriculture, although the same principles, especially its foundational ethics, can also be applied to [[mariculture]], particularly [[seaweed farming]]. In [[Marine Permaculture]], [[Upwelling|artificial upwelling]] of cold, deep ocean water is induced.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Foundation: Marine Permaculture |url=https://www.climatefoundation.org/what-is-marine-permaculture.html |access-date=29 July 2020 |website=Climate Foundation }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Santa Barbara Permaculture Network - local to global, an educational non-profit since 2000 - Events |url=http://www.sbpermaculture.org/events.html#event46poster |access-date=29 July 2020 |website=Sbpermaculture.org}}</ref> When an attachment substrate is provided in association with such an upwelling, and [[kelp]] [[sporophytes]] are present, a [[kelp forest]] ecosystem can be established (since kelp needs the cool temperatures and abundant dissolved macronutrients present in such an environment).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hollarsmith |first1=Jordan A. |last2=Buschmann |first2=Alejandro H. |last3=Camus |first3=Carolina |last4=Grosholz |first4=Edwin D. |date=1 January 2020 |title=Varying reproductive success under ocean warming and acidification across giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) populations |journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology |volume=522 |article-number=151247 |doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2019.151247 |issn=0022-0981 |doi-access=|bibcode=2020JEMBE.52251247H |s2cid=208555472 }}</ref> [[Microalgae]] proliferate as well.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Flannery |first=Tim |title=Sunlight and Seaweed: An Argument for How to Feed, Power and Clean Up the World |publisher=Text Publishing House Melbourne |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-925498-68-4 |location=Melbourne, Victoria}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Zhibing |last2=Liu |first2=Jingjing |last3=Li |first3=Shanglu |last4=Chen |first4=Yue |last5=Du |first5=Ping |last6=Zhu |first6=Yuanli |last7=Liao |first7=Yibo |last8=Chen |first8=Quanzhen |last9=Shou |first9=Lu |last10=Yan |first10=Xiaojun |last11=Zeng |first11=Jiangning |display-authors=3 |date=10 March 2020 |title=Kelp cultivation effectively improves water quality and regulates phytoplankton community in a turbid, highly eutrophic bay |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969719355561 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=707 |article-number=135561 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.70735561J |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135561 |issn=0048-9697 |pmid=31972904 |last12=Chen |first12=Jianfang |s2cid=209725048|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Marine forest habitat is beneficial for many fish species,<ref>{{Citation |last1=Wernberg |first1=Thomas |chapter=Status and Trends for the World's Kelp Forests |date=1 January 2019 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128050521000036 |title=World Seas: an Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition) |pages=57–78 |editor-last=Sheppard |editor-first=Charles |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-805052-1.00003-6 |isbn=978-0-12-805052-1 |access-date=29 July 2020 |last2=Krumhansl |first2=Kira |last3=Filbee-Dexter |first3=Karen |last4=Pedersen |first4=Morten F.|s2cid=134294676 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and the kelp is a renewable resource for food, animal feed,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Belanche |first1=Alejandro |last2=Jones |first2=Eleanor |last3=Parveen |first3=Ifat |last4=Newbold |first4=Charles J. |date=2016 |title=A Metagenomics Approach to Evaluate the Impact of Dietary Supplementation with Ascophyllum nodosum or Laminaria digitata on Rumen Function in Rusitec Fermenters |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=7 |page=299 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2016.00299 |issn=1664-302X |pmc=4785176 |pmid=27014222 |doi-access=free}}</ref> medicines<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Girão |first1=Mariana |last2=Ribeiro |first2=Inês |last3=Ribeiro |first3=Tiago |last4=Azevedo |first4=Isabel C. |last5=Pereira |first5=Filipe |last6=Urbatzka |first6=Ralph |last7=Leão |first7=Pedro N. |last8=Carvalho |first8=Maria F. |display-authors=3 |date=2019 |title=Actinobacteria Isolated From Laminaria ochroleuca: A Source of New Bioactive Compounds |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=10 |article-number=683 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2019.00683 |issn=1664-302X |pmc=6465344 |pmid=31024480 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and various other commercial products.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Laurens |first1=Lieve M. L. |last2=Lane |first2=Madeline |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert S. |date=6 May 2020 |title=Sustainable Seaweed Biotechnology Solutions for Carbon Capture, Composition, and Deconstruction |journal=Trends in Biotechnology |volume=38 |issue=11 |pages=1232–1244 |doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2020.03.015 |issn=0167-7799 |pmid=32386971 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Buschmann |first1=Alejandro H. |title=Chapter Six - The Status of Kelp Exploitation and Marine Agronomy, with Emphasis on Macrocystis pyrifera, in Chile |date=1 January 2014 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124080621000068 |work=Advances in Botanical Research |volume=71 |pages=161–188 |editor-last=Bourgougnon |editor-first=Nathalie |series=Sea Plants |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-408062-1.00006-8 |access-date=29 July 2020 |last2=Prescott |first2=Steven |last3=Potin |first3=Philippe |last4=Faugeron |first4=Sylvain |last5=Vásquez |first5=Julio A. |last6=Camus |first6=Carolina |last7=Infante |first7=Javier |last8=Hernández-González |first8=María Carmen |last9=Gutíerrez |first9=Alfonso |display-authors=3 |hdl=10533/128618 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> It is also a powerful tool for carbon fixation.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Flannery |first=Tim |title=Can seaweed help curb global warming? |date=23 September 2019 |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/tim_flannery_can_seaweed_help_curb_global_warming |access-date=29 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Krause-Jensen |first1=Dorte |last2=Lavery |first2=Paul |last3=Serrano |first3=Oscar |last4=Marbà |first4=Núria |last5=Masque |first5=Pere |last6=Duarte |first6=Carlos M. |display-authors=3 |date=30 June 2018 |title=Sequestration of macroalgal carbon: the elephant in the Blue Carbon room |journal=Biology Letters |volume=14 |issue=6 |article-number=20180236 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2018.0236 |pmc=6030603 |pmid=29925564}}</ref>

The upwelling can be powered by [[renewable energy]] on location. Vertical mixing has been reduced due to [[ocean stratification]] effects associated with [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barton |first1=E. D. |last2=Field |first2=D. B. |last3=Roy |first3=C. |date=1 September 2013 |title=Canary current upwelling: More or less? |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079661113001134 |journal=Progress in Oceanography |volume=116 |pages=167–178 |bibcode=2013PrOce.116..167B |doi=10.1016/j.pocean.2013.07.007 |issn=0079-6611 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10261/80552}}</ref> Reduced vertical mixing and marine heatwaves have decimated seaweed ecosystems in many areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Thomsen |first1=Mads S. |last2=Mondardini |first2=Luca |last3=Alestra |first3=Tommaso |last4=Gerrity |first4=Shawn |last5=Tait |first5=Leigh |last6=South |first6=Paul M. |last7=Lilley |first7=Stacie A. |last8=Schiel |first8=David R. |display-authors=3 |date=2019 |title=Local Extinction of Bull Kelp (Durvillaea spp.) Due to a Marine Heatwave |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |volume=6 |article-number=84 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2019.00084 |bibcode=2019FrMaS...6...84T |issn=2296-7745 |doi-access=free |s2cid=69173935|hdl=10092/16825 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Straub |first1=Sandra C. |last2=Wernberg |first2=Thomas |last3=Thomsen |first3=Mads S. |last4=Moore |first4=Pippa J. |last5=Burrows |first5=Michael T. |last6=Harvey |first6=Ben P. |last7=Smale |first7=Dan A. |display-authors=3 |date=2019 |title=Resistance, Extinction, and Everything in Between – The Diverse Responses of Seaweeds to Marine Heatwaves |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |volume=6 |article-number=763 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2019.00763 |bibcode=2019FrMaS...6..763S |issn=2296-7745 |doi-access=free |s2cid=209324664|hdl=2160/465c66d5-e36f-4392-b45d-e76611368800 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wernberg |first1=T. |last2=Bennett |first2=S. |last3=Babcock |first3=R. C. |last4=de Bettignies |first4=T. |last5=Cure |first5=K. |last6=Depczynski |first6=M. |last7=Dufois |first7=F. |last8=Fromont |first8=J. |last9=Fulton |first9=C. J. |last10=Hovey |first10=R. K. |last11=Harvey |first11=E. S. |display-authors=3 |date=8 July 2016 |title=Climate-driven regime shift of a temperate marine ecosystem |journal=Science |volume=353 |issue=6295 |pages=169–172 |bibcode=2016Sci...353..169W |doi=10.1126/science.aad8745 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=27387951 |doi-access=free |s2cid=206645399|hdl=20.500.11937/31133 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Marine permaculture mitigates this by restoring some vertical mixing and preserves these important ecosystems. By preserving and regenerating habitat offshore on a platform, marine permaculture employs natural processes to regenerate marine life.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/ZJLHJJNBsVI Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200714195723/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZJLHJJNBsVI Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Cite web |last=Powers |first=Matt |date=10 July 2019 |title=Marine Permaculture with Brian Von Herzen Episode 113 A Regenerative Future |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZJLHJJNBsVI&list=PU9Jg0zsgjNxjltlFjE0YvNw&index=109 |website=Youtube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/y8RojQZbsB8 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200714195553/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8RojQZbsB8 Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Cite web |last=Gamble |first=Morag |date=3 December 2019 |title=Marine Permaculture with Dr Brian von Herzen & Morag Gamble |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8RojQZbsB8&t=1s |website=Youtube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

=== Grazing ===

[[File:Conservation Grazing Longhorn Cattle to manage NNR at Ruislip Lido.jpg|thumb|Conservation grazing: 
[[English Longhorn|Longhorn Cattle]] managing the [[national nature reserve (United Kingdom)|national nature reserve]] at [[Ruislip Lido]] ]]

Grazing is blamed for much destruction. However, when grazing is modeled after nature, some claim it can have the opposite effect.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2012 |title=Prince Charles sends a message to IUCN's World Conservation Congress |url=http://www.iucn.org/knowledge/multimedia/video/?10774/Prince-Charles-sends-a-message-to-IUCNs-World-Conservation-Congress |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315111928/http://www.iucn.org/knowledge/multimedia/video/?10774%2FPrince-Charles-sends-a-message-to-IUCNs-World-Conservation-Congress |archive-date=15 March 2013 |access-date=6 April 2013 |website=International Union for Conservation of Nature }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Undersander |first=Dan |display-authors=etal |title=Grassland birds: Fostering habitat using rotational grazing |url=http://learningstore.uwex.edu/assets/pdfs/a3715.pdf |access-date=5 April 2013 |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Extension}}</ref> [[Grazing#Cell grazing|Cell grazing]] is a system of grazing in which herds or flocks are regularly and systematically moved to fresh range with the intent to maximize forage quality and quantity. [[Sepp Holzer]] and [[Joel Salatin]] have shown how grazing can start [[ecological succession]] or prepare ground for planting. [[Allan Savory]]'s [[holistic management]] technique has been likened to "a permaculture approach to [[rangeland management]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fairlie |first=Simon |title=Meat: A Benign Extravagance |publisher=Chelsea Green |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-60358325-1 |pages=191–93}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bradley |first=Kirsten |date=26 April 2010 |title=Holistic Management: Herbivores, Hats, and Hope |url=http://milkwood.net/2010/04/27/holistic_management_herbivores_hats_and_hope/ |access-date=25 March 2014 |publisher=Milkwood}}</ref> One variation is [[conservation grazing]], where the primary purpose of the animals is to benefit the environment and the animals are not necessarily used for meat, milk or fiber.<ref>{{Citation |last=Ash |first=Andrew |title=The Ecograze Project – developing guidelines to better manage grazing country |url=http://www.cse.csiro.au/publications/2002/Ecograzepart1.pdf  |year=2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120410052228/http://www.cse.csiro.au/publications/2002/Ecograzepart1.pdf |others=et al. |publisher=CSIRO |isbn=978-0-9579842-0-2 |access-date=7 April 2013 |archive-date=10 April 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=McCarthy |first=Caroline |title=Things to make you happy: Google employs goats |url=http://news.cnet.com/things-to-make-you-happy-google-employs-goats/?tag=mncol;title |access-date=7 April 2013 |website=CNET}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gordon |first=Ian |title=A systems approach to livestock/resource interactions in tropical pasture systems |url=http://www.be-troplive.be/betroplive/pdf/20121205_944831251_2%20iain%20gordon.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203081104/http://www.be-troplive.be/betroplive/pdf/20121205_944831251_2%20iain%20gordon.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2014 |access-date=7 April 2013 |website=The James Hutton Institute}}</ref> Sheep can replace lawn mowers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2013 |title=Munching sheep replace lawn mowers in Paris |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/breaking-news/world/story/munching-sheep-replace-lawn-mowers-paris-20130404 |access-date=7 April 2013 |website=The Straits Times |archive-date=2 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202122404/http://www.straitstimes.com/breaking-news/world/story/munching-sheep-replace-lawn-mowers-paris-20130404 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Klynstra |first=Elizabeth |title=Hungry sheep invade Candler Park |url=http://www.cbsatlanta.com/story/19864571/100-sheep |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203163425/http://www.cbsatlanta.com/story/19864571/100-sheep |archive-date=3 February 2014 |access-date=7 April 2013 |website=CBS Atlanta}}</ref> Goats and sheep can eat invasive plants.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Littman |first=Margaret |title=Getting your goat: Eco-friendly mowers |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2011/07/26/getting-your-goat-eco-friendly-mowers/ |access-date=7 April 2013 |website=Chicago Tribune News |date=26 July 2011 |archive-date=12 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512055949/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-07-26/classified/sc-home-0725-garden-goat-20110726_1_goats-invasive-plants-gardeners |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Stevens |first=Alexis |title=Kudzu-eating sheep take a bite out of weeds |url=https://www.ajc.com/news/local/kudzu-eating-sheep-take-bite-out-weeds/3DBdnOslJuZtPQIyaS5VdP/ |access-date=8 June 2021 |website=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution}}</ref>

=== Natural building ===

{{further|Sustainable architecture}}

[[File:Cob with living roof.jpg|thumb|Small [[Cob (material)|cob]] building with a [[living roof]] ]]

[[Natural building]] involves using a range of building systems and materials that apply permaculture principles. The focus is on durability and the use of minimally processed, plentiful, or [[renewable resource]]s, as well as those that, while recycled or salvaged, produce healthy living environments and maintain indoor air quality. For example, cement, a common building material, emits [[carbon dioxide]] and is harmful to the environment while natural building works with the environment, using materials that are biodegradable, such as [[Cob (material)|cob]], [[adobe]], [[rammed earth]] (unburnt clay), and [[Straw-bale construction|straw bale]] (which insulates as well as modern synthetic materials).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Quiquivix |first=Linda |date=2017 |title=Beyond Permaculture Ethics: Review of Permaculture Magazine's Film Series, "Living with the Land" |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10455752.2017.1353229?journalCode=rcns20 |journal=Capitalism Nature Socialism |volume=28 |issue=3 |page=130 |doi=10.1080/10455752.2017.1353229 |via=[[Taylor & Francis]] |s2cid=148659771|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Issues ==

=== Intellectual property ===

Trademark and [[copyright]] disputes surround the word ''permaculture.'' Mollison's books claimed on the [[copyright page]], "The contents of this book and the word PERMACULTURE are copyright." Eventually Mollison acknowledged that he was mistaken and that no copyright protection existed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Grayson |first=Russ |year=2011 |title=The Permaculture Papers 5: time of change and challenge - 2000–2004 |url=http://pacific-edge.info/the-permaculture-papers-5-time-of-change-and-challenge-%E2%80%94-2000-2004/ |access-date=8 September 2011 |publisher=Pacific edge}}</ref>

In 2000, Mollison's U.S.-based Permaculture Institute sought a [[service mark]] for the word ''permaculture'' when used in educational services such as conducting classes, seminars, or workshops.<ref>{{Cite web |last=United States Patent and Trademark Office |author-link=United States Patent and Trademark Office |year=2011 |title=Trademark Electronic Search System (TESS) |url=http://tess2.uspto.gov/bin/showfield?f=doc&state=4005:o81il1.2.1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316040257/http://tess2.uspto.gov/bin/showfield?f=doc&state=4005:o81il1.2.1 |archive-date=16 March 2017 |access-date=8 September 2011 |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce}}</ref> The service mark would have allowed Mollison and his two institutes to set enforceable guidelines regarding how permaculture could be taught and who could teach it, particularly with relation to the PDC, despite the fact that he had been certifying teachers since 1993. This attempt failed and was abandoned in 2001. Mollison's application for trademarks in Australia for the terms "Permaculture Design Course" and "Permaculture Design" was withdrawn in 2003. In 2009 he sought a trademark for "Permaculture: A Designers' Manual" and "Introduction to Permaculture", the names of two of his books. These applications were withdrawn in 2011. Australia has never authorized a trademark for the word ''permaculture''.<ref name="IPA">{{Cite web |year=2011 |title=Result |url=http://pericles.ipaustralia.gov.au/atmoss/Falcon.Result |access-date=8 September 2011 |publisher=[[IP Australia]] |archive-date=14 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514011248/http://pericles.ipaustralia.gov.au/atmoss/Falcon.Result }}</ref>

===Definition===

The broad range of topics discussed in permaculture has led to criticism that permaculture is not clearly defined. Peter Harper from the [[Centre for Alternative Technology]] has lamented that, "for some people 'Permaculture' is a generic term for sustainable living, giving another whole set of shifting, fuzzy meanings".<ref name= "Harper Big Rock">{{cite journal |last1=Harper |first1=Peter |title=Permaculture: The Big Rock Candy Mountain |journal=The Land |date=Summer 2013 |issue=14 |url=https://www.thelandmagazine.org.uk/articles/permaculture-big-rock-candy-mountain |access-date=2 December 2024 |publisher=[[The Land is Ours]]}}</ref> Even permaculture texts have expressed that "there are as many permaculture definitions as there are permaculturists", although this is also seen as a strength of the flexibility of permaculture principles.<ref name="Macnamara">{{cite book |last1=Macnamara |first1=Looby |title=People & Permaculture |date=2012 |publisher=Permanent Publications |isbn=978-1-85623-087-2 |page=1}}</ref>

Studies of permaculture farms have shown a diversity as well as a number of consistent features. A 2017 study of 36 self-described American permaculture farms found a variety of business strategies, including small [[mixed farm]]s, integrated producers of perennial and animal crops, mixes of production and services, livestock, and service-based businesses.<ref name="Ferguson Lovell 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Ferguson |first1=Rafter Sass |last2=Lovell |first2=Sarah Taylor |title=Livelihoods and production diversity on U.S. permaculture farms |journal=Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems |publisher=Informa UK |volume=41 |issue=6 |date=2 May 2017 |issn=2168-3565 |doi=10.1080/21683565.2017.1320349 |pages=588–613 |bibcode=2017AgSFS..41..588F |s2cid=157437298 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rafter-Ferguson/publication/316639793_Livelihoods_and_Production_Diversity_on_US_Permaculture_Farms/links/5b48c56eaca272c6093f5a31/Livelihoods-and-Production-Diversity-on-US-Permaculture-Farms.pdf<!--NOT redundant to DOI-->}}</ref> A 2019 study by Hirschfeld and Van Acker found that adopting permaculture consistently encouraged cultivation of perennials, crop diversity, [[Spatial heterogeneity|landscape heterogeneity]], and nature conservation. They found that grass-roots adopters were "remarkably consistent" in their implementation of permaculture, leading them to conclude that the movement could exert influence over positive agroecological transitions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirschfeld |first1=Sarah |last2=Acker |first2=Rene Van |date=June 2020 |title=Permaculture farmers consistently cultivate perennials, crop diversity, landscape heterogeneity and nature conservation |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/renewable-agriculture-and-food-systems/article/abs/permaculture-farmers-consistently-cultivate-perennials-crop-diversity-landscape-heterogeneity-and-nature-conservation/ED6AA225064583F39E26E6A754BD138F |journal=Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=342–351 |doi=10.1017/S1742170519000012 |issn=1742-1705|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Methodology===

Permaculture as a popular movement has been largely isolated from scientific literature. Most permaculture literature is non-scientific in nature and is written for non-specialists. Many permaculturalists rarely engage with mainstream research in [[agroecology]], [[agroforestry]], or [[ecological engineering]],<ref name="Ferguson Lovell" /> and permaculture publications rarely cite academic sources.<ref name="Scott">{{cite web |url=http://robscott.net/2010/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Scott2010.pdf |title=A Critical Review of Permaculture in the United States |author=Robert Scott |website=Robscott.net |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref> In parallel, it was observed in 2007 that few academic papers studied permaculture principles or permaculture farm productivity.<ref name="Scott" /> Going back to Mollison and Holmgren's early publications, permaculturalists have often claimed that mainstream science has an elitist or pro-corporate bias, or that academic institutions are too rigid to study the interdisciplinary approach permaculture proposes.<ref name="Ferguson Lovell" />

This divide has led some to criticise permaculture as [[Pseudoscience|pseudo-scientific]] or to call for a more clear methodology to be used.<ref name="For Sceptics 2021">{{Cite web |date=11 March 2021 |title=Permaculture for Sceptics |url=https://www.permaculturenews.org/2021/03/11/permaculture-for-sceptics/ |access-date=22 July 2021 |website=The Permaculture Research Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421231533/https://www.permaculturenews.org/2021/03/11/permaculture-for-sceptics/ |archive-date=21 April 2021 }}</ref> Peter Harper has attempted to draw a distinction between "'cult' permaculture", where oversimplified claims are assumed to be true and go untested, and "'smart' permaculture", which acts "more like an immature academic field".<ref name= "Harper Big Rock" /> Some permaculturalists have also observed oversimplification, such as Robert Kourik, who commented that the supposed advantages of "less- or no-work gardening, bountiful yields, and the soft fuzzy glow of knowing that the garden will ... live on without you" were often illusory.<ref name=":13">{{cite web |author=Peter Harper |date=2003 |title=A Critique of Permaculture: Cleaning out the stables |url=http://academia-danubiana.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/2.12.09.01_HARPER-A-critique-of-permaculture.pdf |website=Academia-danubiana.net |access-date=5 March 2022 |archive-date=17 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017010122/http://academia-danubiana.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/2.12.09.01_HARPER-A-critique-of-permaculture.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

More recently, permaculture has started to be an object of scientific study. Julius Krebs and Sonja Bach argue in a 2018 issue of [[Sustainability (journal)|''Sustainability'']] that there is "scientific evidence for all twelve [of Holmgren's] principles".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krebs |first1=Julius |last2=Bach |first2=Sonja |title=Permaculture—Scientific evidence of principles for the agroecological design of farming systems |journal=[[Sustainability (journal)|Sustainability]] |volume=10 |issue=9 |year=2018 |page=3218 |doi=10.3390/su10093218 |bibcode=2018Sust...10.3218K |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/9/3218/pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2024, Reiff and colleagues stated that permaculture is a "sustainable alternative to conventional agriculture", and that it "strongly" enhances carbon stocks, soil quality, and biodiversity, making it "an effective tool to promote sustainable agriculture, ensure sustainable production patterns, combat climate change and halt and reverse land degradation and [[biodiversity loss]]." They point out that most of permaculture's most common methods, such as agroforestry,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castle |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Miller |first2=Daniel C. |last3=Merten |first3=Nikolas |last4=Ordonez |first4=Pablo J. |last5=Baylis |first5=Kathy |date=2022-03-17 |title=Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map |journal=Environmental Evidence |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=10 |doi=10.1186/s13750-022-00260-4 |doi-access=free |pmid=39294716 |bibcode=2022EnvEv..11...10C |issn=2047-2382|pmc=11378871 }}</ref> polycultures,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brooker |first1=Rob W. |last2=Bennett |first2=Alison E. |last3=Cong |first3=Wen-Feng |last4=Daniell |first4=Tim J. |last5=George |first5=Timothy S. |last6=Hallett |first6=Paul D. |last7=Hawes |first7=Cathy |last8=Iannetta |first8=Pietro P. M. |last9=Jones |first9=Hamlyn G. |last10=Karley |first10=Alison J. |last11=Li |first11=Long |last12=McKenzie |first12=Blair M. |last13=Pakeman |first13=Robin J. |last14=Paterson |first14=Eric |last15=Schöb |first15=Christian |date=April 2015 |title=Improving intercropping: a synthesis of research in agronomy, plant physiology and ecology |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.13132 |journal=New Phytologist |volume=206 |issue=1 |pages=107–117 |doi=10.1111/nph.13132 |pmid=25866856 |bibcode=2015NewPh.206..107B |issn=0028-646X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and water harvesting features,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Tong |last2=Wang |first2=Mo |last3=Su |first3=Jin |last4=Li |first4=Jianjun |date=January 2023 |title=Unlocking the Positive Impact of Bio-Swales on Hydrology, Water Quality, and Biodiversity: A Bibliometric Review |journal=Sustainability |volume=15 |issue=10 |page=8141 |doi=10.3390/su15108141 |bibcode=2023Sust...15.8141C |doi-access=free |issn=2071-1050}}</ref> are also backed by peer-reviewed research.

== See also ==

* {{annotated link|Climate-friendly gardening}}
* {{annotated link|Zaï}}

== References ==

{{reflist|30em}}

=== Sources ===

{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Bell |first=Graham |title=The Permaculture Garden |url=https://archive.org/details/permaculturegard0000bell |year=2004 |place=UK |publisher=Permanent |isbn=978-1-85623-027-8 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Bell |first=Graham |author-mask=3 |title=The Permaculture Way |year=2004 |orig-date=1992<!-- Thorsons ISBN 0-7225-2568-0--> |edition=2nd |place=United Kingdom |publisher=Permanent Publications |isbn=978-1-85623-028-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Burnett |first=Graham |title=Permaculture: a Beginner's Guide |year=2001 |place=UK |publisher=Spiralseed |isbn=978-0-95534921-8}}
* {{Citation |last1=Ferguson |first1=Rafter Sass |title=Permaculture for agroecology: design, movement, practice, and worldview |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01234801/file/13593_2013_Article_181.pdf |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=251–274 |year=2013 |type=review |doi=10.1007/s13593-013-0181-6 |last2=Lovell |first2=Sarah Taylor |s2cid=15089504 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2014AgSD...34..251F }} – The first systematic review of the permaculture literature, from the perspective of agroecology.
* {{cite book |last=Fern |first=Ken |title=Plants for a Future |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXDXevCgtV0C |year=1997 |place=UK |publisher=Permanent |isbn=978-1-85623-011-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Fukuoka |first=Masanobu |title=The One–Straw Revolution |year=1978 |series=Holistic Agriculture Library |place=United States |publisher=[[Rodale Books]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Hart |first=Robert |title=Forest Gardening |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N01940btQAQC&pg=PA41 |page=41 |year=1996 |place=UK |publisher=Green Books |isbn=978-1-60358050-2}}; {{ISBN | 1-900322-02-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Hemenway |first=Toby |title=Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxW0MGXha6cC |year=2009 |edition=2nd |orig-date=2001 <!--ISBN 1-890132-52-7--> |place=United States |publisher=Chelsea Green |isbn=978-1-60358-029-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Holmgren |first=David |title=Collected Writings & Presentations 1978–2006 |url=http://holmgren.com.au/product/collected-writings/ |author-mask=3 |place=Australia |publisher=Holmgren Design Services}}
* {{cite book |last=Holmgren |first=David |title=Future Scenarios |url=http://holmgren.com.au/product/future-scenarios/ |year=2009 |author-mask=3 |place=White River Junction |publisher=Chelsea Green}}
* {{Citation |last=Holmgren |first=David |title=Melliodora (Hepburn Permaculture Gardens): A Case Study in Cool Climate Permaculture 1985–2005 |url=http://holmgren.com.au/product/melliodora/ |place=Australia |publisher=Holmgren Design Services}}
* {{Citation |last=Holmgren |first=David |title=Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainability |url=http://holmgren.com.au/product/principles/ |author-mask=3 |place=Australia |publisher=Holmgren Design Services}}
* {{Citation |last=Holmgren |first=David |title=Update 49: Retrofitting the suburbs for sustainability |url=http://www.bml.csiro.au/SNnewsletters.htm#CSIRO%20Sustainability%20Network |author-mask=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021208063249/http://www.bml.csiro.au/SNnewsletters.htm#CSIRO%20Sustainability%20Network |place=Australia |publisher=CSIRO Sustainability Network |archive-date=8 December 2002 }}
* Jacke, Dave with Eric Toensmeier. ''Edible Forest Gardens. Volume I: Ecological Vision and Theory for Temperate-Climate Permaculture, Volume II: Ecological Design and Practice for Temperate-Climate Permaculture''. Edible Forest Gardens (US) 2005
* {{cite book |last=King |first=Franklin Hiram |title=Farmers of Forty Centuries: Or Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea and Japan |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5350 |year=1911 |publisher= |isbn= |author-link=Franklin Hiram King}}
* {{cite book |last=Law |first=Ben |title=The Woodland House |year=2005 |place=UK |publisher=Permanent |isbn=978-1-85623-031-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Law |first=Ben |title=The Woodland Way |year=2001 |author-mask=3 |place=UK |publisher=Permanent Publications |isbn=978-1-85623-009-4}}
* Loofs, Mona. ''Permaculture, Ecology and Agriculture: An investigation into Permaculture theory and practice using two case studies in northern New South Wales'' Honours thesis, Human Ecology Program, Department of Geography, Australian National University 1993
* Macnamara, Looby. ''People and Permaculture: caring and designing for ourselves, each other and the planet''. Permanent Publications (UK) (2012) {{ISBN | 1-85623-087-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mollison |first1=Bill |title=Permaculture One |year=1978 |place=Australia |publisher=[[Transworld Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-552-98060-9 |last2=Holmgren |first2=David}}
* {{cite book |last=Mollison |first=Bill |author-mask=3 |title=Permaculture Two |year=1979 |place=Australiastralia |publisher=Tagari Press |isbn=978-0-908228-00-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Mollison |first=Bill |author-mask=3 |title=Permaculture: A Designer's Manual |year=1988 |place=Australia |publisher=Tagari Press |isbn=978-0-908228-01-0}}
* Odum, H. T., Jorgensen, S.E. and Brown, M.T. 'Energy hierarchy and transformity in the universe', in ''Ecological Modelling'', 178, pp.&nbsp;17–28 (2004).
* Paull, J. "Permanent Agriculture: Precursor to Organic Farming", Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, no.83, pp.&nbsp;19–21, 2006. Organic eprints.
* {{Citation |title=The Same Planet a different World |url=http://permaculturefrance.com/resources.htm |type=free ebook |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127162646/http://permaculturefrance.com/resources.htm |place=France |publisher=permaculturefrance.com |access-date=25 February 2009 |archive-date=27 January 2010 }}
* {{cite book |last=Rosemary |first=Morrow |title=Earth User's Guide to Permaculture |year=1993 |publisher=Kangaroo Press |isbn=978-0-86417-514-4}}
* Shepard, Mark: ''Restoration Agriculture – Redesigning Agriculture in Nature's Image'', Acres US, 2013, {{ISBN | 1-60173035-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Whitefield |first=Patrick |title=Permaculture in a Nutshell |year=1993 |place=UK |publisher=Permanent |isbn=978-1-85623-003-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Whitefield |first=Patrick |title=The Earth Care Manual |year=2004 |author-mask=3 |place=UK |publisher=Permanent Publications |isbn=978-1-85623-021-6}}
* Woodrow, Linda. ''The Permaculture Home Garden''. [[Penguin Books]] (Australia).
* Yeomans, P.A. ''Water for Every Farm: A practical irrigation plan for every Australian property'', [[K.G. Murray Publishing Company|KG Murray]], Sydney, [[New South Wales|NSW]], Australia (1973).
{{Refend}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category}}

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* [http://www.permacultureprinciples.com/ Ethics and principles of permaculture] (Holmgren's)
* [http://permaculturecommons.org/ Permaculture Commons] – collection of permaculture material under free licenses
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060417214736/http://www.bettertimesinfo.org/pdc_all.pdf The 15 pamphlets based on the 1981 Permaculture Design Course given by Bill Mollison] (co-founder of permaculture) all in 1 PDF file
* [http://www.permaculturenews.org/ The Permaculture Research Institute] – Permaculture Forums, Courses, Information, News and Worldwide Reports
* [http://www.permacultureglobal.com/ The Worldwide Permaculture Network] – Database of permaculture people and projects worldwide
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