View source for Passiflora

{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants in the passion flower family}}
{{redirect|Passion Flower}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = OQ Passion flower.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Passiflora incarnata]]''
| image2 = Parcha granadilla.JPG
| image2_caption = ''[[Passiflora quadrangularis|P.&nbsp;quadrangularis]]'' unripe fruit
| display_parents = 2
| taxon = Passiflora
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = About 550, see [[List of Passiflora species|list]]
| synonyms =
{{collapsible list|bullets = true
|''Decaloba'' [[M.Roem.]]
|''Anthactinia'' [[Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent|Bory]]
|''Asephananthes'' [[Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent|Bory]] ex [[DC.]]
|''Astephananthes'' [[Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent|Bory]]
|''Astrophea'' [[Rchb.]]
|''Baldwinia'' [[Raf.]]
|''Blephistelma'' [[Raf.]]
|''Ceratosepalum'' [[Oerst.]]
|''Cieca'' [[Medik.]]
|''Disemma'' [[Labill.]]
|''Distephana'' ([[DC.]]) [[Juss.]] ex [[M.Roem.]]
|''Distephia'' [[Salisb.]] ex [[DC.]]
|''Dysosmia'' [[M.Roem.]]
|''Erndelia'' [[Neck.]]
|''Granadilla'' [[Mill.]]
|''Hollrungia'' [[K.Schum.]]
|''Lortetia'' [[Ser.]]
|''Macrophora'' [[Raf.]]
|''Meioperis'' [[Raf.]]
|''Monactineirma'' [[Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent|Bory]]
|''Murucuia'' [[Mill.]]
|''Odostelma'' [[Raf.]]
|''Pentaria'' [[M.Roem.]]
|''Peremis'' [[Raf.]]
|''Pericodia'' [[Raf.]]
|''Poggendorffia'' [[H.Karst.]]
|''Psilanthus'' ([[DC.]]) [[Juss.]] ex [[M.Roem.]]
|''Rathea'' [[H.Karst.]]
|''Senapea'' [[Aubl.]]
|''Synactila'' [[Raf.]]
|''Tacsonia'' [[Juss.]]
|''Tetrapathaea'' [[Rchb.]]
|''Tetrastylis'' [[Barb.Rodr.]]
|''Tripsilina'' [[Raf.]]
|''Xerogona'' [[Raf.]]
}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name = "POWO">{{cite POWO |id=328300-2 |title=''Passiflora'' L. |accessdate=18 April 2024}}</ref>
| type_species = ''[[Passiflora incarnata]]'' L.<ref name = "IPNI">''Passiflora'' | International Plant Names Index. (n.d.). Retrieved January 8, 2024, from https://www.ipni.org/n/328300-2</ref>
}}

'''''Passiflora''''', known also as the '''passion flowers''' or '''passion vines''', is a [[genus]] of about 550 [[species]] of [[flowering plant]]s, the [[type genus]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Passifloraceae]].

''Passiflora'' species are widely cultivated for their striking [[flower]]s, flavorful [[fruit]]s, traditional [[herbal medicine|medicinal]] uses, and roles in [[dietary supplement]]s and [[ayahuasca]] analogs, with several ornamental [[hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] earning [[Royal Horticultural Society]] awards.

==Description==
They are mostly [[tendril|tendril-bearing]] [[vine]]s, with some being [[shrub]]s or [[tree]]s. They can be [[wood]]y or [[herbaceous]].<ref name = "Ulmer & McDougal, 2004" />

Passion flowers produce regular and usually showy [[flower]]s with a distinctive [[Perianth#Corona|corona]]. There can be as many as eight concentric coronal series, as in the case of ''[[Passiflora xiikzodz|P.&nbsp;xiikzodz]]''.<ref name = "Ulmer & McDougal, 2004">{{cite book |  last1= Ulmer | first1= Torsten | last2= McDougal | first2= John M. | date= 2004 | title= Passiflora - Passion Flowers of the World |  location= Portland | publisher=  Timber Press | pages= 158–159}}</ref> and ''[[Passiflora alata]]''. The hallmark of the genus is the [[androgynophore]], a central column to which the [[stamens]] and [[pistil]] are attached, which can be very long in some species such as ''[[Passiflora coactilis]]''. The flower is [[merosity|pentamerous]] (except for a few [[Southeast Asian]] species) and ripens into an [[berry (botany)|indehiscent fruit]] with numerous seeds.

The fruit ranges from {{Convert|5-20|cm|frac=2}} long and {{Convert|2.5-5|cm|abbr=on|frac=2}} across, depending upon the species or [[cultivar]].

=== Chemistry ===
{{multiple image
| width1            = 239
| image1            = Chrysin.svg
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = [[Chrysin]], a commercially important [[flavone]] found in ''[[Passiflora caerulea|P.&nbsp;caerulea]]'' (blue passion flower)
| image2            = Harman.svg
| width2            = 150
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = Harman, a [[harmala alkaloid]] found in many species of ''Passiflora''
}}
Many species of ''Passiflora'' have been found to contain [[beta-carboline]] [[harmala alkaloid]]s,<ref name="drugs" /><ref name="Duke">Duke (2008)</ref><ref name="Meuninck">{{cite book |author=Jim Meuninck |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVOsBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |title=Medicinal Plants of North America: A Field Guide |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2008 |isbn=978-1461745815}}</ref> some of which are [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor|MAO inhibitors]]. The flower and fruit have only traces of these chemicals, but the leaves and the roots often contain more.<ref name="Meuninck" /> The most common of these alkaloids is [[Harmala alkaloid|harman]], but [[harmaline]], [[harmalol]], [[harmine]], and [[harmol]] are also present.<ref name="drugs" /><ref name="Duke" /> The species known to bear such alkaloids include: ''[[Passiflora actinia|P.&nbsp;actinia]]'', ''[[Passiflora alata|P.&nbsp;alata]]'' (winged-stem passion flower), ''[[Passiflora alba|P.&nbsp;alba]]'', ''[[Passiflora bryonioides|P.&nbsp;bryonioides]]'' (cupped passion flower), ''[[Passiflora caerulea|P.&nbsp;caerulea]]'' (blue passion flower), ''[[Passiflora capsularis|P.&nbsp;capsularis]]'', ''[[Passiflora decaisneana|P.&nbsp;decaisneana]]'', ''[[Passiflora edulis|P.&nbsp;edulis]]'' (passion fruit), ''[[Passiflora eichleriana|P.&nbsp;eichleriana]]'', ''[[Passiflora foetida|P.&nbsp;foetida]]'' (stinking passion flower), ''[[Passiflora incarnata|P.&nbsp;incarnata]]'' (maypop), ''[[Passiflora quadrangularis|P.&nbsp;quadrangularis]]'' (giant granadilla), ''[[Passiflora suberosa|P.&nbsp;suberosa]]'', ''[[Passiflora subpeltata|P.&nbsp;subpeltata]]'' and ''[[Passiflora warmingii|P.&nbsp;warmingii]]''.<ref name="Duke" />

Other compounds found in passion flowers are [[coumarins]] (e.g. [[scopoletin]] and [[umbelliferone]]), [[maltol]], [[phytosterol]]s (e.g. [[lutenin]]) and [[cyanogenic glycosides]] (e.g. [[gynocardin]]) which render some species, i.e. ''[[Passiflora adenopoda|P.&nbsp;adenopoda]]'', somewhat poisonous. Many [[flavonoid]]s and their [[glycoside]]s have been found in ''Passiflora'', including [[apigenin]], [[beta-Naphthoflavone|benzoflavone]], [[homoorientin]], {{Nowrap|[[7-isoorientin]]}}, [[isoshaftoside]], [[isovitexin]] (or [[saponaretin]]), [[kaempferol]], [[lucenin]], [[luteolin]], {{Nowrap|n-[[orientin]]}}, [[passiflorine]] (named after the genus), [[quercetin]], [[rutin]], [[saponarin]], [[shaftoside]], [[vicenin]] and [[vitexin]]. Maypop, [[blue passion flower]] (''P.&nbsp;caerulea''), and perhaps others contain the [[flavone]] [[chrysin]]. Also documented to occur at least in some ''Passiflora'' in quantity are the [[hydrocarbon]] [[nonacosane]] and the [[anthocyanidin]] [[pelargonidin]]-3-diglycoside.<ref name="drugs" /><ref name="Duke" /><ref name="dd2008">Dhawan, ''et al''. (2002)</ref>

The genus is rich in [[organic acid]]s including [[Formic acid|formic]], [[Butyric acid|butyric]], [[Linoleic acid|linoleic]], [[α-Linolenic acid|linolenic]], [[Malic acid|malic]], [[Myristic acid|myristic]], [[oleic acid|oleic]] and [[palmitic acid]]s as well as [[natural phenol|phenolic]] compounds, and the [[amino acid]] {{Nowrap|α-[[alanine]]}}. [[Ester]]s like [[ethyl butyrate]], [[ethyl caproate]], ''n''-[[hexyl butyrate]] and ''n''-[[hexyl caproate]] give the fruits their flavor and appetizing smell. [[Sugar]]s, contained mainly in the fruit, are most significantly {{Nowrap|d-[[fructose]]}}, {{Nowrap|d-[[glucose]]}} and [[raffinose]]. Among [[enzyme]]s, ''Passiflora'' was found to be rich in [[catalase]], [[Pectinesterase|pectin methylesterase]] and [[phenolase]].<ref name="drugs" /><ref name="Duke" />

==Taxonomy==
{{See also|List of Passiflora species}}

''Passiflora'' is the most species rich genus of both the family Passifloraceae and the tribe Passifloreae. With over 550 species, an extensive hierarchy of infrageneric ranks is required to represent the relationships of the species. The infrageneric classification of ''Passiflora'' not only uses the widely used ranks of subgenus, section and series, but also the rank of supersection.

The New World species of ''Passiflora'' were first divided among 22 subgenera by Killip (1938) in the first monograph of the genus.<ref name="Killip 1938" /> More recent work has reduced these to 4, which are commonly accepted today (in order from most basally to most recently branching):<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Feuillet |first1=C. |last2=MacDougal |first2=J. |date=2004 |title=A new infrageneric classification of Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae) |journal=Passiflora |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=34–35, 37–38}}</ref>
* ''[[Passiflora subg. Astrophea|Astrophea]]'' (Americas, ~60 species), trees and shrubs with simple, unlobed leaves
* ''Passiflora'' (Americas, ~250 species), woody vines with large flowers and elaborate [[corolla (botany)|corolla]]
* ''Deidamioides'' (Americas, 13 species), woody or herbaceous vines
* ''Decaloba'' (Americas, Asia and Australasia, ~230 species), herbaceous vines with palmately veined leaves

Some studies have shown that the segregate [[Old World]] genera ''[[Hollrungia]]'' and ''[[Tetrapathaea]]'' are nested within ''Passiflora'', and form a fifth subgenus (''Tetrapathaea'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Krosnick |first1=S.E. |last2=Ford |first2=A.J. |last3=Freudenstein |first3=J.V. |date=2009 |title=Taxonomic Revision of Passiflora Subgenus Tetrapathea Including the Monotypic Genera Hollrungia and Tetrapathea (Passifloraceae), and a New Species of Passiflora |journal=Systematic Botany |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=375–385 |doi=10.1600/036364409788606343 |bibcode=2009SysBo..34..375K |s2cid=86038282}}</ref> Other studies support the current four subgenus classification.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hansen |first1=K.A. |last2=Gilbert |first2=L.E. |last3=Simpson |first3=B.B. |last4=Downie |first4=S.R. |last5=Cervi |first5=A.C. |last6=Jansen |first6=R.K. |date=2006 |title=Phylogenetic Relationships and Chromosome Number Evolution in Passiflora |journal=Systematic Botany |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=138–150 |doi=10.1600/036364406775971769 |bibcode=2006SysBo..31..138H |s2cid=4820527}}</ref>

Relationships below the subgenus level are not known with certainty and are an active area of research. The Old World species form two clades – supersection ''Disemma'' (part of subgenus ''Decaloba'') and subgenus ''Tetrapathaea''. The former is composed of 21 species divided into sections ''Disemma'' (three Australian species), ''Holrungiella'' (one New Guinean species) and ''Octandranthus'' (seventeen south and east Asian species).<ref>Shawn Elizabeth Krosnick, PhD thesis, [http://drc.ohiolink.edu/handle/2374.OX/6144 Phylogenetic relationships and patterns of morphological evolution in the Old Word species of ''Passiflora'' (subgenus ''Decaloba'': supersection ''Disemma'' and subgenus ''Tetrapathaea'')] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720024640/http://drc.ohiolink.edu/handle/2374.OX/6144|date=20 July 2011}}</ref>

The remaining (New World) species of subgenus ''Decaloba'' are divided into seven supersections. Supersection ''Pterosperma'' includes four species from [[Central America]] and southern Mexico. Supersection ''Hahniopathanthus'' includes five species from Central America, [[Mexico]] and northernmost [[South America]]. Supersection ''Cicea'' includes nineteen species, with apetalous flowers. Supersection ''Bryonioides'' includes twenty-one species, with a distribution centered on Mexico. Supersection ''Auriculata'' includes eight species from South America, one of which is also found in Central America. Supersection ''Multiflora'' includes nineteen species. Supersection ''Decaloba'' includes 123 species.<ref>{{cite web |title=MBG: Research: Passiflora Research Network |url=http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/passiflora/ |work=mobot.org}}</ref>

== Distribution ==
''Passiflora'' has a largely [[neotropic]] distribution, unlike other genera in the family [[Passifloraceae]], which includes more Old World species (such as the genus ''[[Adenia]]''). The vast majority of ''Passiflora'' are found in Mexico, Central America, the United States and South America, although there are additional representatives in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Krosnick|first1=S.E.|last2=Porter-Utley|first2=K.E.|last3=MacDougal|first3=J.M.|last4=Jørgensen|first4=P.M.|last5=McDade|first5=L.A.|date=2013|title=New insights into the evolution of Passiflora subgenus Decaloba (Passifloraceae): phylogenetic relationships and morphological synapomorphies|journal=Systematic Botany|volume=38|issue=3|pages=692–713|doi=10.1600/036364413x670359|bibcode=2013SysBo..38..692K |s2cid=85840835}}</ref> New species continue to be identified: for example, ''[[Passiflora xishuangbannaensis|P.&nbsp;xishuangbannaensis]]'' and ''[[Passiflora pardifolia|P.&nbsp;pardifolia]]'' have only been known to the scientific community since 2005 and 2006, respectively.

Some species of ''Passiflora'' have been naturalized beyond their native ranges. For example, the [[blue passion flower]] (''P.&nbsp;caerulea'') now grows wild in Spain.<ref name=danaetal2001>{{cite journal |last1=Sanz-Elorza |first1=M. |last2=Dana |first2=E. |last3=Sobrino |first3=E. |title=Listado de plantas alóctonas invasoras reales y potenciales en España |journal=Lazaroa |date=2001 |volume=22 |url=https://portalciencia.ull.es/documentos/5ea21bd72999521f7d5204cc |access-date=10 October 2023}}</ref> The [[Passiflora edulis|purple passionfruit]] (''P.&nbsp;edulis'') and its yellow relative ''flavicarpa'' have been introduced in many tropical regions as commercial crops.

==Ecology==
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 190
| image1 =P foetida bracts.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 =[[Stinking passion flower]] or [[Wild water lemon]] (''P. foetida'') [[bract]]s with insect-catching hairs.
| image2 =Sword-billed Hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera).jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 =The [[sword-billed hummingbird]] (''Ensifera ensifera'') is adapted to feed on ''[[Passiflora mixta]]'' and similar flowers.
| image3 =Passiflora in Canary Islands.JPG
| caption3 =An introduced ''Passiflora''  in the Canary Islands
| image4 = Passiflora white.JPG
| caption4 = ''Passiflora foetida'' in [[Tumkur]], [[India]]
| image5 = PassiFloraRed.jpg
| caption5 = Red colored passion flower in [[Mysore]], [[India]]
}}

Passion flowers have floral structures adapted for [[Pollination#Biotic|biotic pollination]]. Pollinators of ''Passiflora'' include [[bumblebee]]s, carpenter bees (e.g., ''[[Xylocopa sonorina]]''), [[wasp]]s, [[bat]]s, and [[hummingbird]]s (especially [[hermit (hummingbird)|hermits]] such as ''[[Phaethornis]]''); some others are additionally capable of [[self-pollination]]. ''Passiflora'' often exhibit high levels of pollinator specificity, which has led to frequent coevolution across the genus. The [[sword-billed hummingbird]] (''Ensifera ensifera'') is a notable example: it, with its immensely elongated bill, is the sole pollinator of 37 species of high [[Andes|Andean]] ''Passiflora'' in the supersection ''Tacsonia''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abrahamczyk|first=S.|date=2014|title=Escape from extreme specialization: passionflowers, bats and the sword-billed hummingbird|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|volume=281|issue=1795|doi=10.1098/rspb.2014.0888|pmid=25274372|page=20140888|pmc=4213610}}</ref>

The leaves are used for feeding by the [[larva]]e of a number of species of [[Lepidoptera]]. Famously, they are exclusively targeted by many butterfly species of the tribe [[Heliconiini]]. The many defensive adaptations visible on ''Passiflora'' include diverse leaf shapes (which help disguise their identity), colored nubs (which mimic butterfly eggs and can deter Heliconians from ovipositing on a seemingly crowded leaf), [[Nectar#Extrafloral nectaries|extrafloral nectaries]], [[trichome]]s, [[Variegation#Defensive masquerade|variegation]], and chemical defenses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=de Castro|first1=É.C.P.|last2=Zagrobelny|first2=M.|last3=Cardoso|first3=M.Z.|last4=Bak|first4=S.|date=2017|title=The arms race between heliconiine butterflies and Passiflora plants - new insights on an ancient subject|journal=Biological Reviews|volume=93|issue=1|pages=555–573|doi=10.1111/brv.12357|pmid=28901723|s2cid=23953807}}</ref> These, combined with adaptations on the part of the butterflies, were important in the foundation of [[coevolution|coevolutionary theory]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ehrlich|first1=P.R.|last2=Raven|first2=P.H.|date=1964|title=Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution|journal=Evolution|volume=18|issue=4|pages=586–608|doi=10.2307/2406212|jstor=2406212}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Benson|first1=W.W|last2=Brown|first2=K.S.|last3=Gilbert|first3=L.E.|date=1975|title=Coevolution of plants and herbivores: passion flower butterflies|journal=Evolution|volume=29|issue=4|pages=659–680|doi=10.2307/2407076|pmid=28563089|jstor=2407076}}</ref>

Recent studies have shown that passiflora both grow faster and protect themselves better in high-nitrogen soils. In low-nitrogen environments, passiflora focus on growth rather than defense and are more vulnerable to herbivores.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morrison |first1=Colin R. |last2=Hart |first2=Lauren |last3=Wolf |first3=Amelia A. |last4=Sedio |first4=Brian E. |last5=Armstrong |first5=Wyatt |last6=Gilbert |first6=Lawrence E. |date=2024-03-03 |title=Growth-chemical defence-metabolomic expression trade-off is relaxed as soil nutrient availability increases for a tropical passion vine |url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2435.14537 |journal=Functional Ecology |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=1320–1337 |language=en |doi=10.1111/1365-2435.14537 |bibcode=2024FuEco..38.1320M |issn=0269-8463|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The following lepidoptera larvae are known to feed on ''Passiflora'':
* Longwing [[butterflies]] ([[Heliconiinae]])
** [[Heliconius cydno|Cydno longwing]] (''Heliconius cydno''), one of few Heliconians to feed on multiple species of ''Passiflora''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Merrill|first1=R.M.|last2=Naisbit|first2=R.E.|last3=Mallet|first3=J.|last4=Jiggins|first4=C.D.|date=2013|title=Ecological and genetic factors influencing the transition between host-use strategies in sympatric Heliconius butterflies|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/32972/files/nai_egf.pdf|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology|volume=26|issue=9|pages=1959–1967|doi=10.1111/jeb.12194|pmid=23961921|s2cid=11632731}}</ref>
** [[Gulf fritillary]] (''Agraulis vanillae''), which feeds on several species of ''Passiflora'', such as ''[[Passiflora lutea]]'', ''Passiflora affinis'',<ref name="byron beauty">{{cite journal|last1=Knight|first1=R.J.|last2=Payne|first2=J.A.|last3=Schnell|first3=R.J.|last4=Amis|first4=A.A.|title='Byron Beauty', An Ornamental Passion Vine for the Temperate Zone|journal=HortScience|date=1995|volume=30|issue=5|page=1112|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.30.5.1112|url=http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/30/5/1112.full.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="host plants">{{cite journal |last1=Neck |first1=Raymond W. |date=1976 |title=Lepidopteran Foodplant Records from Texas |url=http://lepidopteraresearchfoundation.org/backissues/Vol%2015%20(1976).pdf |journal=[[The Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=75–82 |doi=10.5962/p.333709 |s2cid=248733989 |access-date=25 October 2017 |archive-date=9 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609053229/http://www.lepidopteraresearchfoundation.org/backissues/Vol%2015%20(1976).pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> stinking passion flower (''P.&nbsp;foetida''),<ref>Soule, J.A. 2012. Butterfly Gardening in Southern Arizona. Tierra del Soule Press, Tucson, AZ</ref> and [[Maypop]] (''P.&nbsp;incarnata'')
** American [[Sara longwing]] (''Heliconius sara'')
** Red postman (''[[Heliconius erato]]'')
** Asian [[leopard lacewing]] (''Cethosia cyane'')
** [[Postman butterfly]] (''Heliconius melpomene'') prefer ''[[Passiflora menispermifolia|P.&nbsp;menispermifolia]]'' and ''[[Passiflora oerstedii|P.&nbsp;oerstedii]]''
** [[Zebra longwing]] (''Heliconius charithonia'') feed on yellow passion flower, [[two-flowered passion flower]] (''P.&nbsp;biflora''), and [[corky-stemmed passion flower]] (''P.&nbsp;suberosa'').
** [[Banded orange]] (''Dryadula phaetusa'') feed on ''[[Passiflora tetrastylis|P. tetrastylis]]''.
** [[Julia butterfly]] (''Dryas iulia'') feed on yellow passion flower and ''[[Passiflora affinis|P. affinis]]''.
* [[Swift moth]] ''[[Cibyra serta]]''
* [[Acraea terpsicore|Tawny Coster]] (''Acraea terpsicore'') feed on ''[[Passiflora edulis]]'',<ref name="Nitin-2018">{{Cite journal|last1=Nitin|first1=Ravikanthachari|last2=Balakrishnan|first2=V. C.|last3=Churi|first3=Paresh V.|last4=Kalesh|first4=S.|last5=Prakash|first5=Satya|last6=Kunte|first6=Krushnamegh|date=2018-04-10|title=Larval host plants of the butterflies of the Western Ghats, India|url=http://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/3104|journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa|volume=10|issue=4|pages=11495|doi=10.11609/jott.3104.10.4.11495-11550|issn=0974-7907|doi-access=free}}</ref> ''[[Passiflora foetida]]''<ref name="Nitin-2018" /> and ''[[Passiflora subpeltata]]''<ref name="Nitin-2018" /> 

The generally high pollinator and parasite specificity in ''Passiflora'' may have led to the tremendous morphological variation in the genus. It is thought to have among the highest [[leaf|foliar]] diversity among all plant genera,<ref name="Killip 1938">{{Cite book|last=Killip|first=E.P.|date=1938|title=The American Species of Passifloraceae|publisher=Field Museum of Natural History|location=Chicago, US}}</ref> with leaf shapes ranging from unlobed to five-lobed frequently found on the same plant.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chitwood|first1=D.|last2=Otoni|first2=W.|date=2017|title=Divergent leaf shapes among Passiflora species arise from a shared juvenile morphology|journal=Plant Direct|volume=1|issue=5|pages=e00028|doi=10.1002/pld3.28|pmid=31245674|pmc=6508542|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017PlanD...1E..28C }}</ref> [[Coevolution]] can be a major driver of speciation, and may be responsible for the radiation of certain clades of ''Passiflora'' such as ''Tacsonia''.

The [[bract]]s of the [[stinking passion flower]] are covered by hairs which exude a sticky fluid. Many small insects get stuck to this and get digested to [[nutrient]]-rich goo by [[protease]]s and [[acid phosphatase]]s. Since the insects usually killed are rarely major [[Pest (organism)|pests]], this passion flower seems to be a [[protocarnivorous plant]].<ref name="Radhamani et al 1995">{{cite journal |last1=Radhamani |first1=T R |last2=Sudarshana |first2=L |last3=Krishnan |first3=R |title=Defense and carnivory: dual role of bracts in Passiflort foetida |journal=Journal of Biosciences |date=1995 |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=657–664 |doi=10.1007/BF02703305 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02703305 |access-date=29 April 2025|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Banana passion flower]] or "banana poka" (''P.&nbsp;tarminiana''), originally from Central [[Brazil]], is an [[invasive species|invasive]] [[weed]], especially on the islands of [[Hawaii]]. It is commonly spread by [[feral]] [[pig]]s eating the fruits. It overgrows and smothers stands of [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] vegetation, mainly on roadsides. [[Blue passion flower]] (''P.&nbsp;caerulea'') is an invasive species in Spain and considered likely to threaten ecosystems there.<ref name = danaetal2001 />

On the other hand, some species are [[endangered]] due to unsustainable [[logging]] and other forms of [[habitat destruction]]. For example, the Chilean passion flower (''[[Passiflora pinnatistipula|P.&nbsp;pinnatistipula]]'') is a rare vine growing in the Tropical [[Andes]] southwards from [[Venezuela]] between {{convert|2,500 and 3,800|m}} in altitude, and in Coastal Central Chile, where it only occurs in a few tens of square kilometres of fog forest by the sea, near Zapallar. ''P.&nbsp;pinnatistipula'' has a round fruit, unusual in ''Tacsonia'' group species like banana passion flower and ''[[Passiflora mixta|P.&nbsp;mixta]]'', with their elongated tubes and brightly red to rose-colored petals.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Notable and sometimes economically significant [[pathogen]]s of ''Passiflora'' are several [[sac fungi]] of the genus ''[[Septoria]]'' (including ''[[Septoria passiflorae|S.&nbsp;passiflorae]]''), the undescribed [[proteobacterium]] called "''[[Pseudomonas tomato]]''" ([[Pathovar|pv.]] ''passiflorae''), the ''[[Potyvirus]]'' ''[[passionfruit woodiness virus]]'', and the ''[[Carlavirus]]'' ''[[Passiflora latent virus]]''.

== Adverse effects ==
Passion flower is not recommended during pregnancy because it may induce contractions.<ref name="nih" /><ref name="drugs" /> Consuming passion flower products may cause drowsiness, [[nausea]], dizziness, abnormal [[heart rhythm]]s, [[asthma]], or [[rhinitis]].<ref name="nih" /><ref name="drugs" />

== Uses ==

===Ornamental===
[[File:Flickr - ggallice - Passiflora, Gainesville.jpg|thumb|''[[Passiflora incarnata]]'', one of the most common passion flowers]]

A number of species of ''Passiflora'' are cultivated outside their natural range for both their flowers and fruit. Hundreds of hybrids have been named; hybridizing is currently being done extensively for flowers, foliage and fruit. The following hybrids and cultivars have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]]:
*'Amethyst'<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/56115/Passiflora-Amethyst/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector Passiflora 'Amethyst' AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=2021-01-25}}</ref>
*[[Passiflora × exoniensis|''P.'' × ''exoniensis'']]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/76115/Passiflora-x-exoniensis/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector Passiflora × exoniensis AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=2021-01-25}}</ref> (Exeter passion flower)
*[[Passiflora × violacea|''P.'' × ''violacea'']]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/60660/Passiflora-x-violacea/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector Passiflora × violacea AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=2021-01-25}}</ref>

During the [[Victorian era]] the flower (which in all but a few species lasts only one day) was very popular, and many hybrids were created using the [[winged-stem passion flower]] (''P.&nbsp;alata''), the [[blue passion flower]] (''P.&nbsp;caerulea'') and other tropical species.

Many cool-growing ''Passiflora'' from the Andes Mountains can be grown successfully for their beautiful flowers and fruit in cooler Mediterranean climates, such as the [[Monterey Bay]] and [[San Francisco]] in [[California]] and along the western coast of the U.S. into [[Canada]]. One blue passion flower or hybrid even grew to large size at [[Malmö Central Station]] in [[Sweden]].<ref>Petersen (1966)</ref>

Passion flowers have been a subject of studies investigating [[extranuclear inheritance]]; [[paternal]] inheritance of [[chloroplast]] DNA has been documented in this genus.<ref>E.g. Hansen ''et al.'' (2006)</ref> The [[plastome]] of the [[two-flowered passion flower]] (''P.&nbsp;biflora'') has been [[DNA sequencing|sequenced]].

===Fruit===
{{see also|Passion fruit (fruit)}}
[[File:Passion fruits - whole and halved.jpg|thumb|Ripe fruits of ''[[Passiflora edulis]]'']]

Most species have round or elongated edible fruit.

* The [[Passiflora edulis|passion fruit]] or {{lang|es|maracujá}} (''P. edulis'') is cultivated extensively in the [[Caribbean]], [[South America]], south [[Florida]] and [[South Africa]] for its fruit, which is used as a source of juice. A small pink fruit that wrinkles easily and a larger shiny yellow to orange fruit are traded under this name. The latter is usually considered just a [[variety (biology)|variety]] of ''flavicarpa'', but seems to be more distinct.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}
* [[Sweet granadilla]] (''P. ligularis'') is another widely grown species. In large parts of [[Africa]]  it is the plant called "passionfruit": confusingly, in [[South Africa]]n English the latter species is more often called ''granadilla'' (without an adjective). Its fruit is somewhat intermediate between the two sold as ''P.&nbsp;edulis''.
* [[Maypop]] (''P. incarnata''), a common species in the southeastern US. This is a subtropical representative of this mostly tropical family. However, unlike the more tropical cousins, this particular species is hardy enough to withstand the cold down to {{convert|-20|C|F}} before its roots die (it is native as far north as [[Pennsylvania]] and has been cultivated as far north as [[Boston]] and [[Chicago]].) The fruit is sweet, yellowish, and roughly the size of a chicken's egg; it enjoys some popularity as a native plant with edible fruit and few [[pest (organism)|pests]].
* [[Giant granadilla]] (giant tumbo or ''badea'', ''P.&nbsp;quadrangularis''), [[water lemon]] (''P.laurifolia'') and [[sweet calabash]] (''P. maliformis'') are ''Passiflora'' species locally famed for their fruit,<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Granadilla|volume=12|page=336}}</ref> but not widely known elsewhere {{as of|2008|lc=on}}.{{cn|date=October 2022<!-- this was added without support in 2008-->}}
* The [[Passiflora caerulea|blue passionflower]] (''Passiflora caerulea'') produces bright orange fruit with numerous seeds. While the fruit is edible, it is often described as being bland in comparison to other edible passionfruit, or with a flavour vaguely similar to [[Blackberry|blackberries]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Passiflora caerulea (Blue Passion Flower) |url=https://www.gardenia.net/plant/passiflora-caerulea-blue-passion-flower |access-date=2022-08-21 |website=Gardenia.net |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Passiflora vesicaria|Wild maracuja]] are the fruit of ''P.&nbsp;vesicaria'', which are popular in [[Southeast Asia]].
* [[Banana passionfruit]]s are the very elongated fruits of [[Passiflora tripartita|''P.&nbsp;tripartita'' var. ''mollissima'']] and ''[[Passiflora tarminiana|P.&nbsp;tarminiana]]''. These are locally eaten, but their invasive properties make them a poor choice to grow outside of their native range.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/cw_smith/impact.htm |title=Impact of Alien Plants on Hawai'i's Native Biota |author=Smith, Clifford W. |publisher=University of Hawaii |access-date=8 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713071816/http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/cw_smith/impact.htm |archive-date=13 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.html?sub=6142 |title=Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States |author= The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health and the National Park Service |date=17 February 2011 |access-date=8 March 2011}}</ref>

===Ayahuasca analog===
A native source of [[beta-carboline]]s (e.g., passion flower in North America) is mixed with ''[[Desmanthus illinoensis]]'' (Illinois bundleflower) root bark to produce a hallucinogenic drink called prairiehuasca, which is an analog of the shamanic brew [[ayahuasca]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Hegnauer, R. |author2=Hegnauer, M. |year=1996  |title=Caesalpinioideae und Mimosoideae Volume 1 Part 2 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9783764351656 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bUV8C6iLFkEC |page=199}}</ref>

===Traditional medicine and dietary supplement===

''[[Passiflora incarnata]]'' (maypop) leaves and roots have a long history of use as a [[traditional medicine]] by [[Indigenous people of the Americas|Native Americans]] in North America and were adapted by [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonists]].<ref name="nih">{{cite web |title=Passionflower |url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/passionflower |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |access-date=30 October 2019 |date=1 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="drugs">{{cite web |title=Passion flower |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/passion-flower.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=30 October 2019 |date=1 July 2018}}</ref> The fresh or dried leaves of maypop are used to make a tea that is used as a [[sedative]].<ref name=nih/> Passionflower as dried powder or an [[extract]] is used as a [[dietary supplement]].<ref name=nih/> There is insufficient [[evidence-based medicine|clinical evidence]] for using passionflower to treat any medical condition.<ref name=nih/><ref name=drugs/>

Passionflower is classified as [[generally recognized as safe]] for use as a [[food ingredient]] in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=172.510|title=Permitted Flavoring Agents and Related Substances; In: Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|date=1 April 2019|access-date=30 October 2019}}</ref>

== In culture ==
[[File:Passiflora caerulea (makro close-up).jpg|thumb|right|[[Blue passion flower]] (''P. caerulea'') showing most elements of the Christian symbolism]]
[[File:Passiflora Krishnakamal Karnataka India.jpg|thumb|right|''Passiflora'' 'Soi Fah', {{aka}} {{transliteration|mr|Krishnakamala}} in India]]

The ''passion'' in ''passion flower'' purportedly refers to [[Passion (Christianity)|the passion of Jesus]] in [[Christianity|Christian theology]];<ref name="Kostka">{{cite web |last=Kostka |first=Arun Oswin |title=Flowers in Christian Symbolism |url=http://saintscatholic.blogspot.com/p/saint-symbols.html}}</ref> the word ''passion'' comes from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|[[wikt:passio#Latin|passio]]}}, meaning 'suffering'. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish Christian missionaries adopted the unique physical structures of this plant, particularly the numbers of its various flower parts, as symbols of the last days of [[Jesus]] and especially his [[crucifixion]]:<ref name="Hammer2015">{{cite book |author=Roger L. Hammer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-S0aBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA206 |title=Everglades Wildflowers: A Field Guide to Wildflowers of the Historic Everglades, including Big Cypress, Corkscrew, and Fakahatchee Swamps |date=6 January 2015 |publisher=Falcon Guides |isbn=978-1-4930-1459-0 |pages=206–}}</ref>

* The pointed tips of the leaves were taken to represent the [[Holy Lance]].
* The [[tendril]]s represent the [[whip]]s used in the [[flagellation of Christ]].
* The ten [[petal]]s and [[sepal]]s represent the ten faithful [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]] (excluding [[St. Peter]], who denied Jesus three times, and [[Judas Iscariot]], who betrayed him).
* The flower's [[Perianth#Corona|radial filaments]], which can number more than a hundred and vary from flower to flower, represent the [[crown of thorns]].
* The [[Chalice (cup)|chalice]]-shaped [[Ovary (plants)|ovary]] with its [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]] represents the [[Holy Grail]].
* The three [[gynoecium|stigmas]] represent three [[Nail (fastener)|nails]] and the five [[anther]]s below them five hammers or five [[stigmata|wounds]] (four by the nails and one by the lance).
* The blue and white colors of many species' flowers represent [[Heaven]] and [[virtue|Purity]].
* In addition, the flower is open for three days, symbolising the three years of Jesus' ministry.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brewer |first=Ebenezer Cobham |title=The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable |publisher=Wordsworth Reference |edition=2001 |page=826}}</ref>

The flower has been given names related to this symbolism throughout Europe since the 15th century. In [[Spain]], it is known as {{Lang|es|espina de Cristo}} ('thorn of Christ'). Older [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] names<ref>Marzell (1927)</ref> include {{Lang|de|Christus-Krone}} ('Christ's crown'), {{Lang|de|Christus-Strauss}} ('Christ's bouquet'),<ref>"Christ's flower" is a mistranslation of Marzell (1927)</ref> {{Lang|de|Dorn-Krone}} ('crown of thorns'), {{Lang|nl|Jesus-Lijden}} ('Jesus' passion'), {{Lang|de|Marter}} ('passion')<ref>"Martyr" is a mistranslation of Marzell (1927)</ref> or {{Lang|de|Muttergottes-Stern}} ('Mother of God's star').<ref>''Muttergottes-Schuzchen'' (or ''-Schurzchen'') is a nonsensical misreading of Marzell (1927)</ref>

Outside the Roman Catholic heartland, the regularly shaped flowers have reminded people of the face of a [[clock]]. In [[Israel]] they are known as "clock-flower" ({{lang|he|שעונית}}) and in Greece as "clock plant" ({{Lang|el|ρολογιά}}); in [[Japan]] too, they are known as {{nihongo3|'clock plant'|時計草|tokeisō}}. In Hawaiian, they are called {{lang|haw|lilikoʻi}};<ref>{{Hawaiian Dictionaries|lilikoʻi|dic=pk|q=lilikoi|access-date=2014-11-02}}</ref> {{lang|haw|lī}} is a string used for tying fabric together, such as a [[shoelace]], and {{lang|haw|liko}} means 'to spring forth leave'.<ref>Pukui ''et al.'' (1992)</ref>

In [[India]], it is known as [[Krishnakamala]] because of its relation to the Epic [[Mahabharata]]. The 100 peripheral petals represent the 100 [[Kauravas]], while the 5 yellow petals in between stand for the [[Pandavas]]. The sensitive, but firm green bulb on top is [[Draupadi]], or [[Krishna]].

== Gallery ==
{{gallery|mode=packed
|Knospe der Passionsblume.JPG|Bud of the passion flower
|Passifloraincense.jpg|''Passiflora'' 'Incense', a hybrid of the Brazilian species ''[[Passiflora cincinnata|P.&nbsp;cincinnata]]'' and the American species ''[[Passiflora incarnata|P.&nbsp;incarnata]]''
|Passifloraclearsky.jpg|''[[Passiflora caerulea]]'' 'Clear''&nbsp;''Sky', a [[tetraploid]] selection of ''P.&nbsp;caerulea''
|20190910 110006-cr.jpg|Passion flower bloom in water
}}

==See also==
* [[List of culinary fruits]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Passiflora}}
{{NIE Poster|year=1905|Passion-flower}}
* {{EOL}}
* [http://www.passiflorasociety.org/ The Passiflora Society International]
* [https://archive.org/search.php?query=Fieldiana%20Killip Killip, The American Species of Passifloraceae, Fieldiana, Bot. 19 (1938)]
* [http://www.passionflow.co.uk/ Passiflora online]
* [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/passionfruit.html Passiflora edulis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200705210155/http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/passionfruit.html |date=5 July 2020 }}
* [http://www.floridanaturepictures.com/flowers/flowers.html Passiflora Picture Gallery]
* [http://www.chilebosque.cl/epiv/ppinn.html Chilean Passiflora pictures]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060711234117/http://www.heliconius.co.uk/foodplants.htm A list of Heliconius Butterflies and the Passiflora species their larvae consume]

{{Carnivorous plants}}
{{Passiflora}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q161185}}

[[Category:Passiflora| ]]
[[Category:Passifloraceae genera]]
[[Category:Butterfly food plants]]
[[Category:Flora of Central America]]
[[Category:Flora of Southern America]]
[[Category:Garden plants of North America]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Central America]]
[[Category:Garden plants of South America]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Edible fruits]]
[[Category:Tropical fruit]]
[[Category:Vines]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Ayahuasca analogs]]
[[Category:Passion of Jesus]]