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{{short description|Legislative body of government}}
{{About|the legislative institution}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2011}}{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{politics}}[[File:House of Commons 2010.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The facing benches of the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom]] are said to contribute to an adversarial style of debate.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmxVA92UkOQC&pg=PA141|title=Parliament Today|last=Rush|first=Michael|date=2005|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=9780719057953|page=141}}</ref>]]
[[File:Chamber_of_the_House_of_Representatives_of_Japan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[hemicycle]] of the [[House of Representatives (Japan)|House of Representatives]] of [[Japan]]]]
[[File:Bundesratswahl 2009 - Applaus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[National Council (Switzerland)|National Council]] of [[Switzerland]]]]

{{Legislature}}

A '''parliament''' is a [[legislature|type of legislature]], or law-making body, of a [[State (polity)|state]]. Generally, a parliament has three functions: [[Representation (politics)|representing]] the [[Election#Electorate|electorate]], making [[Law|laws]], and overseeing the [[Executive (government)|executive government]] via hearings and inquiries. Its role is similar to that of a [[senate]], [[synod]] or [[congress]]; a parliament is the institutional form of [[parliamentary system]]s based on the [[fusion of powers]]. The term ''parliament'' is commonly used in countries that are current or former [[monarchies]]. Some contexts restrict the use of the word to [[parliamentary system]]s, although it is also used to describe the legislature in some [[presidential system]]s (e.g., the [[Parliament of Ghana]]), even where it is not in the [[Legal name|official name]]. A parliament is typically made up of elected [[Member of parliament|members]], who are [[Legislator|legislators]].

Historically, parliaments included various kinds of deliberative, consultative, and judicial assemblies. Parliamentary gatherings in the [[Middle Ages]] began to establish that [[Monarch|monarchs]] were subject to law and first summoned representatives of common people, notably the [[Cortes of León]] in 1188, and an [[Simon de Montfort's Parliament|English parliament in 1265]], which developed into an enduring [[House of Commons of England|House of Commons]]. During the [[early modern period]], the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 in Britain established the primacy of [[parliamentary sovereignty]], through which the [[rule of law]] could be enforced. Many other modern concepts of parliamentary government developed in the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] (1707–1800) and were later exported to other countries around the world. The [[Revolutions of 1848|revolutions]] [[Revolutions of 1848|of 1848]] in Europe largely failed to strengthen parliaments in most European countries, as conservative forces regained control and reversed changes, but they made a return to the pre-1848 status quo impossible, leading to gradual, long-term parliamentary development across much of Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trencsényi |first=Balázs |url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198737148.001.0001/acprof-9780198737148 |title=A History of Modern Political Thought in East Central Europe: Volume I: Negotiating Modernity in the 'Long Nineteenth Century' |last2=Janowski |first2=Maciej |last3=Baar |first3=Monika |last4=Falina |first4=Maria |last5=Kopecek |first5=Michal |date=2016-02-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-873714-8 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198737148.003.0007}}</ref> Expansion of [[suffrage]] in the 19th and 20th centuries led to many parliaments around the world becoming [[democratically]] elected.
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==Etymology==
The English term is derived from [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] and dates to the 14th century, coming from the 11th century [[Old French]] word {{lang|fr|[[parlement]]}} {{gloss|discussion, discourse}}, from {{Lang|fr|parler}}, {{gloss|to talk}}.<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/word/parliament Parliament] Online Etymology Dictionary.</ref> The meaning evolved over time, originally referring to any discussion, conversation, or negotiation through various kinds of deliberative or judicial groups, often summoned by a monarch. By the 15th century, in Britain, it had come to specifically mean the legislature.<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', Third Edition, 2005, [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/137992 ''s.v.'']</ref>

==Early parliaments==
{{See also|History of parliamentarism}}
Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders. This is called [[tribalism]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/political-system Political System] Encyclopædia Britannica Online</ref> Some scholars suggest that in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] there was a primitive democratic government where the kings were assessed by council.<ref>Jacobsen, T. (July 1943). "Primitive Democracy in Ancient Mesopotamia". Journal of Near Eastern Studies 2 (3): 159–172. {{doi|10.1086/370672}}. {{JSTOR|542482}}.</ref> The same has been said about ancient India, where some form of deliberative assemblies existed, and therefore there was some form of [[democracy]].<ref>[[Eric W. Robinson|Robinson, E. W.]] (1997). [https://books.google.com/books?id=T1kfcobFRSMC The First Democracies: Early Popular Government Outside Athens]. Franz Steiner Verlag. {{ISBN|3-515-06951-8}}.</ref> However, these claims are not accepted by other scholars, who see these forms of government as [[oligarchies]].<ref>Bailkey, N. (July 1967). "Early Mesopotamian Constitutional Development". American History Review 72 (4): 1211–1236. {{doi|10.2307/1847791}}. {{JSTOR|1847791}}.</ref><ref>Larsen, J.A.O. (Jan. 1973). "Demokratia". Classical Philology 68 (1): 45–46. {{doi|10.1086/365921}}. {{JSTOR|268788}}.</ref><ref>de Sainte, C.G.E.M. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=LkYIAAAAIAAJ The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World]. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8014-1442-3}}.</ref><ref>Bongard-Levin, G.M. (1986). A complex study of Ancient India. South Asia Books. {{ISBN|81-202-0141-8}}.</ref><ref>Sharma, J.P. (1968). [https://books.google.com/books?id=sQKNAAAAMAAJ Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India]. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref>

[[Ancient Athens]] was the cradle of [[democracy]].<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ccoOfhyjFNEC&q=athens| title = John Dunn:''Democracy: A History'', p.24| isbn = 9780871139313| last1 = Dunn| first1 = John| year = 2005| publisher = Atlantic Monthly Press}}</ref> The [[Athenian assembly]] ({{lang|grc|ἐκκλησία}}, ''ekklesia'') was the most important institution, and every free male [[citizen]] could take part in the discussions. Slaves and women could not. However, [[Athenian democracy]] was not representative, but rather direct, and therefore the ''ekklesia'' was different from the parliamentary system.

The [[Roman Republic]] had [[Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic|legislative assemblies]], who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates, the enactment of new [[statute]]s, the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances.<ref>Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics. {{ISBN|0-543-92749-0}}.</ref> The [[Roman Senate]] controlled money, administration, and the details of foreign policy.<ref>Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. US Government Printing Office Senate Document 103–23.</ref>

Assemblies and councils were prevalent in Europe following the collapse of the Roman Empire. However, these assemblies are distinct from parliaments in several ways:

* The assemblies were not national (unlike parliaments), but instead localized to smaller pre-state polities.
* The assemblies lacked institutional regularity, formal structure, and distinctive agendas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=R. |first=Maddicott, J. |date=2010 |title=The Origins of the English Parliament, 924-1327 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/32533 |journal=Oxford University Press |language=en |pages=2 |doi=10.1093/acprof:o |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250913145456/https://academic.oup.com/book/32533 |archive-date=2025-09-13}}</ref>

The Parliament of England is unique by retaining the same parliamentary structure from its establishment in 1265 to the present, almost without interruption.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boucoyannis |first=Deborah |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/kings-as-judges/1C3CD368959E253F85A95BC36E0CF6CD |title=Kings as Judges: Power, Justice, and the Origins of Parliaments |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16279-2 |pages=5}}</ref>

===England===
{{main|Parliament of England}}

====Early forms of assembly====
England has long had a tradition of a body of men who would assist and advise the king on important matters. Under the [[Anglo-Saxon]] kings, there was an advisory council, the [[Witenagemot]]. The name derives from the [[Old English]] ƿitena ȝemōt, or witena gemōt, for "meeting of wise men". The first recorded act of a witenagemot was [[Law of Æthelberht|the law code issued by King Æthelberht]] of Kent around 600, the earliest document which survives in sustained Old English prose; however, the Witan was certainly in existence long before then.<ref>Liebermann, Felix, The National Assembly in the Anglo-Saxon Period (Halle, 1913; repr. New York, 1961).</ref> The Witan, along with the folkmoots (local assemblies), is an important ancestor of the modern English parliament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/origins/|title=Anglo-Saxon origins|work=UK Parliament}}</ref>

As part of the [[Norman Conquest]], the new king, [[William I of England|William I]], did away with the Witenagemot, replacing it with a [[Curia Regis]] ("King's Council"). Membership of the Curia was largely restricted to the [[tenant-in-chief|tenants-in-chief]], the few nobles who "rented" great estates directly from the king, along with [[ecclesiastic]]s. William brought to England the [[feudal system]] of his native [[Normandy]], and sought the advice of the Curia Regis before making laws. This is the original body from which the Parliament, the higher courts of law, and the [[Privy Council]] and Cabinet descend. Of these, the legislature is formally the High Court of Parliament; judges sit in the [[Senior Courts of England and Wales|Supreme Court of Judicature]]. Only the executive government is no longer conducted in a royal court.

Most historians date the emergence of a parliament with some degree of power, to which the throne had to defer, no later than the reign of [[Edward I of England|Edward I]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kaeuper|first=Richard W.|title=War Justice and Public Order: England and France in the Later Middle Ages|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=1988|isbn=9780198228738|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z35oAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Like previous kings, Edward called leading nobles and church leaders to discuss government matters, especially [[finance]] and [[taxation]]. A meeting in 1295 became known as the [[Model Parliament]] because it set the pattern for later Parliaments. The significant difference between the Model Parliament and the earlier Curia Regis was the addition of the Commons: that is, the inclusion of elected representatives of rural landowners and of townsmen. In 1307, Edward agreed not to collect certain taxes without the "consent of the realm" through parliament. He also enlarged the court system.

====''Magna Carta'' and the model parliament====
[[File:Magna Carta (British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106).jpg|thumb|A 1215 edition of ''[[Magna Carta]]'', as featured on display at the British Library]]
The tenants-in-chief often struggled for power with the ecclesiastics and the king. In 1215, they secured ''[[Magna Carta]]'' from [[John of England|King John of England]]. This established that the king may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of a council. It was also established that the most important tenants-in-chief and ecclesiastics be summoned to the council by personal writs from the sovereign, and that all others be summoned to the council by general writs from the [[sheriff]]s of their counties. Modern government has its origins in the Curia Regis; parliament descends from the Great Council, later known as the ''parliamentum'', established by ''Magna Carta''.

During the reign of [[Henry III of England|King Henry III]] (13th century), [[Parliament of England|English Parliaments]] included elected representatives from shires and towns. Thus these parliaments are considered forerunners of the modern parliament.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/firstparliaments/ |title=Birth of the English Parliament: The first Parliaments |publisher=Parliament.uk |access-date=13 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101013132032/http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/firstparliaments/ |archive-date=13 October 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

In 1265, [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]], then in rebellion against Henry III, summoned [[Simon de Montfort's Parliament|a parliament]] of his supporters without royal authorisation. The [[archbishop]]s, [[bishop]]s, [[abbot]]s, [[earl]]s, and [[baron]]s were summoned, as were two [[knight]]s from each shire and two [[burgess (title)|burgesses]] from each [[borough]]. Knights had been summoned to previous councils, but it was unprecedented for the boroughs to be represented. In 1295, [[Edward I of England|Edward I]]  adopted De Montfort's ideas for representation and election in the so-called "[[Model Parliament]]". At first, each [[Estates of the realm|estate]] debated independently; by the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], however, Parliament had grown closer to its modern form, with the legislative body having two separate chambers.

====Parliament under Henry VIII and Edward VI====
The purpose and structure of Parliament in Tudor England underwent a significant transformation under the reign of [[Henry VIII]]. Originally its methods were primarily medieval, and the monarch still possessed a form of inarguable dominion over its decisions. According to Elton, it was [[Thomas Cromwell]], 1st Earl of Essex, then chief minister to Henry VIII, who initiated still other changes within parliament.

The [[Acts of Supremacy]] established the monarch as head of the Church of England.

====Civil War and beyond====
The power of Parliament, in its relationship with the monarch, increased considerably after the [[English Civil War|Civil War]], and again at the [[Glorious Revolution]]. It also provided the country with unprecedented stability. More stability, in turn, helped assure more effective management, organisation, and efficiency. Parliament printed statutes and devised a more coherent [[parliamentary procedure]].

The rise of Parliament proved especially important in the sense that it limited the repercussions of dynastic complications that had so often plunged England into civil war. Parliament still ran the country even in the absence of suitable heirs to the throne, and its legitimacy as a decision-making body reduced the royal prerogatives of kings like Henry VIII and the importance of their whims. For example, Henry VIII could not simply establish supremacy by proclamation; he required Parliament to enforce statutes and add felonies and treasons. An important liberty for Parliament was its freedom of speech; Henry allowed anything to be spoken openly within Parliament and speakers could not face arrest – a fact which they exploited incessantly. Nevertheless, Parliament in Henry VIII's time offered up very little objection to the monarch's desires. Under his and [[Edward I of England|Edward]]'s reign, the legislative body complied willingly with the majority of the kings' decisions.

Much of this compliance stemmed from how the English viewed and traditionally understood authority. As Williams described it, "King and parliament were not separate entities, but a single body, of which the monarch was the senior partner and the Lords and the Commons the lesser, but still essential, members."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Monaghan |first1=E. Jennifer |title=Learning to Read and Write in Colonial America |date=2002 |publisher=University of Massachusetts Press}}</ref>

[[File:Statue_of_Oliver_Cromwell_280_tcm4-569959.jpg|thumb|The statue of [[Oliver Cromwell]], as it stands outside the House of Commons at the Palace of Westminster]]

Although its role in government had expanded significantly in the mid-16th century, the Parliament of England saw some of its most important gains in the 17th century. A [[English Civil War|series of conflicts]] between the Crown and Parliament culminated in the execution of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] in 1649. For a brief period, England became a [[Commonwealth of England|commonwealth]], with [[Oliver Cromwell]] the de facto ruler, with the title of [[Lord Protector]]. Frustrated with its decisions, Cromwell purged and suspended Parliament on several occasions.

A controversial figure notorious for [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland|his actions in Ireland]], Cromwell is nonetheless regarded as essential to the growth of democracy in England.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/timelines/zttpsbk |title = Was Oliver Cromwell the father of British democracy? |publisher=BBC |work= iWonder |access-date=5 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151121190743/https://www.bbc.co.uk/timelines/zttpsbk |archive-date= Nov 21, 2015 }}</ref> The years of the Commonwealth, coupled with the [[Restoration (1660)|restoration of the monarchy]] in 1660 and the subsequent [[Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution of 1688]], helped reinforce and strengthen Parliament as an institution separate from the Crown.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2jwAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |title=Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1139991384 |editor1-last=Kopstein |editor1-first=Jeffrey |edition=4, revised |pages=37–9 |quote=Britain pioneered the system of liberal democracy that has now spread in one form or another to most of the world's countries |access-date=31 August 2017 |editor2-last=Lichbach |editor2-first=Mark |editor3-last=Hanson |editor3-first=Stephen E. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630231313/https://books.google.com/books?id=L2jwAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |archive-date=30 June 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="refIIP">{{cite web |title=Constitutionalism: America & Beyond |url=http://www.ait.org.tw/infousa/zhtw/DOCS/Demopaper/dmpaper2.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024130317/http://www.ait.org.tw/infousa/zhtw/DOCS/Demopaper/dmpaper2.html |archive-date=24 October 2014 |accessdate=30 October 2014 |publisher=Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP), U.S. Department of State |quote=The earliest, and perhaps greatest, victory for liberalism was achieved in England. The rising commercial class that had supported the Tudor monarchy in the 16th century led the revolutionary battle in the 17th, and succeeded in establishing the supremacy of Parliament and, eventually, of the House of Commons. What emerged as the distinctive feature of modern constitutionalism was not the insistence on the idea that the king is subject to law (although this concept is an essential attribute of all constitutionalism). This notion was already well established in the Middle Ages. What was distinctive was the establishment of effective means of political control whereby the rule of law might be enforced. Modern constitutionalism was born with the political requirement that representative government depended upon the consent of citizen subjects... However, as can be seen through provisions in the 1689 Bill of Rights, the English Revolution was fought not just to protect the rights of property (in the narrow sense) but to establish those liberties which liberals believed essential to human dignity and moral worth. The "rights of man" enumerated in the English Bill of Rights gradually were proclaimed beyond the boundaries of England, notably in the American Declaration of Independence of 1776 and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lodge |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBSpvBxGyqcC |title=The History of England&nbsp;– From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702) |publisher=Read Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4067-0897-4 |page=8 |access-date=29 September 2020 |orig-date=1910 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140723/https://books.google.com/books?id=EBSpvBxGyqcC |archive-date=28 March 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>

====Acts of Union====
The Parliament of England met until it merged with the [[Parliament of Scotland]] under the [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]]. This union created the new [[Parliament of Great Britain]] in 1707. The Parliament of the United Kingdom followed at the union with Ireland.

===France===
{{main|Estates General (France)}}

Originally, there was only the [[Parlement of Paris]], born out of the Curia Regis in 1307, and located inside the medieval royal palace, now the [[Paris Hall of Justice]]. The jurisdiction of the ''Parliament'' of Paris covered the entire kingdom. In the thirteenth century, judicial functions were added. In 1443, following the turmoil of the [[Hundred Years' War]], King [[Charles VII of France]] granted [[Languedoc]] its own ''parliament'' by establishing the ''Parliament'' of [[Toulouse]], the first ''parliament'' outside of Paris, whose jurisdiction extended over the most part of southern France. From 1443 until the [[French Revolution]] several other ''parliaments'' were created in some provinces of France ([[Grenoble]], [[Bordeaux]]).

All the ''parliaments'' could issue regulatory decrees for the application of royal edicts or of customary practices; they could also refuse to register laws that they judged contrary to fundamental law or simply as being untimely. Parliamentary power in France was suppressed more so than in England as a result of [[Absolute monarchy|absolutism]], and parliaments were eventually overshadowed by the larger [[Estates General (France)|Estates General]], up until the [[French Revolution]], when the last Estates General transformed itself into a [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]], a legislative body whose existence is independent of the royal power.

===Germanic and Nordic countries===
[[File:Alþingishúsið.jpg|thumb|right|Iceland's parliament house, the [[Alþingishúsið]], at [[Austurvöllur]] in [[Reykjavík]], built in 1880–1881, home of one of the oldest still-acting parliaments in the world]]
A ''[[thing (assembly)|thing]]'' or ''ting'' ([[Old Norse]] and {{langx|is|þing}}; other modern [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]]: ''ting'', ''ding'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) was the governing assembly in [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] societies, made up of the free men of the community and presided by [[lawspeaker]]s.

The thing was the assembly of the free men of a country, province or a [[hundred (division)|hundred]] ''(hundare/härad/herred)''. There were consequently, hierarchies of things, so that the local things were represented at the thing for a larger area, for a province or land. At the thing, disputes were solved and political decisions were made. The place for the thing was often also the place for public religious rites and for commerce.

The thing met at regular intervals, legislated, elected [[Germanic chieftains|chieftains]] and [[Germanic king|kings]], and judged according to the law, which was memorised and recited by the "[[law speaker]]" (the judge).

The Icelandic, Faroese and Manx parliaments trace their origins back to the [[Viking expansion]] originating from the [[petty kingdoms of Norway]] as well as Denmark, replicating Viking government systems in the conquered territories, such as those represented by the [[Gulating]] near Bergen in western Norway:{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}
* The Icelandic [[Althing]], dating from 930.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurstwic.org/history/articles/society/text/laws.htm|title= Viking-age Laws and Legal Procedures |website=Hurstwic |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214225600/https://www.hurstwic.org/history/articles/society/text/laws.htm |archive-date= Dec 14, 2023 }}</ref>
* The Faroese [[Løgting]], dating from a similar period.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logting.fo/files/File/2008/faldari_EN_web.pdf|title=The Faroese Parliament |publisher=Løgting |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126201839/https://www.logting.fo/files/File/2008/faldari_EN_web.pdf |archive-date= Nov 26, 2023 }}</ref>
* The Manx [[Tynwald]], which claims to be over 1,000 years old.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.tynwald.org.im/about/Pages/default.aspx |title=About |publisher=Tynwald |access-date=14 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120602004259/http://www.tynwald.org.im/about/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date= Jun 2, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Downie |first=Leonard Jr. |date=6 July 1979 |title=Isle of Man Marks Millennium with Pomp, Circumstance |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/07/06/isle-of-man-marks-millennium-with-pomp-circumstance/abbf8543-2bfb-4d8d-a3d3-7aa2949b10a7/ | newspaper=The Washington Post |location= Washington DC |access-date=24 March 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Robinson |first1=Vaughan |last2=McCarroll |first2=Danny |title=The Isle of Man: celebrating a sense of place |publisher=[[Liverpool University Press]] |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-85323-036-6 |page=123 }}</ref>

[[File:Eduskunta istuntosali.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Art Deco|Art Deco-styled]] session hall of the [[Parliament House, Helsinki|Parliament House of Finland]]]]
Later national diets with chambers for different estates developed, e.g. in Sweden and in Finland (which was part of Sweden until 1809), each with a [[Swedish House of Nobility|House of Knights]] for the nobility. In both these countries, the national parliaments are now called [[Riksdag of the Estates|riksdag]] (in Finland also ''eduskunta''), a word used since the Middle Ages and equivalent of the German word [[Reichstag (disambiguation)|Reichstag]]<!--intentional link to DAB page-->.

Today the term lives on in the official names of national legislatures and other institutions in the North Germanic{{clarify|date=July 2023}} countries. In [[Yorkshire]] and former [[Danelaw]] areas of England, which were subject to Norse invasion and settlement, the [[wapentake]] was another name for the same institution.

In the [[Low Countries]], the equivalent assembly developed into the [[States General of the Netherlands|States-General]] (''Staten-Generaal''), which first met in [[Bruges]] in 1464 as a gathering of representatives from the provinces of the [[Burgundian Netherlands]]. Initially a feudal consultative body convened by the [[Duke of Burgundy]], it evolved during the [[Dutch Revolt]] (1568–1648) into a [[sovereign state|sovereign]] assembly of the [[Dutch Republic]], and later became the [[bicameral]] parliament of [[the Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationaalarchief.nl/onderzoeken/archief/1.01.02|title=Archief van de Staten-Generaal|publisher=[[Nationaal Archief]]|access-date=1 November 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=States General|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/States-General-Dutch-history|access-date=1 November 2025}}</ref>

===Italy===
The [[Sicilian Parliament]], dating to 1097, evolved as the legislature of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://sites.google.com/site/ilparlamento02/storia-del-parlamento| title = Storia del Parlamento – Il Parlamento| access-date = 24 March 2014| archive-date = 27 June 2022| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220627095732/https://sites.google.com/site/ilparlamento02/storia-del-parlamento| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>Enzo Gancitano, ''Mazara dopo i Musulmani fino alle Signorie – Dal Vescovado all'Inquisizione'', Angelo Mazzotta Editore, 2001, p. 30.</ref>

===Hungary===
{{main|Diet of Hungary}}

[[File:Hungarian_Parliament_Building_-_Council_Hall_(27368050660).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Interior of the [[Hungarian Parliament Building]] (in Hungarian: Országház)]]The Diet of Hungary, or originally Parlamentum Publicum and Parlamentum Generale <ref>András Gergely, Gábor Máthé: The Hungarian state: thousand years in Europe (published in 2000)</ref> ({{langx|hu|Országgyűlés}}), became the supreme legislative institution in the [[Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages|medieval kingdom of Hungary]] from the 1290s,<ref>[[Elemér Hantos]]: The Magna Carta of the English And of the Hungarian Constitution (1904)</ref> and in its successor states, [[Royal Hungary]] and the [[Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen|Habsburg kingdom of Hungary]] throughout the [[Early Modern period]]. The name of the legislative body was originally "Parlamentum" during the Middle Ages, the "Diet" expression gained mostly in the Early Modern period.<ref>Cecil Marcus Knatchbull-Hugessen Brabourne (4th Baron): The political evolution of the Hungarian nation: (Volume I. in 1908)</ref> It convened at regular intervals with interruptions during the period of 1527 to 1918, and again until 1946.

Some researchers have traced the roots of the Hungarian institution of national assemblies as far back as the 11th century. This based on documentary evidence that, on certain "important occasions" under the reigns of [[Ladislaus I of Hungary|King Ladislaus I]] and [[Coloman of Hungary|King Coloman]] "the Learned", assemblies were held on a national scale where both ecclesiastic and secular dignitaries made appearances.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Zoltán |last1=Szente |title=The Historic Origins of the National Assembly in Hungary|url=http://www.historiaconstitucional.com/index.php/historiaconstitucional/article/viewFile/37/28 |website=Historia Constitucional |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151122040412/http://www.historiaconstitucional.com/index.php/historiaconstitucional/article/viewFile/37/28 |archive-date= Nov 22, 2015 }}</ref>
The first exact written mention of the word "parlamentum" (Parliament) for the nationwide assembly originated during the reign of [[Andrew II of Hungary|King Andrew II]] in the [[Golden Bull of 1222]], which reaffirmed the rights of the smaller nobles of the old and new classes of royal servants (servientes regis) against both the crown and the magnates, and to defend the rights of the whole nation against the crown by restricting the powers of the latter in certain fields and legalizing refusal to obey its unlawful/unconstitutional commands (the "''ius resistendi''").
The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that evolved into the institution of the Hungarian Diet.

An institutionalized Hungarian parliament emerged during the 14th and 15th centuries. Beginning under [[Charles I of Hungary|King Charles I]], continuing under subsequent kings through into the reign of [[Matthias Corvinus|King Matthias I]], the Diet was essentially convened by the king. However, under the rule of heavy handed kings like Louis the Great and during reign of the early absolutist Matthias Corvinus the parliaments were often convened to announce the royal decisions, and had no significant power of its own. Since the reign of the Jagiellonian dynasty, the parliament has regained most of its former power.

===Poland===
[[File:The_First_Sejm_1182.jpg|thumb|The First Sejm in Łęczyca. Recording of laws. A.D. 1180]]
According to the ''[[Chronicle]]s'' of [[Gallus Anonymus]], the first legendary Polish ruler, [[Siemowit]], who began the [[Piast dynasty]], was chosen by an ancient ''[[Veche|wiec]]'' council. The idea of the ''wiec'' led to the development of the Polish parliament, the ''[[Sejm]]'', in around 1180.
[[File:20070907 sejm rp 100B5000.jpg|thumb|The modern [[Sejm]]]]
The term "sejm" comes from an old Polish expression denoting a meeting of the populace. The power of early sejms grew between 1146 and 1295, when the power of individual rulers waned and various councils grew stronger. Since the 14th century irregular sejms (described in various [[Latin]] sources as ''contentio generalis, conventio magna, conventio solemna, parlamentum, parlamentum generale, dieta'') have been convened by Poland's monarchs. From 1374, the king had to receive permission from that assembly to raise [[tax]]es and the 1454 [[Nieszawa Statutes]] granted the [[szlachta]] (nobles) unprecedented concessions and authority. The General Sejm (Polish ''sejm generalny'' or ''sejm walny''), first convoked by the [[John I Albert]] in 1493 near [[Piotrków Trybunalski|Piotrków]], evolved from earlier regional and provincial meetings called ''[[sejmik]]s''. Simultaneously, the [[Senate of Poland|Senate]] was founded on the earlier ''[[curia regis]]'', convened at the king's discretion. Hence, the year 1493 marked the beginning of a [[Bicameral parliament|bicameral legislative body of government]]. With the subsequent development of Polish [[Golden Liberty]] in the next several decades, the Sejm's powers systematically increased. Poland was among the few countries in Europe where the parliament played an especially important role in its national identity as it contributed to the unity of the nation and the state. 

The general parliament of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] consisted of three estates – the King of Poland, the Senate (consisting of Ministers, Palatines, Castellans and Roman Catholic Bishops) and the Chamber of Envoys comprising 170 nobles acting on behalf of their holdings as well as representatives of major cities, who did not possess any voting privileges. In 1573, a convocation sejm established an [[Royal elections in Poland|elective monarchy]] in the Commonwealth.

===Portugal===
{{main|Portuguese Cortes}}

After its self-proclamation as an independent kingdom in 1139 by [[Afonso I of Portugal]] (followed by the recognition by the [[Kingdom of León]] in the [[Treaty of Zamora]] of 1143), the first historically established Cortes of the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] occurred in 1211 in [[Coimbra]] by initiative of [[Afonso II of Portugal]]. These established the first general laws of the kingdom (''Leis Gerais do Reino''): protection of the king's property, stipulation of measures for the administration of justice and the rights of his subjects to be protected from abuses by royal officials, and confirming the clerical donations of the previous king [[Sancho I of Portugal]]. 

After the conquest of [[Algarve]] in 1249, the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] completed its [[Reconquista]]. In 1254 King [[Afonso III of Portugal]] summoned [[Portuguese Cortes]] in [[Leiria]], with the inclusion of [[bourgeoisie|burghers]] from old and newly incorporated municipalities. This inclusion establishes the Cortes of Leiria of 1254 as the second sample of modern [[parliamentarism]] in the history of Europe (after the [[Cortes of León]] in 1188). In these Cortes the [[monetagio]] was introduced: a fixed sum was to be paid by the burghers to the Crown as a substitute for the [[septennium]] (the traditional revision of the face value of coinage by the Crown every seven years). These Cortes also introduced [[Staple right|staple]] laws on the [[Douro River]], favoring the new royal city of [[Vila Nova de Gaia]] at the expense of the old episcopal city of Porto.

The [[Portuguese Cortes]] met again under King [[Afonso III of Portugal]] in 1256, 1261 and 1273, always by royal summon. Medieval Kings of Portugal continued to rely on small assemblies of notables, and only summoned the full Cortes on extraordinary occasions. A Cortes would be called if the king wanted to introduce new taxes, change some fundamental laws, announce significant shifts in foreign policy (e.g. ratify treaties), or settle matters of royal succession, issues where the cooperation and assent of the towns was thought necessary. Changing taxation (especially requesting war subsidies), was probably the most frequent reason for convening the Cortes. As the nobles and clergy were largely tax-exempt, setting taxation involved intensive negotiations between the royal council and the [[bourgeoisie|burgher]] delegates at the Cortes.

Delegates (''procuradores'') not only considered the king's proposals, but, in turn, also used the Cortes to submit petitions of their own to the royal council on a myriad of matters, e.g. extending and confirming town privileges, punishing abuses of officials, introducing new price controls, constraints on [[Jews]], pledges on coinage, etc. The royal response to these petitions became enshrined as ordinances and statutes, thus giving the Cortes the aspect of a legislature. These petitions were originally referred to as ''aggravamentos'' (grievances) then ''artigos'' (articles) and eventually ''capitulos'' (chapters). In a Cortes-Gerais, petitions were discussed and voted upon separately by each estate and required the approval of at least two of the three estates before being passed up to the royal council. The proposal was then subject to royal veto (either accepted or rejected by the king in its entirety) before becoming law.

Nonetheless, the exact extent of Cortes power was ambiguous. Kings insisted on their ancient prerogative to promulgate laws independently of the Cortes. The compromise, in theory, was that ordinances enacted in Cortes could only be modified or repealed by Cortes. But even that principle was often circumvented or ignored in practice.

The Cortes probably had their heyday in the 14th and 15th centuries, reaching their apex when [[John I of Portugal]] relied almost wholly upon the bourgeoisie for his power. For a period after the 1383–1385 Crisis, the Cortes were convened almost annually. But as time went on, they became less important. Portuguese monarchs, tapping into the riches of the [[Portuguese empire]] overseas, grew less dependent on Cortes subsidies and convened them less frequently. [[John II of Portugal|John II]] (r.1481-1495) used them to break the high nobility, but dispensed with them otherwise. [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] (r.1495-1521) convened them only four times in his long reign. By the time of [[Sebastian of Portugal|Sebastian]] (r.1554–1578), the Cortes was practically an irrelevance.

Curiously, the Cortes gained a new importance with the Iberian Union of 1581, finding a role as the representative of Portuguese interests to the new [[Habsburg]] monarch. The Cortes played a critical role in the [[1640 Restoration]], and enjoyed a brief period of resurgence during the reign of [[John IV of Portugal]] (r.1640-1656). But by the end of the 17th century, it found itself sidelined once again. The last Cortes met in 1698, for the mere formality of confirming the appointment of Infante John (future [[John V of Portugal]]) as the successor of [[Peter II of Portugal]]. Thereafter, Portuguese kings ruled as absolute monarchs and no Cortes were assembled for over a century. This state of affairs came to an end with the [[Liberal Revolution of 1820]], which set in motion the introduction of a new constitution, and a permanent and proper parliament, that however inherited the name of Cortes Gerais.

===Russia===
[[File:Фракция ЕР В Зале Пленарных Заседаний ГД.JPG|thumb|[[State Duma]] of the [[Federal Assembly of Russia]]]]
The [[Zemsky Sobor|zemsky sobor]] (Russian: зе́мский собо́р) was the first Russian parliament of the feudal Estates type, in the 16th and 17th centuries. The term roughly means assembly of the land.

It could be summoned either by [[Tsardom of Russia|tsar]], or [[Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'|patriarch]], or the [[Boyar Duma]]. Three categories of population, comparable to the Estates-General of France but with the numbering of the first two Estates reversed, participated in the assembly:

* Nobility and high bureaucracy, including the Boyar Duma
* The Holy Sobor of high [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] clergy
* Representatives of merchants and townspeople (third estate)

The name of the parliament of nowadays Russian Federation is the [[Federal Assembly of Russia]]. The term for its lower house, [[State Duma]] (which is better known than the Federal Assembly itself, and is often mistaken for the entirety of the parliament) comes from the Russian word ''думать'' (''dumat''),  "to think". The [[Boyar Duma]] was an advisory council to the [[grand prince]]s and [[tsars]] of [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]]. The Duma was discontinued by [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], who transferred its functions to the [[Governing Senate]] in 1711.

====Novgorod and Pskov====
The ''[[veche]]'' was the highest legislature and judicial authority in the republic of [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] until 1478. In its sister state, [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]], a separate veche operated until 1510.

Since the Novgorod revolution of 1137 ousted the ruling [[grand prince]], the veche became the supreme state authority. After the reforms of 1410, the veche was restructured on a model similar to that of [[Venice]], becoming the [[Commons]] chamber of the parliament. An upper [[Senate]]-like Council of Lords was also created, with title membership for all former city magistrates. Some sources indicate that veche membership may have become full-time, and parliament deputies were now called ''vechniks''.  It is recounted that the Novgorod assembly could be summoned by anyone who rung the veche [[bell (instrument)|bell]], although it is more likely that the common procedure was more complex. This bell was a symbol of republican sovereignty and independence. The whole population of the city—boyars, merchants, and common citizens—then gathered at [[Yaroslav's Court]]. Separate assemblies could be held in the districts of Novgorod. In Pskov the veche assembled in the court of the [[Trinity Cathedral in Pskov|Trinity cathedral]].

===Roman Catholic Church===
{{main|Conciliarism}}

"[[Conciliarism]]" or the "conciliar movement", was a reform movement in the 14th and 15th century [[Roman Catholic Church]] which held that final authority in spiritual matters resided with the Roman Church as corporation of Christians, embodied by a [[Ecumenical council|general church council]], not with the [[pope]]. In effect, the movement sought – ultimately, in vain – to create an All-Catholic Parliament. Its struggle with the Papacy had many points in common with the struggle of parliaments in specific countries against the authority of Kings and other secular rulers.

===Scotland===
{{main|Parliament of Scotland|Scottish Parliament}}

[[File:Scottish Parliament, Main Debating Chamber - geograph.org.uk - 1650829.jpg|thumb|The debating chamber of the reconvened [[Scottish Parliament]] from the public gallery]]
From the 10th century the [[Kingdom of Alba]] was ruled by chiefs (''[[Taoiseach|toisechs]]'') and subkings (''[[mormaers]]'') under the [[suzerainty]], real or nominal, of a [[High King]]. Popular assemblies, as in Ireland, were involved in law-making, and sometimes in king-making, although the introduction of [[tanistry]]—naming a successor in the lifetime of a king—made the second less than common. These early assemblies cannot be considered "parliaments" in the later sense of the word, and were entirely separate from the later, Norman-influenced, institution.

The [[Parliament of Scotland]] evolved during the [[Middle Ages]] from the King's Council of Bishops and Earls. The unicameral parliament is first found on record, referred to as a ''[[Parliament of Scotland|colloquium]]'', in 1235 at [[Kirkliston]] (a village now in [[Edinburgh]]).

By the early fourteenth century the attendance of knights and [[freehold (law)|freeholders]] had become important, and from 1326 [[burgh]] commissioners attended. Consisting of the Three Estates; of [[clerics]], lay [[tenant-in-chief|tenants-in-chief]] and burgh commissioners sitting in a single chamber, the Scottish parliament acquired significant powers over particular issues. Most obviously it was needed for consent for [[taxation]] (although taxation was only raised irregularly in Scotland in the [[medieval]] period), but it also had a strong influence over [[justice]], [[foreign policy]], war, and all manner of other legislation, whether political, ecclesiastical, social or economic. Parliamentary business was also carried out by "sister" institutions, before c. 1500 by [[General Council (Scotland)|General Council]] and thereafter by the [[Convention of Estates]]. These could carry out much business also dealt with by Parliament – taxation, legislation and policy-making – but lacked the ultimate authority of a full parliament.

The parliament, which is also referred to as the Estates of Scotland, the Three Estates, the Scots Parliament or the auld Scots Parliament ([[English language|Eng]]: ''old''), met until the [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]] merged the Parliament of Scotland and the [[Parliament of England]], creating the new [[Parliament of Great Britain]] in 1707.

Following the [[1997 Scottish devolution referendum]], and the passing of the [[Scotland Act 1998]] by the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]], the [[Scottish Parliament]] was reconvened on 1 July 1999, although with much more limited powers than its 18th-century predecessor. The parliament has sat since 2004 at its newly constructed [[Scottish Parliament Building]] in Edinburgh, situated at the foot of the [[Royal Mile]], next to the royal palace of [[Holyroodhouse]].

===Spain===
[[File:Daoiz o Velarde.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Congress of Deputies]], the lower house of the [[Spanish Parliament]]]]
{{main|Cortes Generales}}

Although there are documented councils held in 873, 1020, 1050 and 1063, there was no representation of commoners. What is considered to be the first parliament, the [[Cortes of León]], was held in the [[Kingdom of León]] in 1188.<ref>Michael Burger: The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity To the Enlightenment. Page: 190</ref><ref>Susana Galera: Judicial Review: A Comparative Analysis Inside the European Legal System. Page: 21</ref><ref>Gaines Post: Studies in Medieval Legal Thought: Public Law And the State, 1100–1322 Page 62</ref> According to the UNESCO, the Decreta of Leon of 1188 is the oldest documentary manifestation of the European parliamentary system. In addition, UNESCO granted the 1188 Cortes of Alfonso IX the title of "Memory of the World" and the city of [[León, Spain|Leon]] has been recognized as the "Cradle of Parliamentarism".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aytoleon.es/ES/AYUNTAMIENTO/CUNADELPARLAMENTARISMO/Paginas/cuna_parlamentarismo_ingles.aspx|title=Ayuntamiento de León – León, cradle of parliamentarism|website=www.aytoleon.es|access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2013/06/19/castillayleon/1371632533.html|title=La Unesco reconoce a León Como Cuna Mundial del parlamentarismo|last=Internet|first=Unidad Editorial|access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref>

After coming to power, King [[Alfonso IX]], facing an attack by his two neighbors, [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Portugal]], decided to summon his [[curia regis|royal council]] ({{langx|la|curia regis}}). This was a medieval organization composed of aristocrats and bishops but because of the seriousness of the situation and the need to maximize political support, Alfonso IX took the decision to also call the representatives of the urban middle class from the most important cities of the kingdom to the assembly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/spain_decreta_of_leon.pdf |title=International Memory of the World Register [Nomination form] – The Decreta of León of 1188 – The oldest documentary manifestation of the European parliamentary system|author=Spain|date=February 2012|access-date=21 May 2016}}</ref> León's Cortes dealt with matters like the right to [[private property]], the inviolability of domicile, the right to appeal to justice opposite the King and the obligation of the King to consult the Cortes before entering a war.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.interun.ru/ss/interun/u/files/charterv_e.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070224/http://www.interun.ru/ss/interun/u/files/charterv_e.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 March 2016|title=The Leones parliament of 1188: The first parliament of the western world (The Magna Carta of Alfonso IX)|author=Catedrático de la Universidad Estatal de León López González, Hermenegildo; Catedrático de la Universidad Internacional en Moscú Raytarovskiy, V.V.|access-date=21 May 2016}}</ref> Prelates, nobles, and commoners met separately in the three estates of the Cortes. In this meeting, new laws were approved to protect commoners against the arbitrarities of nobles, prelates, and the king. This important set of laws is known as the {{lang|la|Carta Magna Leonesa}}.

Following this event, new Cortes would appear in the other different territories that would make up Spain: [[Principality of Catalonia]] in 1192, the [[Kingdom of Castile]] in 1250, [[Kingdom of Aragon]] in 1274, [[Kingdom of Valencia]] in 1283 and [[Kingdom of Navarre]] in 1300.

After the union of the Kingdoms of Leon and Castile under the [[Crown of Castile]], their Cortes were united as well in 1258. The Castilian Cortes had representatives from Burgos, Toledo, León, Seville, Córdoba, Murcia, Jaén, Zamora, Segovia, Ávila, Salamanca, Cuenca, Toro, Valladolid, Soria, Madrid, Guadalajara and Granada (after 1492).  The Cortes' assent was required to pass new taxes, and could also advise the king on other matters.  The [[Revolt of the Comuneros|comunero rebels]] intended a stronger role for the Cortes, but were defeated by the forces of [[Habsburg Spain|Habsburg]] Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in 1521. The Cortes maintained some power, however, though it became more of a consultative entity.  However, by the time of [[Philip II of Spain|King Philip II]], Charles's son, the Castilian Cortes had come under functionally complete royal control, with its delegates dependent on the Crown for their income.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haliczer |first=Stephen |author-link=Stephen Haliczer |title=The Comuneros of Castile: The Forging of a Revolution, 1475–1521 |year=1981 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison, Wisconsin |page=227 |isbn=0-299-08500-7 |ref=Hal81}}</ref>

The Cortes of the [[Crown of Aragon]] kingdoms retained their power to control the king's spending with regard to the finances of those kingdoms. But after the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] and the victory of another royal house – the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]] – and King [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]], their Cortes were suppressed (those of [[Aragon]] and [[Valencia]] in 1707, and those of [[Catalonia]] and the [[Balearic islands]] in 1714).

The first Cortes representing the whole of Spain (and the Spanish empire of the day) assembled in 1812, in [[Cádiz]], where it operated as a government in exile as at that time most of the rest of Spain was in the hands of [[Napoleon]]'s army.

===Switzerland===
The [[Federal Diet of Switzerland]] was one of the longest-lived representative bodies in history, continuing from the 13th century to 1848.

===Ukraine===
{{main|Verkhovna Rada}}

Stemming from the tribal assemblies of the ancient Slavs, the ''viche'' (from Proto-Slavonic *větje, meaning 'council', 'counsel' or 'talk') functioned not only as a form of self-organization in cities of medieval [[Kievan Rusʹ]] but also as a form of protect against policies of the Princes.<ref>Yermolaiev, V. (2002). Viche in Kievan Rus: issues of competence (9th – middle of the 12th century). Bulletin of the Academy of Legal Sciences of Ukraine, No. 4, pp. 45–55. [In Ukrainian]</ref> The tradition of viche contributed to the culture of peaceful assemblies in contemporary Ukraine.<ref>Drozd, O., Romanov, M., Moroz, V., Stremenovskyi, S., & Zelenyi, V. (2022). The right of citizens to assemble peacefully, unarmed, to hold rallies and demonstrations: historical origins and genesis of formation. Amazonia Investiga, 11(51), 257-266. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.51.03.26</ref><ref>Emmanuel Karagiannis (2016) Ukrainian volunteer fighters in the eastern front: ideas, political-social norms and emotions as mobilization mechanisms, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 16:1, 139-153, DOI: 10.1080/14683857.2016.1148413</ref>
    
The [[Sich Rada]] (council) was an institution of [[Zaporizhian Cossacks|Cossack administration]] from the 16th to the 18th century. With the establishment of the [[Cossack Hetmanate]] in 1648, it was officially known as the General Military Council, or [[Cossack Rada]], until 1750.

The [[Central Council of Ukraine]], or the Central Rada, founded on March 4, 1917, was the All-Ukrainian council of the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]], which declared its full state independence in the [[Fourth Universal of the Ukrainian Central Council]] in 1918. The contemporary Ukrainian parliament is called the [[Verkhovna Rada]] of Ukraine.

==Development of modern parliaments==
The development of the modern concept of parliamentary government dates back to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] (1707–1800).

===United Kingdom===
The [[Parliament of Great Britain]] was formed in 1707 by the [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]] that replaced the former parliaments of England and Scotland. A [[Acts of Union 1800|further union in 1801]] united the Parliament of Great Britain and the [[Parliament of Ireland]] into a [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]. Through a series of [[Reform Acts]] in the 19th and 20th centuries, it became democratically elected.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loughran |first=Thomas |last2=Mycock |first2=Andrew |last3=Tonge |first3=Jonathan |date=2021-04-03 |title=A coming of age: how and why the UK became the first democracy to allow votes for 18-year-olds |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589 |journal=Contemporary British History |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=284–313 |doi=10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589 |issn=1361-9462 |quote=Westminster’s vanguard role in providing a global model of democracy as the ‘Mother of Parliaments’}}</ref> 

The British Parliament is often referred to as the ''[[Mother of Parliaments]]'' (in fact a misquotation of [[John Bright]], who remarked in 1865 that "England is the Mother of Parliaments") because the British Parliament has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its [[Act of Parliament|Acts]] have created many other parliaments.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Seidle |first1=F. Leslie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6je60BF-3sC&pg=PA3 |title=Reforming parliamentary democracy |last2=Docherty |first2=David C. |date=2003 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=9780773525085 |page=3}}</ref> Many nations with parliaments have to some degree emulated the British "three-tier" model known as the [[Westminster system]]. Most countries in Europe and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] have similarly organised parliaments with a largely ceremonial [[head of state]] who formally opens and closes parliament, a large elected lower house and a smaller, upper house.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Julian Go |title=Constitutionalism and political reconstruction |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004151741 |editor1-last=Arjomand |editor1-first=Saïd Amir |pages=93–94 |chapter=A Globalizing Constitutionalism? Views from the Postcolony, 1945–2000 |quote=Thirty-eight out of the 49 ex-British colonies adopted parliamentary systems in their independence constitutions. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&pg=PA94}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2 December 2013 |title=How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World |url=http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/how-the-westminster-parliamentary-system-was-exported-around-the-world |access-date=16 December 2013 |publisher=University of Cambridge}}</ref> The Parliament of the United Kingdom has been described as characterised by the stability of its governing institutions and its capacity to absorb change.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=The House of Lords and the British political tradition |url=https://etheses.bham.ac.uk/id/eprint/3749/ |publisher=University of Birmingham |date=2012 |degree=Ph.D. |language=English |first=Anthony |last=Mc Manamon}}</ref>

[[File:1 westminster palace panorama 2012 dusk (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Palace of Westminster]], London]]

In the United Kingdom, Parliament consists of the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]], the [[House of Lords]], and the [[Monarch]]. The House of Commons is composed of 650 members who are directly elected by British citizens to represent single-member constituencies. The leader of a party that wins more than half the seats, or less than half but is able to gain the support of smaller parties to achieve a majority in the house, is invited by the Monarch to form a government. The House of Lords is a body of long-serving, unelected members: [[Lords Temporal]] (92 of whom inherit their titles, of whom 90 are elected internally by members of the House to lifetime seats), 588 of whom have been appointed to lifetime seats, and [[Lords Spiritual]] (26 bishops, who are part of the house while they remain in office).

Legislation can originate from either the Lords or the Commons. It is voted on in several distinct stages, called [[reading (legislature)|readings]], in each house. First reading is merely a formality. Second reading is where the bill as a whole is considered. Third reading is detailed consideration of clauses of the bill.

In addition to the three readings a bill also goes through a committee stage where it is considered in great detail. Once the bill has been passed by one house it goes to the other and essentially repeats the process. If after the two sets of readings, there are disagreements between the versions that the two houses passed it is returned to the first house for consideration of the amendments made by the second. If it passes through the amendment stage [[Royal Assent]] is granted and the bill becomes law as an [[Act of Parliament]].

The House of Lords is the less powerful of the two houses as a result of the [[Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949]]. These Acts removed the veto power of the Lords over a great deal of legislation. If a bill is certified by the [[Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)|Speaker of the House of Commons]] as a [[money bill]] (i.e. acts raising taxes and similar) then the Lords can only block it for a month. If an ordinary bill originates in the Commons the Lords can only block it for a maximum of one [[session of Parliament]]. The exceptions to this rule are things like bills to prolong the life of a Parliament beyond five years.

In addition to functioning as the second chamber of Parliament, the House of Lords was also the final court of [[appeal]] for much of the law of the United Kingdom—a combination of judicial and legislative function that recalls its origin in the Curia Regis. This changed in October 2009 when the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]] opened and acquired the former jurisdiction of the House of Lords.

Since 1999, there has been a [[Scottish Parliament]] in [[Edinburgh]], and, since 2020, a [[Senedd]]—or Welsh Parliament—in [[Cardiff]]. However, these national, unicameral legislatures do not have complete power over their respective [[countries of the United Kingdom]], holding only those powers devolved to them by Westminster from 1997. All three cannot legislate on defence issues or currency, whilst Northern Ireland and Wales cannot legislate on national taxation (e.g. VAT, or Income Tax), however, following the [[Scotland Act 2016]], the Scottish Parliament has some legislative control over aspects of taxation including some elements of [[Income tax in Scotland|income tax]], Air Departure Tax and Aggregates Tax.<ref>{{cite web |title=Taxes |url=https://www.gov.scot/policies/taxes/ |website=www.gov.scot |access-date=31 October 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Scotland Act 2016">{{cite web |title=Scotland Act 2016 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2016/11/section/13/enacted |website=www.legislation.gov.uk |access-date=31 October 2025 |language=en}}</ref> 

Additionally, the bodies in Northern Ireland and Wales can be theoretically dissolved, at any given time, by the British Parliament without the consent of the devolved government. The Scotland Act 2016 made both the Scottish Parliament and [[Scottish Government]] permanent components of the constitution in Scotland, and can only be dissolved following a vote in a legally binding referendum if a majority voted in favour of its dissolution.<ref name="Scotland Act 2016"/>

===Sweden===
{{Main|Age of Liberty}}

In [[Sweden]], the half-century period of parliamentary government beginning with [[Charles XII]]'s death in 1718 and ending with [[Gustav III of Sweden|Gustav III]]'s [[self-coup]] in 1772 is known as the [[Age of Liberty]]. During this period, [[civil rights]] were expanded and power shifted from the monarch to parliament.

While [[suffrage]] did not become universal, the taxed peasantry was represented in Parliament, although with little influence and commoners without taxed property had no suffrage at all.

===Poland===
Changes in Poland's internal situation in the 1980s led to the Round Table Talks which ended in the signing of the famous Round Table Agreement on 5 April 1989. The Agreement spearheaded the evolutionary transformation of the country's political system; independence was regained once again. The document Position on Political Reforms provided grounds for amending the Constitution. The amended Constitution restored the office of the President of the Polish People's Republic and the Senate – both to be elected in free and democratic elections. In the Sejm, the opposition was allocated 35% of the mandates. Thus the so called "contract" elections could not be fully democratic. The Sejm (first chamber) became superior to the Senate (second chamber). In addition, the institution of National Assembly was established, consisting of the Sejm and the Senate sitting jointly to elect the President of the Polish People's Republic. A declaration of the Solidarity Citizens' Committee heralded the prompt enactment of a new, democratic constitution and electoral law. As a result of Solidarity's success in elections to the Sejm and the Senate, profound reforms of the political system were undertaken by adopting an amendment to the Constitution on 29 December 1989. In the Constitution, the Republic of Poland was defined as a democratic state ruled by law. As the provisional constitution lasted too long, it was decided to adopt a provisional regulation in the form of the so called Small Constitution. The President signed it on 17 October 1992. The Small Constitution regulated above all the relationship between the executive and legislative powers, on the basis of the doctrine of separation of powers. A bicameral parliament was maintained.

After long years of legislative work, on 2 April 1997, the National Assembly adopted The Constitution of the Republic of Poland. It entered into force on 17 October 1997. The new Constitution introduced a "rationalised" parliamentary-cabinet system in Poland. It is the first Constitution of the Third Republic. That was the first Constitution of the Third Republic. The act defined the position of the Sejm and the Senate within the system without using the term "parliament". It adopted the doctrine of separation of powers, which provided for a balance between the legislative and executive powers. In practice the binding provisions of the Constitution ensure the supremacy of the legislative power. Both chambers are autonomous bodies, independent of each other, with their own powers. The Constitution retained the principle of bicameralism of the legislature. The Sejm and the Senate sitting jointly constitute the National Assembly. Characteristically, the new Constitution conferred very extensive powers on the Sejm. On the other hand, the powers of the Senate are limited, as in the Constitutions of 1921 and 1992.

==Parliamentary system==
[[File:Unibicameral Map.svg|upright=1.6|thumb|right|{{legend|#37abc8|Nations with a bicameral legislature.}}{{legend|#ff9955|Nations with a unicameral legislature.}}{{legend|#000000|Nations with no legislature.}}]]
Many parliaments are part of a [[parliamentary system]] of government, in which the [[executive branch|executive]] is constitutionally answerable to the parliament from the genetic moment of the birth of Government ([[Motion of confidence]]), to the final moment of his termination ([[Motion of no confidence]]), through all the commitments that can be added to the [[Confidence and supply|government contract]] from time to time through [[Motion (parliamentary procedure)|motions]] and [[Resolution (law)|resolutions]].<ref>For the latter instruments see Giampiero Buonomo, [https://www.questionegiustizia.it/data/doc/2982/163358983718572.pdf ''La crescente procedimentalizzazione dell’atto parlamentare di indirizzo politico''], Questione giustizia, 7 ottobre 2021.</ref> Some restrict the use of the word ''parliament'' to parliamentary systems, while others use the word for any elected legislative body. Parliaments usually consist of ''[[Chambers of parliament|chambers]]'' or ''houses'', and are usually either [[bicameralism|bicameral]] or [[unicameralism|unicameral]] although more complex models exist, or have existed (''see [[Tricameralism]]'').

In some parliamentary systems, the [[prime minister]] is a member of the parliament (e.g. [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|in the United Kingdom]]), whereas in others they are not (e.g. [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands|in the Netherlands]]). They are commonly the leader of the majority party in the lower house of parliament, but only hold the office as long as the "confidence of the house" is maintained. If members of the lower house lose faith in the leader for whatever reason, they can call a [[vote of no confidence]] and force the prime minister to resign.

This can be particularly dangerous to a government when the distribution of seats among different parties is relatively even, in which case a new election is often called shortly thereafter. However, in case of general discontent with the head of government, their replacement can be made very smoothly without all the complications that it represents in the case of a presidential system.

The parliamentary system can be contrasted with a [[presidential system]], such as the [[United States Congress|American congressional system]], which operates under a stricter [[separation of powers]], whereby the executive does not form part of, nor is it appointed by, the parliamentary or legislative body. In such a system, congresses do not select or dismiss [[head of government|heads of governments]], and governments cannot request an early dissolution as may be the case for parliaments. Some states, such as [[France]], have a [[semi-presidential system]] which falls between parliamentary and congressional systems, combining a powerful head of state (president) with a head of government, the prime minister, who is responsible to parliament.

== Women in parliament ==
{{Main|Women in government}}

{{owidslider
|start        = 2024
|list         = Template:OWID/share of women in parliament#gallery
|location      = commons
|caption      =
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|language     =
|file         = [[File:share of women in parliament, World, 2024 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|Share of women in parliament]]
|startingView = World
}}

==List of national parliaments==
{{See also|List of legislatures by country}}
[[File:Den Haag Binnenhof 02.jpg|thumb|The [[Binnenhof]] in [[The Netherlands]] is the oldest Parliament buildings in the world still in use.]]
[[File:Centre Block - Parliament Hill.jpg|thumb|right|The centre block of the [[Parliament of Canada]] Building in [[Ottawa]]]]
[[File:Budapest Parliament 4604.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Hungarian Parliament Building]] in [[Budapest]]]]
[[File:Moroccan Parliament Building.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Parliament of Morocco]] in [[Rabat]]]]
[[File:Diet of Japan Kokkai 2009.jpg|right|thumb|The [[National Diet Building]] in [[Tokyo]], Japan]]
[[File:Glimpses of the new Parliament Building, in New Delhi (2).jpg |thumb|right|[[New Parliament House, New Delhi|Parliament House]], [[New Delhi]], [[India]]]]
[[File:Parliament House at dusk, Canberra ACT.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A large white and cream coloured building with grass on its roof. The building is topped with a large flagpole.|[[Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House]], [[Canberra]], [[Australia]]]]
[[File:Riigikogu Parliament of Estonia (47623229042).jpg|thumb|The [[Toompea Castle|Parliament House]] of ''[[Riigikogu]]'' in [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]]]]
[[File:Government office building.jpg|thumb|The [[Parliament of Tuvalu]] in [[Funafuti]]]]

===Parliaments of the European Union===
* [[European Parliament]]
* [[Parliament of Austria]] (consisting of the [[National Council (Austria)|National Council]] and the [[Federal Council (Austria)|Federal Council]])
* [[Belgian Federal Parliament]] (consisting of the [[Chamber of Representatives of Belgium|Chamber of Representatives]] and the [[Senate of Belgium|Senate]])
* [[National Assembly of Bulgaria]]
* [[Croatian Parliament]]
* [[House of Representatives of Cyprus|House of Representatives]] ([[Cyprus]])
* [[Parliament of the Czech Republic]] (consisting of the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] and the [[Senate of the Czech Republic|Senate]])
* [[Folketing]] ([[Denmark]])
* [[Riigikogu]] ([[Estonia]])
* [[Parliament of Finland]] (Eduskunta)
* [[Parliament of France]] (consisting of the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]] and the [[Senate of France|Senate]])
* [[Bundestag]] and [[Bundesrat of Germany|Bundesrat]] ([[Germany]])
* [[Hellenic Parliament]] ([[Greece]])
* [[National Assembly of Hungary|National Assembly]] ([[Hungary]]) 
* [[Oireachtas]] ([[Ireland]]) (consisting of the [[President of the Republic of Ireland|President of Ireland]], [[Dáil Éireann]] (Lower House) and [[Seanad Éireann]] (Senate))
* [[Parliament of Italy]] (consisting of the [[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]] and the [[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate]])
* [[Saeima]] ([[Latvia]])
* [[Seimas]] ([[Lithuania]])
* [[Chamber of Deputies of Luxembourg|Chamber of Deputies]] ([[Luxembourg]])
* [[House of Representatives of Malta|House of Representatives]] ([[Malta]])
* [[States General of the Netherlands]] (consisting of the [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|Chamber of Representatives]] and the [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]])
* [[Storting]] ([[Norway]])
* [[National Assembly of the Republic of Poland]] (consisting of the [[Sejm of the Republic of Poland|Sejm]] and the [[Senate of the Republic of Poland|Senate]])
* [[Assembly of the Republic of Portugal|Assembly of the Republic]] ([[Portugal]])
* [[Parliament of Romania]] (consisting of the [[Chamber of Deputies of Romania|Chamber of Deputies]] and the [[Senate of Romania|Senate]])
* [[National Council of the Slovak Republic|National Council]] ([[Slovakia]])
* [[Parliament of Slovenia]] (consisting of the [[National Assembly (Slovenia)|National Assembly]] and the [[National Council (Slovenia)|National Council]])
* [[Cortes Generales]] ([[Spain]]) (consisting of the [[Congress of Deputies of Spain|Congress of Deputies]] and the [[Senate of Spain|Senate]])
* [[Riksdag]] ([[Sweden]])

===Others===
* [[Parliament of Albania]]
* [[General Council of Andorra]]
* [[Parliament of Australia]] (consisting of the [[Monarchy of Australia|King]], the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], and the [[Australian Senate|Senate]])
** The federal government of the [[Commonwealth of Australia]] has a [[bicameral]] '''parliament''' and each of [[States and territories of Australia|Australia's six states]] has a bicameral '''parliament''' except for [[Queensland]], which has a unicameral parliament.
* [[Parliament of The Bahamas]]
* [[Jatiya Sangsad]] ([[Bangladesh]])
* [[Parliament of Barbados]]
* [[Parliament of Canada]] (consisting of the [[Monarchy of Canada|King]], an Upper House styled the [[Senate of Canada|Senate]], and the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]])
** The federal government of Canada has a bicameral '''parliament''', and each of [[Provinces of Canada|Canada's 10 provinces]] has a unicameral '''parliament'''.
* [[National People's Congress|National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Løgtingið]] ([[Faroe Islands]])
* [[Parliament of Fiji]]
* [[Parliament of Ghana]]
* [[States of Deliberation]] of Guernsey
* [[Althing|Althing (Parliament of Iceland)]] - Oldest surviving parliament
* [[Parliament of India]] (consisting of the [[Lok Sabha]] and the [[Rajya Sabha]])
* [[People's Consultative Assembly]] of [[Indonesia]] (consisting of the [[People's Representative Council]] and the [[Regional Representative Council]])
* [[Council of Representatives of Iraq]]
* [[Knesset]] of [[Israel]]
* [[National Diet of Japan]] (consisting of the [[House of Representatives (Japan)|House of Representatives]] and the [[House of Councillors (Japan)|House of Councillors]])
* [[States Assembly]] of Jersey
* [[Parliament of Kazakhstan]] (consisting of the [[Mäjilis]] and the [[Senate of Kazakhstan|Senate]])
* [[Parliament of Lebanon]]
* [[Tynwald]], the parliament of the Isle of Man
* [[Parliament of Malaysia]]
* [[Parliament of Moldova]]
* [[Parliament of Montenegro]]
* [[Parliament of Morocco]]
* [[Parliament of Nauru]]
* [[Parliament of Nepal]] (recently reorganised)
* [[Parliament of New Zealand]] (consisting of the [[King of New Zealand|King]] and [[NZ House of Representatives|House of Representatives]])
* [[Assembly of the Republic of North Macedonia]]
* [[Majlis-e-Shoora]], [[Pakistan]]
* [[National Assembly of Serbia]]
* [[Parliament of Singapore]]
* [[Parliament of South Africa]]
* [[National Assembly of South Korea]]
* [[Parliament of Sri Lanka]]
* [[Legislative Yuan]] of [[Taiwan]] 
* [[National Assembly of Thailand]]
* [[Parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration]]
* [[Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago]]
* [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]
* [[Verkhovna Rada]] of Ukraine
* [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] (consisting of the [[House of Lords of the United Kingdom|House of Lords]] and the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]]
* [[Parliament of Zimbabwe]]

==List of subnational parliaments==

===Australia===
{{Main|Parliaments of the Australian states and territories}}

Australia's States and territories:
*[[Parliament of New South Wales]]
*[[Parliament of Victoria]]
*[[Parliament of Queensland]]
*[[Parliament of Western Australia]]
*[[Parliament of South Australia]]
*[[Parliament of Tasmania]]
*[[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly]]
*[[Parliament of the Northern Territory]]

===Belgium===
In the federal (bicameral) kingdom of Belgium, there is a curious asymmetrical constellation serving as directly elected legislatures for three "territorial" ''regions''—[[Flanders]] ([[Dutch language|Dutch]]), [[Brussels]] (bilingual, certain peculiarities of competence, also the only region not comprising any of the 10 provinces) and [[Wallonia]] (French)—and three cultural ''communities''—Flemish (Dutch, competent in Flanders and for the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels), Francophone (French, for Wallonia and for Francophones in Brussels) and German (for speakers of that language in a few designated municipalities in the east of the Walloon Region, living alongside Francophones but under two different regimes):
* [[Flemish Parliament]] serves both the Flemish Community and the region of Flanders (in all matters of regional competence, its decisions have no effect in Brussels-Capital Region)
* [[Parliament of the French Community]]
* [[Parliament of the German-speaking Community]]
* [[Parliament of Wallonia]]
* [[Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region]] (within the capital's regional assembly, however, there also exist two ''Community Commissions'', a [[Flemish Community Commission|Dutch-speaking one]] and a [[French Community Commission|Francophone one]], for various matters split up by linguistic community but under Brussels' regional competence, and even "joint community commissions" consisting of both for certain institutions that could be split up but are not.

===Brazil===
{{Main|Legislative Assemblies of Brazilian states}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Legislative Assembly of Acre]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Alagoas]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Amapá]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Amazonas]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Bahia]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Ceará]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Espírito Santo]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Goiás]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Maranhão]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Mato Grosso]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Mato Grosso do Sul]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Minas Gerais]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Pará]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Paraíba]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Paraná]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Pernambuco]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Piauí]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Rio de Janeiro]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Rio Grande do Norte]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Rio Grande do Sul]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Rondonia]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Roraima]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Santa Catarina]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Sergipe]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of São Paulo]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Tocantins]]
* [[Legislative Chamber of the Federal District]]
}}

===Canada===
{{Main|Legislative assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories}}

[[File:Canada Provinces.png|frameless|right]]
Canada's provinces and territories:
*[[Legislature of Ontario|Parliament of Ontario]]
*[[Quebec Legislature]]
*[[General Assembly of Nova Scotia]]
*[[New Brunswick Legislature]]
*[[Manitoba Legislature]]
*[[Parliament of British Columbia]]
*[[General Assembly of Prince Edward Island]]
*[[Saskatchewan Legislature]]
*[[Alberta Legislature]]
*[[General Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador]]
*[[Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories]]
*[[Yukon Legislative Assembly]]
*[[Legislative Assembly of Nunavut]]

===China===
* [[Legislative Council of Hong Kong]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Macau]]

===Denmark===
* [[Inatsisartut]]
* [[Løgting]]

===Finland===
[[File:Plenum vid BSPC 19 i Mariehamn pa aland.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Parliament of Åland]]]]
* [[Åland]]

===Germany===
* [[Landtag#German Legislatures|State legislatures of Germany]]

Except for the [[city-state]]s of [[Berlin]], [[Bremen]] and [[Hamburg]], where the [[city council]] is also the [[State Parliament (Germany)|state parliament]], all state parliaments are called ''[[Landtag]]'':
*[[Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin]]
*[[Bürgerschaft of Bremen|Bremische Bürgerschaft]]
*[[Hamburg Parliament|Bürgerschaft der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg]]
*[[Landtag of Baden-Württemberg]]
*[[Landtag of Bavaria]]
*[[Landtag of Brandenburg]]
*[[Landtag of Hesse]]
*[[Landtag of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]]
*[[Landtag of Lower Saxony]]
*[[Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia]]
*[[Landtag of Rhineland-Palatinate]]
*[[Landtag of Saarland]]
*[[Landtag of Saxony]]
*[[Landtag of Saxony-Anhalt]]
*[[Landtag of Schleswig-Holstein]]
*[[Landtag of Thuringia]]

===India===
{{India States and Territories Labelled Map||float=right}}

====Indian states and territorial legislative assemblies====
{{Main|State legislative assemblies of India}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Assam Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Delhi Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Goa Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Haryana Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Manipur Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Puducherry Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Punjab Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Sikkim Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Telangana Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Tripura Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly]]
* [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
}}

====Indian states legislative councils====
{{Main|State legislative councils of India}}

* [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council]]
* [[Bihar Legislative Council]]
* [[Karnataka Legislative Council]]
* [[Maharashtra Legislative Council]]
* [[Telangana Legislative Council]]
* [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]

===Malaysia===
{{Main|Parliament of Malaysia|State legislative assemblies of Malaysia}}

===Netherlands===
* [[Provincial council (Netherlands)]]
* [[States General of the Netherlands]]

===Norway===
{{Main|Subnational parliamentary system in Norway}}

===Philippines===
* [[Bangsamoro Parliament|Parliament of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region]]

===Portugal===
* [[Legislative Assembly of the Azores]]
* [[Legislative Assembly of Madeira]]

===Spain===
{{Main|List of Spanish regional legislatures}}

===Sri Lanka===
* [[Provincial Councils (Sri Lanka)]]

=== Switzerland ===
{{Main|List of cantonal legislatures of Switzerland}}

=== Trinidad and Tobago ===
* [[Tobago House of Assembly]]

===United Kingdom===
* [[Northern Ireland Assembly]]
* [[Scottish Parliament]]
* [[Senedd (Welsh Parliament)]]

==Other parliaments==

===Contemporary supranational parliaments===
{{Main|International parliament|Inter-parliamentary institution}}

:''List is not exhaustive''
* [[Pan-African Parliament]]
* [[Central American Parliament]]
* [[Latin American Parliament]]
* [[European Parliament]]

===Equivalent national legislatures===
* [[Majlis]], e.g. in Iran
* in Indonesia: [[People's Consultative Assembly]], consists of [[People's Representative Council]] (elected, legislative lower house) and [[Regional Representative Council]] (elected, legislative upper house with limited powers)

===Defunct===
* [[Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria]] (1861–1918)
* [[Parliament of Southern Ireland]] (1921–1922)
* [[People's Parliament]] (1940s)
* [[Silesian Parliament]] (1922–1945)
* [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]] (1921–1973)
* [[Batasang Pambansa|Batasang Pambansâ]] (1978–1986)
* [[National Assembly of the Republic of China]] (1913–2005)

==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Congress]]
* [[Delegated legislation]]
* [[Democratic mundialization]]
* [[Government]]
* [[History of democracy]]
* [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]]
* [[Legislation]]
* [[Non-human electoral candidate]]
* [[Parliamentary procedure]]
* [[Parliamentary records]]
* [[Parliament of the World's Religions]]
* [[List of current presidents of assembly]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Parliaments}}
* [https://complegdatabase.com/ Comparative Legislators Database]. A dataset on over 67,000 legislators from 16 countries.
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Parliament}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090618132318/http://www.parliament.uk/index.cfm United Kingdom Parliament]

{{Portal bar|Politics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Legislatures]]
[[Category:Westminster system]]
[[Category:Parliamentary procedure]]