View source for Papaver somniferum

{{short description|Species of flowering plant in the family Papaveraceae}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| name  = Opium poppy
| image = Papaver somniferum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-102.jpg
| image_caption = 
| genus = Papaver
| species = somniferum
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Linnaeus|first=Carl von|title=Species Plantarum|volume=1|publisher=Laurentius Salvius |year=1753|page=508|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358527}}</ref>
}}

'''''Papaver somniferum''''', commonly known as the '''opium poppy'''<ref name="BSBI-2007">{{BSBI 2007 |access-date=2014-10-17}}</ref> or '''breadseed poppy''',<ref name="UniWisconsin">{{cite web|title=Breadseed or opium poppy, ''Papaver somniferum''|url=https://wimastergardener.org/files/2017/06/Papaver_somniferum.pdf|publisher=University of Wisconsin Extension, Master Gardener Program|access-date=2020-11-21|archive-date=21 November 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20201121225506/https://wimastergardener.org/files/2017/06/Papaver_somniferum.pdf}}</ref> is a species of [[flowering plant]] in the family [[Papaveraceae]]. It is the species of plant from which both [[opium]] and [[poppy seed]]s are derived and is also a valuable [[ornamental plant]] grown in gardens. Its native range was the eastern [[Mediterranean region]], but has since been obscured by widespread [[introduced species|introduction]] and [[Horticulture|cultivation]] since ancient times to the present day. It is now [[Naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]] across much of the world with temperate climates.<ref name="POWO" />

This poppy is grown as an agricultural crop on a large scale, for one of three primary purposes: to produce [[poppy seed]]s, to produce [[opium]] (for use mainly by the pharmaceutical industry),<ref name="Bradsher-2014">{{cite news |title=Shake-Up on Opium Island |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/20/business/international/tasmania-big-supplier-to-drug-companies-faces-changes.html |work=The New York Times |date=19 July 2014 |access-date=8 January 2018|last1=Bradsher |first1=Keith }}</ref> and to produce other [[alkaloid]]s (mainly [[thebaine]] and [[oripavine]]) that are processed by pharmaceutical companies into drugs such as [[hydrocodone]] and [[oxycodone]].<ref name="Bradsher-2014"/> Each of these goals has special breeds that are targeted at one of these businesses, and breeding efforts (including [[biotechnology|biotechnological]] ones) are continually underway.<ref name="Bradsher-2014"/><ref name="Gaevskii-1999">{{cite journal |last=Gaevskii |first=A.V. |date=1999 |title=On the intraspecies classification of opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) |journal=Khimiko-Farmatsevticheskii Zhurnal |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=32–36 |doi=10.1007/BF02508453 |s2cid=9716321}}</ref><ref name="Chaturvedi-2014">{{cite journal |last=Chaturvedi |first=Nidarshana |date=2014 |title=Latex-less opium poppy: cause for less latex and reduced peduncle strength) |url=http://staff.cimap.res.in/PublicationFiles/Physiologia_Plantarum_50436.pdf |journal=Physiologia Plantarum |volume=150 |issue=3 |pages=436–445 |doi=10.1111/ppl.12086 |pmid=24033330 |bibcode=2014PPlan.150..436C |access-date=7 January 2018 }}</ref> A comparatively small amount of ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' is also produced commercially for ornamental purposes.

Today many varieties have been bred that do not produce a significant quantity of opium.<ref name="UniWisconsin"/><ref name="Gaevskii-1999"/> The cultivar 'Sujata' produces no [[latex]] at all.<ref name="Chaturvedi-2014"/> Breadseed poppy is more accurate as a common name today because all varieties of ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' produce edible seeds. This differentiation has strong implications for legal policy surrounding the growing of the plant.<ref name="Gaevskii-1999"/>

==Description==
''Papaver somniferum'' is an [[annual plant|annual]] herb growing to about {{convert|100|cm|abbr=off|-1}} tall. The plant is strongly [[glaucous]], giving a greyish-green appearance, and the stem and [[leaves]] bear a sparse distribution of coarse hairs. The large leaves are lobed, the upper stem leaves clasping the stem,<ref name="Stace-2019"/> the lowest leaves with a short petiole.<ref name="Clapham-1981">{{cite book |last1=Clapham |first1=A.R. |last2=Tutin |first2=T.G. |last3=Warburg |first3=E.F. |date=1981 |title=Excursion flora of the British Isles |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, U.K. |isbn=978-0-521-23290-6 |edition=3 }}</ref>{{rp|40}} The flowers are up to {{convert|1|-|3|cm|abbr=on|0}} diameter, normally with four white, mauve or red petals, sometimes with dark markings at the base. The fruit is a hairless, rounded capsule topped with 12–18 radiating [[stigma (botany)|stigmatic]] rays, or fluted cap.<ref name="Reader's Digest-1981">{{cite book |year=1981 |title=Reader's Digest Field Guide to the Wild Flowers of Britain |page=32 |publisher=[[Reader's Digest]] |isbn=978-0-276-00217-5}}</ref> All parts of the plant exude white latex when wounded.<ref name="Stace-2019">{{cite book|last=Stace|first=C. A.|author-link = Stace, C. A.|year=2019|title=New Flora of the British Isles|edition=Fourth|publisher=C & M Floristics|location = Middlewood Green, Suffolk, U.K.| isbn=978-1-5272-2630-2}}</ref>{{rp|93}}<ref name="Blamey-2003">{{cite book|last1=Blamey|first1=M.|last2=Fitter|first2=R.|last3=Fitter|first3=A|year=2003|title=Wild flowers of Britain and Ireland: The Complete Guide to the British and Irish Flora.|publisher=A & C Black|location=London|isbn=978-1-4081-7950-5}}</ref>{{rp|32}}

{{gallery|mode=packed
|Coquelicots - Parc floral 6.JPG|Plant showing the typical [[glaucous]] appearance
|Opium poppy.jpg|Flower
|Schlafmohn Papaver somniferum 2019-06-17 13-19-31 (C).jpg|Close-up of flower center
|Opium pod cut to demonstrate fluid extraction1.jpg|Capsule showing latex ([[opium]]) exuding from incision
|Poppy-seeds.jpg|Close-up of white poppy seeds
}}

=== Metabolism ===
The alkaloids are organic nitrogenous compounds, derivatives of [[secondary metabolism]], synthesized through the metabolic pathway of benzylisoquinoline.<ref name="Ye-2018" /> First, the [[amino acid]] [[phenylalanine]], through the enzyme [[phenylalanine hydroxylase]], is transformed into [[tyrosine]]. Tyrosine can follow two different routes: by tyrosine hydroxylase it can form L-dopamine ([[L-DOPA]]), or it can be reduced to form 4-phenylhydroxyacetaldehyde (4-HPAA). Subsequently, L-DOPA reacts with 4-HPAA and, through a series of reactions, forms (S) -norcoclaurine, which carries the benzylisoquinoline skeleton that gives its name to this pathway. The conversion of (S) -norcoclaurin to (S) -reticuline is one of the key points, since from (S) -reticuline morphine can be formed through the morphinan route, noscapine through the path of the noscapina or berberina.<ref name="Ye-2018">{{Cite journal|last1=Ye|first1=Kai|last2=Graham|first2=Ian A.|last3=Bowser|first3=Tim A.|last4=Lu|first4=Ying|last5=Teodor|first5=Roxana|last6=He|first6=Zhesi|last7=Ning|first7=Zemin|last8=Li|first8=Yi|last9=Yang|first9=Xiaofei|date=2018-10-19|title=The opium poppy genome and morphinan production|journal=Science|volume=362|issue=6412|pages=343–347|doi=10.1126/science.aat4096|issn=0036-8075|pmid=30166436|bibcode=2018Sci...362..343G|s2cid=52137369|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/135262/1/aat4096_ArticleContent_plus_figures.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Genome ===
The poppy genome contains 51,213 genes encoding proteins distributed 81.6% in 11 individual chromosomes and 18.4% remaining in unplaced scaffolds.<ref name="Ye-2018" /> In addition, 70.9% of the genome is made up of repetitive elements, of which the most represented are the long terminal repeat [[retrotransposons]]. This enrichment of genes is related to the maintenance of homeostasis and a positive regulation of [[transcription (biology)|transcription]].<ref name="Ye-2018" />

The analysis of synergy of the opium poppy reveals traces of segmental duplications 110 million years ago (MYA), before the divergence between ''Papaveraceae'' and Ranunculaceae, and an event of duplication of the complete genome makes 7.8 MYA.

The genes are possibly grouped as follows:<ref name="Ye-2018" />

* The genes responsible for the conversion of (S) -reticuline to noscapine are found on chromosome 11.
* The genes responsible for the conversion of (S) -reticuline to thebaine are found on chromosome 11.
* The genes responsible for the conversion of thebaine are found in chromosome 1, chromosome 2, chromosome 7, and perhaps others.

== Taxonomy ==
''Papaver somniferum'' was given its [[accepted name]] by the Swedish botanist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in his ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' in 1753 on page 508.<ref name="POWO">{{Cite POWO |last1=POWO |date=2025 |id=673724-1 |title=''Papaver somniferum'' L. |access-date=20 December 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L.|volume=1|url=http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do?id=673724-1|publisher=ipni.org|access-date=1 November 2017}}</ref> It is classified in the genus ''[[Papaver]]'' within the larger family [[Papaveraceae]]. It has two accepted [[subspecies]] and one natural [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] between them.<ref name="POWO" />

* ''Papaver somniferum'' nothosubsp. ''authemanii''<br>This natural hybrid is native to France. It described as a hybrid named ''Papaver'' × ''authemanii'' in 1893 and reclassified to its accepted name in 2012.<ref name="POWO nothosubsp ">{{Cite POWO |last1=POWO |date=2025 |id=77125461-1 |title=''Papaver somniferum'' nothosubsp. ''authemanii'' (Rouy) B.Bock |access-date=20 December 2025}}</ref>
* ''Papaver somniferum'' subsp. ''setigerum''<br>This subspecies was first named ''Papaver setigerum'' in 1815 by [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle]]. It was reclassified as a subspecies in 1882 by [[Giovanni Arcangeli]]. Its native range is North Africa from Morocco to Lybia and in southern Europe from Portugual to Italy.<ref name="POWO subsp setigerum">{{Cite POWO |last1=POWO |date=2025 |id=60453010-2 |title=''Papaver somniferum'' subsp. ''setigerum'' (DC.) Arcang. |access-date=20 December 2025}}</ref>
* ''Papaver somniferum'' subsp. ''somniferum ''<br>The [[Autonym (botany)|autonymic]] subspecies is a [[cultigen]], a plant that has been developed by human sellection.<ref name="POWO subsp somniferum">{{Cite POWO |last1=POWO |date=2025 |id=111359-3 |title=''Papaver somniferum'' subsp. ''somniferum'' |access-date=20 December 2025}}</ref>

The opium poppy has {{table row counter|id=Synonyms}} [[Synonym (botany)|synonyms]] of its two subspecies and the hybrid.<ref name="POWO nothosubsp" /><ref name="POWO subsp setigerum" /><ref name="POWO subsp somniferum" />

{|class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="Synonyms"
|+ class="nowrap" | Table of Synonyms
! Name
! Year
! Rank
! Synonym of:
! Notes
|-
| ''Papaver album'' {{small|Mill.}}
| 1768
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver album-nigrum'' {{small|Crantz}}
| 1763
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver amoenum'' {{small|Lindl.}}
| 1839
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver amplexicaule'' {{small|Stokes}}
| 1812
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver apodocarpum'' {{small|Hussenot}}
| 1835
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver × authemanii'' {{small|Rouy}}
| 1893
|data-sort-value=J | hybrid
| nothosubsp. ‘’authemanii’’
|data-sort-value=A | ≡ hom.
|-
| ''Papaver glabrum'' {{small|Gilib.}}
| 1782
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het., [[opus utique oppr.]]
|-
| ''Papaver glaucum'' var. ''leucum'' {{small|Rothm.}}
| 1954
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver hortense'' {{small|Hussenot}}
| 1835
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver hortense'' {{small|Garsault}}
| 1764
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het., [[opus utique rej.]]
|-
| ''Papaver indehiscens'' {{small|Dumort.}}
| 1827
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver nigrum'' {{small|Garsault}}
| 1764
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het., [[opus utique rej.]]
|-
| ''Papaver nigrum'' {{small|(DC.) Ser.}}
| 1845
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver officinale'' {{small|C.C.Gmel.}}
| 1806
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver officinale'' var. ''monstrosum'' {{small|Göpp.}}
| 1851
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver opiiferum'' {{small|Forssk.}}
| 1775
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver opiiferum'' var. ''album'' {{small|DC.}}
| 1821
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver paeoniiflorum'' {{small|(Alef.) Corrêa}}
| 1926
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver polycephalum'' {{small|E.Vilm.}}
| 1863
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver setigerum'' {{small|DC.}}
| 1815
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''setigerum''
|data-sort-value=A | ≡ hom.
|-
| ''Papaver setigerum'' var. ''muticum'' {{small|Regel}}
| 1856
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''setigerum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver setigerum'' var. ''nigrum'' {{small|(Garsault) P.Fourn.}}
| 1936
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver setigerum'' var. ''valdesetosum'' {{small|Maire}}
| 1935
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''setigerum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''album'' {{small|(Mill.) DC.}}
| 1821
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' f. ''album'' {{small|(Mill.) Kuntze}}
| 1887
|data-sort-value=F | form
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' convar. ''album'' {{small|(Mill.) Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=G | convariety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''apodocarpum'' {{small|(Hussenot) Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''atroviolaceum'' {{small|Maire}}
| 1934
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''setigerum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' subvar. ''atroviolaceum'' {{small|(Maire) Maire}}
| 1964
|data-sort-value=E | subvariety
| subsp. ''setigerum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''austroviolaceum'' {{small|Vessel.}}
| 1975
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''caesium'' {{small|Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''coccineum'' {{small|Maire}}
| 1932
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''setigerum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''dinocarpum'' {{small|Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' f. ''dissectum'' {{small|Kuntze}}
| 1887
|data-sort-value=F | form
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' convar. ''drogist'' {{small|(Basil. & Zhuk.) Vessel.}}
| 1975
|data-sort-value=G | convariety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''genuinovilaceum'' {{small|Vessel.}}
| 1975
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''glabrum'' {{small|Boiss.}}
| 1867
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''griseum'' {{small|Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''haageanum'' {{small|Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' subsp. ''hortense'' {{small|Arcang.}}
| 1882
|data-sort-value=B | subspecies
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' subsp. ''hortense'' {{small|(Hussenot) Syme}}
| 1863
|data-sort-value=B | subspecies
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''hortense'' {{small|(Hussenot) Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''hortense'' {{small|(Hussenot) Rouy & Foucaud}}
| 1893
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''hussenotii'' {{small|Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' convar. ''indicum'' {{small|Vessel.}}
| 1975
|data-sort-value=G | convariety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het., [[without type.]]
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' f. ''laciniatum'' {{small|Kuntze}}
| 1887
|data-sort-value=F | form
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''leucum'' {{small|(Rothm.) K.Hammer}}
| 1987
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''luteum'' {{small|Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' f. ''marginatum'' {{small|Kuntze}}
| 1887
|data-sort-value=F | form
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum monstrosum'' {{small|Van Houtte ex T.Moore}}
| 1860
|data-sort-value=J | 
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' subsp. ''nigrum'' {{small|Schübl. & G.Martens}}
| 1834
|data-sort-value=B | subspecies
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het., [[nom. illeg.]]
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' subsp. ''nigrum'' {{small|(DC.) Thell.}}
| 1908
|data-sort-value=B | subspecies
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''nigrum'' {{small|DC.}}
| 1821
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' f. ''nigrum'' {{small|(DC.) Kuntze}}
| 1887
|data-sort-value=F | form
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' convar. ''nigrum'' {{small|(DC.) Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=G | convariety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' subsp. ''officinale'' {{small|(C.C.Gmel.) Bonnier & Layens}}
| 1894
|data-sort-value=B | subspecies
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''officinale'' {{small|(C.C.Gmel.) Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' proles ''officinale'' {{small|(C.C.Gmel.) Rouy & Foucaud}}
| 1893
|data-sort-value=C | proles
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' convar. ''opiiferum'' {{small|(Forssk.) Vessel.}}
| 1975
|data-sort-value=G | convariety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' subsp. ''opiiferum'' {{small|(Forssk.) Juel, Cedergr. & Örtendahl}}
| 1914
|data-sort-value=B | subspecies
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''paeoniiflorum'' {{small|Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' f. ''poecilospermum'' {{small|(Alef.) Kuntze}}
| 1887
|data-sort-value=F | form
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' convar. ''poecilospermum'' {{small|Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=G | convariety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''pullatum'' {{small|Vessel.}}
| 1975
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''quassandum'' {{small|Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''roseum'' {{small|Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''rubellum'' {{small|Vessel.}}
| 1975
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''setigerum'' {{small|(DC.) Webb & Berthel.}}
| 1836
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''setigerum''
|data-sort-value=A | ≡ hom.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' proles ''setigerum'' {{small|(DC.) Rouy & Foucaud}}
| 1893
|data-sort-value=C | proles
| subsp. ''setigerum''
|data-sort-value=A | ≡ hom.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''stipitatum'' {{small|(Hussenot) Alef.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' convar. ''tarbagataicum'' {{small|(Basil.) Vessel.}}
| 1975
|data-sort-value=G | convariety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' f. ''tricolor'' {{small|Kuntze}}
| 1887
|data-sort-value=F | form
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''valdesetosum'' {{small|(Maire) Maire}}
| 1964
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''setigerum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver somniferum'' var. ''violiflorum'' {{small|Vessel.}}
| 1975
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver stipitatum'' {{small|Hussenot}}
| 1835
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Papaver sylvestre'' {{small|Godr.}}
| 1854
|data-sort-value=A | species
| subsp. ''somniferum''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
!colspan=4 style="text-align: left;" | Notes: ≡ [[homotypic synonym]] ; = [[heterotypic synonym]]
|}

===Cultivars ===
''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' has had a very long tradition of use, starting in the Neolithic. This long period of time allowed the development of a broad range of different forms. In total there are 52 botanical varieties.<ref name="Dittbrenner-2009" /> Breeding of ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' faces a challenge caused by the contradictory breeding goals for this species.<ref name="Dittbrenner-2009" /> On one hand a very high content of alkaloids is requested for medical uses. Global demand for the alkaloids and their pharmaceutical derivatives has increased in recent years. Therefore, there is a need for the development of [[cultivar]]s with a high opium yield.<ref name="Yadav-2006">{{Cite journal|last1=Yadav|first1=Hemant K.|last2=Shukla|first2=S.|last3=Singh|first3=S. P.|date=2006-08-16|title=Genetic Variability and Interrelationship Among Opium and its Alkaloids in Opium Poppy (Papaver Somniferum L.)|journal=Euphytica|volume=150|issue=1–2|pages=207–214|doi=10.1007/s10681-006-9111-x|bibcode=2006Euphy.150..207Y |s2cid=25242061|issn=0014-2336}}</ref> On the other hand, the food industry demands alkaloid contents be as low as possible.<ref name="Dittbrenner-2009">{{Cite journal|last=Dittbrenner|first=A.|date=2009|title=Variability of alkaloid content in Papaver somniferum L .|journal=Journal of Applied Botany and Food Quality|volume=107|pages=103–107}}</ref>

There are also many ornamental cultivars selected for color or number of their petals or other characteristics. There are [[double-flowered]] cultivars, often called peony flowered or 'paeonifolorum' in a range of colors. There are even varieties selected for the shape of their pods such as 'Hen and Chickens' with smaller pods around a larger central pod.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grey-Wilson |first1=Christopher |title=Poppies : A Guide to the Poppy Family in the Wild and in Cultivation |date=1993 |publisher=Timber Press |location=Portland, Oregon |isbn=978-0-88192-232-5 |pages=72, 132–137 |url=https://archive.org/details/poppiesguidetopo0000grey |url-access=registration |access-date=28 December 2025}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
The native range of opium poppy is probably the Eastern Mediterranean, but extensive cultivation and introduction of the species throughout Europe since ancient times have obscured its origin. It has [[escaped plant|escaped from cultivation]], or has been introduced and become naturalized extensively in all regions of the British Isles, particularly in the south and east<ref name="BSBI-2016">{{cite web |title=BSBI Distribution Maps, Papaver somniferum |url=http://bsbi.org/maps/?taxonid=2cd4p9h.yzf#style=N4IgLgpgtgDgNgQ0gOQK5QEYQE4gFwgCMIAvkA |publisher=Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland |date= 2016-04-22|location=London, U.K. }}</ref> and in almost all other countries of the world with suitable, temperate climates.<ref name="GBIF.org">{{cite web |title=Papaver somniferum L. |url=https://www.gbif.org/species/2888439 |publisher=Global Biodiversity Information Facility, GBIF.org |location=Copenhagen, Denmark }}</ref>

== Ecology ==
=== Diseases ===
''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' is susceptible to several fungal, insect and virus infections including seed borne diseases such as [[downy mildew]] and [[root rot]]. The use of [[pesticide]]s in combination to [[cultural methods]] have been considered as major control measures for various poppy diseases.<ref name="Singh-2016">{{Cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=Akanksha|last2=Gupta|first2=Rupali|last3=Saikia|first3=Shilpi K.|last4=Pant|first4=Aakanksha|last5=Pandey|first5=Rakesh|date=December 2016|title=Diseases of medicinal and aromatic plants, their biological impact and management|journal=Plant Genetic Resources|volume=14|issue=4|pages=370–383|doi=10.1017/S1479262116000307|bibcode=2016PGRCU..14..370S |s2cid=88963681|issn=1479-2621}}</ref>

The fungal pathogen ''[[Peronospora arborescens]]'', the causal agent of downy mildew, occurs preferentially during wet and humid conditions.<ref name="Wilfried-2000"/> This [[oomycete]] penetrates the roots through [[oospore]]s and infects the leaves as [[conidia]] in a secondary infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Voglmayr|first1=Hermann|last2=Montes-Borrego|first2=Miguel|last3=Landa|first3=Blanca B.|date=2014-05-07|title=Disentangling Peronospora on Papaver: Phylogenetics, Taxonomy, Nomenclature and Host Range of Downy Mildew of Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum) and Related Species |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=5 |article-number=e96838|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0096838|pmid=24806292 |pmc=4013089 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...996838V |issn=1932-6203 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The fungus causes [[hypertrophy]] and curvature of the stem and flower stalks.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bajpai|first1=S.|last2=Gupta|first2=M. M.|last3=Kumar|first3=S.|date=September 1999|title=Identification of Indian Landraces of Opium Poppy Papaver somniferum Resistant to Damping-off and Downy Mildew Fungal Diseases|journal=Journal of Phytopathology|volume=147|issue=9|pages=535–538|doi=10.1046/j.1439-0434.1999.147009535.x|bibcode=1999JPhyt.147..535B |issn=0931-1785}}</ref> The symptoms are [[chlorosis]] and curling of the affected tissues with necrotic spots.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Barnawal|first1=D.|last2=Pandey|first2=S.S. |last3=Bharti|first3=N.|last4=Pandey|first4=A.|last5=Ray|first5=T.|last6=Singh |first6=S.|last7=Chanotiya |first7=C.S.|last8=Kalra|first8=A.|date=2017-04-03 |title=ACC deaminase-containing plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria protect Papaver somniferum from downy mildew|journal=Journal of Applied Microbiology|volume=122|issue=5|pages=1286–1298|doi=10.1111/jam.13417|pmid=28186676|s2cid=33398558|issn=1364-5072}}</ref> The leaf under-surface is covered with a downy mildew coating containing [[Conidium|conidiospores]] that spread the infection further leading to plant damage and death.<ref name="Kapoor-1995">{{Cite book|title=Opium poppy: botany, chemistry, and pharmacology|last=D.|first=Kapoor, L.|date=1995|publisher=Food Products Press|isbn=978-1-56024-923-8|location=New York|oclc=30544395}}</ref> Another downy mildew species, ''[[Peronospora|Peronospora somniferi]]'', produces systemic infections leading to stunting and deformation of poppy plants.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thangavel|first1=T.|last2=Wilson|first2=C. R.|last3=Jones|first3=S.|last4=Scott|first4=J. B.|last5=Voglmayr|first5=H.|date=February 2017|title=First Report of Systemic Downy Mildew of Opium Poppy Caused by Peronospora somniferi in Australia|journal=Plant Disease|volume=101|issue=2|page=392|doi=10.1094/pdis-06-16-0796-pdn|issn=0191-2917|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017PlDis.101..392T }}</ref> Downy mildew can be controlled preventively at the initial stage of seed development through several fungicide applications.<ref name="Wilfried-2000" />

Leaf blight caused by the fungus ''[[Helminthosporium solani|Helminthosporium papaveris]]'' is one of the most destructive poppy diseases worldwide. The seed-borne fungus causes root rot in young plants and stunted stems in plants at a higher development stage, where leaf spots appear on the leaves and is being transmitted to capsules and seeds.<ref name="Kapoor-1995" /> Early sowing of seeds and deep plowing of poppy residues can reduce fungal inoculum during the plant growing season in the following year on neighboring poppy stocks, respectively.<ref name="Wilfried-2000" />

[[Mosaic disease]]s in ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' are caused by [[Tobacco rattle virus|rattle virus]] and the [[Carlavirus]].<ref name="Singh-2016" /> In 2006, a novel virus tentatively called "opium poppy mosaic virus" (OPMV) from the genus ''[[Umbravirus]]'' was isolated from ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' containing leaf mosaic and mottling symptoms, in New Zealand.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tang|first1=Joe|last2=Lebas|first2=Bénédicte|last3=Liefting|first3=Lia|last4=Veerakone|first4=Stella|last5=Wei|first5=Ting|last6=Ward|first6=Lisa|date=2015-10-29|title=Opium poppy mosaic virus, a new umbravirus isolated from Papaver somniferum in New Zealand|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=161|issue=1|pages=197–201|doi=10.1007/s00705-015-2651-4|pmid=26514844|s2cid=16114366|issn=0304-8608}}</ref>

=== Pests ===
There are only a few pests that can do harm to ''P.&nbsp;somniferum''.<ref name="Wilfried-2000" />{{example needed|date=April 2025}}

[[Flea beetle]]s perforate the leaves of young plants and aphids suck on the sap of the flower buds.<ref name="Wilfried-2000" /> The poppy root weevil (''[[Stenocarus ruficornis]]'') is another significant pest. The insect lives in the soil and migrates in spring to the poppy fields after crop emergence. Adults damage the leaves of small plants by eating them. Female lay their eggs into the tissue of lower leaves. Insect larvae hatch and burrow into the soil to complete their life cycle on the poppy roots as adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bečka|first1=D.|last2=Cihlář|first2=P.|last3=Vlažný|first3=P.|last4=Pazderů|first4=K.|last5=Vašák|first5=J.|date=2014-10-03|title=Poppy root weevils (Stenocarus ruficornis, Stephens 1831) control in opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.)|journal=Plant, Soil and Environment|volume=60|issue= 10|pages=470–474|doi=10.17221/417/2014-pse|issn=1214-1178|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Cultivation==

In the growth development of ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'', six stages can be distinguished. The growth development starts with the growth of the seedlings. In a second step the rosette-type leaves and stalks are formed. After that budding (hook stage) takes place as a third step. The hook stage is followed by flowering. Subsequently, technical maturity is reached, which means that the plant is ready for cutting. The last step is biological maturity; dry seeds are ripened. The photoperiod seems to be the main determinant of flower development of ''P.&nbsp;somniferum''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mahdavi-Damghani|first1=Abdolmajid|last2=Kamkar|first2=Behnam|last3=Al-Ahmadi|first3=Majid Jami|last4=Testi|first4=Luca|last5=Muñoz-Ledesma|first5=Francisco J.|last6=Villalobos|first6=Francisco J.|date=October 2010|title=Water stress effects on growth, development and yield of opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.)|journal=Agricultural Water Management|volume=97|issue=10|pages=1582–1590|doi=10.1016/j.agwat.2010.05.011|bibcode=2010AgWM...97.1582M |issn=0378-3774|hdl=10261/94915}}</ref>

''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' shows a very slow development in the beginning of its vegetation period. Due to this fact the competition of weeds is very high in early stages. It is very important to control weeds effectively in the first 50 days after sowing.<ref name="Gaur-1986">{{Cite journal|last1=Gaur|first1=B. L.|last2=Gupta|first2=P. C.|last3=Sharma|first3=D. D.|date=January 1986|title=Weed management in opium poppy Papaver somniferumL.|journal=Tropical Pest Management|volume=32|issue=4|pages=267–268|doi=10.1080/09670878609371076|issn=0143-6147}}</ref> Additionally, ''Papaver somniferum'' is rather susceptible to herbicides. The pre-emergence application of the herbicide chlortoluron has been shown to be effective in reducing weed levels.<ref name="Gaur-1986" /> However, in the last decade the weed management of ''Papaver somniferum'' has shifted from pre-emergence treatments to post-emergence treatments.<ref name="Pinke-2014">{{Cite journal|last1=Pinke|first1=Gyula|last2=Tóth|first2=Kálmán|last3=Kovács|first3=Attila J.|last4=Milics|first4=Gábor|last5=Varga|first5=Zoltán|last6=Blazsek|first6=Katinka|last7=Gál|first7=Katalin E.|last8=Botta-Dukát|first8=Zoltán|date=2014-07-03|title=Use of mesotrione and tembotrione herbicides for post-emergence weed control in alkaloid poppy (Papaver somniferum)|journal=International Journal of Pest Management|volume=60|issue=3|pages=187–195|doi=10.1080/09670874.2014.953622|s2cid=83721260|issn=0967-0874}}</ref> Especially, the application of the two herbicides mesotrione and tembotrione has become very popular. The combined application of those two herbicides has been shown to be recommendable for effective weed management in ''Papaver somniferum''.<ref name="Pinke-2014" /> Sowing time (autumn or spring), preceding crop and soil texture are important variables influencing the weed [[species composition]]. A highly abundant weed species in ''Papaver somniferum'' fields was shown to be ''[[Papaver rhoeas]]''.<ref name="Pinke-2014" /><ref name="Pinke-2011">{{Cite journal|last1=PINKE|first1=G|last2=PÁL|first2=R W|last3=TÓTH|first3=K|last4=KARÁCSONY|first4=P|last5=CZÚCZ|first5=B|last6=BOTTA-DUKÁT|first6=Z|date=2011-09-16|title=Weed vegetation of poppy (Papaver somniferum) fields in Hungary: effects of management and environmental factors on species composition|journal=Weed Research|volume=51|issue=6|pages=621–630|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3180.2011.00885.x|bibcode=2011WeedR..51..621P|issn=0043-1737}}</ref> ''Papaver somniferum'' and ''Papaver rhoeas'' are [[Biological specificity|congeners]] and belong to the same plant family, which impedes the chemical control of this weed species.<ref name="Pinke-2011" /> Therefore, weed management represents a big challenge and requires technological knowledge from the farmer.<ref name="Pinke-2011" /> In order to increase the efficiency of weed control not only chemical weed control should be applied but also mechanical weed control.<ref name="Pinke-2011" />

For ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'', a growth density of 70 to 80 plants per square meter is recommended.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grdc-update-papers/tab-content/grdc-update-papers/2014/07/an-overview-of-the-tasmanian-poppy-industry|title=An overview of the Tasmanian poppy industry|website=Grains Research and Development Corporation|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-01-19|archive-date=28 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328004417/https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grdc-update-papers/tab-content/grdc-update-papers/2014/07/an-overview-of-the-tasmanian-poppy-industry}}</ref> Latex-to-biomass yield is greatest under conditions of slight water deficit.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mahdavi-Damghani |first1=Abdolmajid |last2=Kamkar |first2=Behnam |last3=Al-Ahmadi |first3=Majid Jami |last4=Testi |first4=Luca |last5=Muñoz-Ledesma |first5=Francisco J. |last6=Villalobos |first6=Francisco J. |date=2010 |title=Water stress effects on growth, development and yield of opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378377410001733 |journal=Agricultural Water Management |language=en |volume=97 |issue=10 |pages=1582–1590 |doi=10.1016/j.agwat.2010.05.011|bibcode=2010AgWM...97.1582M |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Ornamental===
Live plants and seeds of the opium poppy are widely sold by seed companies and nurseries in most of the western world, including the United States. Poppies are sought after by gardeners for the vivid coloration of the blooms, the hardiness and reliability of the poppy plants, the exotic chocolate-vegetal fragrance note of some cultivars,{{which|date=June 2018}} and the ease of growing the plants from purchased flats of seedlings or by direct sowing of the seed. Poppy seed pods are also sold for dried flower arrangements.

Though "opium poppy and poppy straw" are listed in Schedule II of the United States' [[Controlled Substances Act]], ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' can be grown legally in the United States as a seed crop or ornamental flower.<ref>{{cite web |title=Culinary Poppy Cultivation |url=http://agsyst.wsu.edu/CulinaryPoppy.html |website=WSU Mount Vernon NWREC |publisher=Washington State University |access-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421041214/http://agsyst.wsu.edu/CulinaryPoppy.html |archive-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> During the summer, opium poppies can be seen flowering in gardens throughout North America and Europe, and displays are found in many private plantings, as well as in public botanical and museum gardens such as [[United States Botanical Garden]], [[Missouri Botanical Garden]], and [[North Carolina Botanical Garden]].

Many countries grow the plants, and some rely heavily on the commercial production of the drug as a major source of income. As an additional source of profit, the seeds of the same plants are sold for use in foods, so the cultivation of the plant is a significant source of income. This international trade in seeds of ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' was addressed by a UN resolution "to fight the international trade in illicit opium poppy seeds" on 28 July 1998.

{{gallery|mode=packed
|Poppy from above.JPG|Red opium poppy flower
|Český-modrý-mák detail-květu.jpg|Czech blue poppy flower
|Cesky-modry-mak detail.jpg|Czech blue poppy seeds
}}

===Production===
{| class="wikitable"  style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2|Poppy seed production – 2018
|-
!  style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country
!  style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"| <small>([[tonne]]s)</small>
|-
| {{TUR}} || 26,991
|-
| {{CZE}} || 13,666
|-
| {{ESP}} || 12,360
|-
| '''World''' || '''76,240'''
|-
|colspan=2 style="text-align:left;"|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="FAOSTAT-2019">{{cite web|url=http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E|title=Poppy seed production in 2018, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)|date=2019|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=28 November 2020|archive-date=22 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122053717/http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E}}</ref></small>
|}

====Food====

In 2018, world production of poppy seeds for consumption was 76,240 [[tonne]]s, led by [[Turkey]] with 35% of the world total (table). Poppy seed production and [[trade]] are susceptible to fluctuations mainly due to unstable yields. The performance of most [[genotype]]s of ''Papaver somniferum'' is very susceptible to environmental changes.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1556/AAgr.55.2007.3.9|title = Assessment of genotype × environment interactions for yield and morphine content in opium poppy (Papaver somniferumL.)| journal=Acta Agronomica Hungarica| volume=55| issue=3| pages=331–338|year = 2007|last1 = Yadav|first1 = H.| last2=Shukla| first2=S.| last3=Singh| first3=S.}}</ref> This behaviour led to a stagnation of the poppy seed market value between 2008 and 2009 as a consequence of high [[stock]] levels, bad weather and poor quality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Procházka |first1=Petr |last2=Smutka |first2=Lubos |title=Czech Republic as an Important Producer of Poppy Seed |journal=AGRIS On-Line Papers in Economics and Informatics |date=30 June 2012 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=35–47 |url=http://purl.umn.edu/131361 |access-date=15 November 2018 }}</ref> The world leading importer of poppy seed is [[India]] (16 000 tonnes), followed by [[Russia]], [[Poland]] and [[Germany]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sergeeva |first1=Anna |title=Global Poppy Seed Market – The Czech Republic Is the Key Producing Country |url=https://www.indexbox.io/blog/global-poppy-seed-market/ |website=Index Box |access-date=15 November 2018}}</ref>

Poppy seed oil remains a niche product due to the lower yield compared to conventional oil crops.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frick |first1=Claudia |last2=Hebeisen |first2=Thomas |title=Mohn als alternative Ölpflanze |journal=AGRARForschung |date=2005 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=4–9}}</ref>

====Medicine====
Australia (Tasmania), Turkey and India are the major producers of poppy for medicinal purposes and poppy-based drugs, such as [[morphine]] or [[codeine]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Dicker, Jason|url=http://www.launc.tased.edu.au/online/sciences/agsci/alkalo/popindus.htm|title=The Poppy Industry in Tasmania|work=[[University of Tasmania]]|access-date=2009-09-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111211054348/http://www.launc.tased.edu.au/online/sciences/agsci/alkalo/popindus.htm|archive-date=11 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="Yadav-2006" /> ''The New York Times'' reported, in 2014, that [[Tasmania]] was the largest producer of the poppy cultivars used for [[thebaine]] (85% of the world's supply) and [[oripavine]] (100% of the world's supply) production. Tasmania also had 25% of the world's opium and codeine production.<ref name="Bradsher-2014"/>

===Restrictions===
[[File:Poppy Fields - geograph.org.uk - 1361923.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Opium poppy fields near [[Metheringham]], Lincolnshire, England. Also visible in the field are red [[Papaver rhoeas|field poppies]], another related species of poppy which often grows alongside ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' as a weed]]

In most of [[Central and Eastern Europe]], poppy seed is commonly used for traditional pastries and cakes, and it is legal to grow poppies throughout the region, although Germany requires a license.<ref>Ursula Heinzelmann (2008) ''Food Culture in Germany'' p. 48</ref>

Since January 1999 in the [[Czech Republic]], according to the ''167/1998 Sb. Addictive Substances Act'', poppies growing in fields larger than {{Convert|100|m2|sqyd}} is obliged for reporting to the local Custom Office.<ref>167/1998 Sb. Zákon o návykových látkách a o změně některých dalších zákonů, Czech Republic, effective since 1 January 1999; § 29 effective since 1 January 1999; § 29</ref><ref>[https://www.celnisprava.cz/cz/o-nas/informace-dle-zak-c-1061999sb/zivotni-situace/Stranky/ohlasovaci-povinnost-pestitelu-maku-a-konopi-podle-par-29-zakona-c-1671998-sb-o-navykovych-latkach.aspx Ohlašovací povinnost pěstitelů máku a konopí podle par. 29 zákona č. 167/1999 Sb., o návykových látkách], Celní správa (Custom Service of the Czech Republic), 19. 6. 2014</ref> Extraction of opium from the plants is prohibited by law (§ 15 letter d/ of the act). It is also prohibited to grow varieties with more than 0.8% of morphine in dry matter of their [[Capsule (fruit)|capsules]], excluding research and experimental purposes (§24/1b/ of the act). The name ''Czech blue poppy'' refers to blue poppy seeds used for food.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

The United Kingdom does not require a license for opium poppy cultivation, but does for extracting opium for medicinal products.<ref>{{cite web|author=Phillip, Rhodri, & Barry Wigmore|url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23404311details/The%20painkilling%20fields:%20England's%20opium%20poppies%20that%20tackle%20the%20NHS%20morphine%20crisis/article.do|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130505140353/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23404311details/The%20painkilling%20fields:%20England's%20opium%20poppies%20that%20tackle%20the%20NHS%20morphine%20crisis/article.do|archive-date=2013-05-05|title=The painkilling fields: England's opium poppies that tackle the NHS morphine crisis|work=[[Evening Standard]]|date=2007-07-14|access-date=2009-09-02}}</ref>

In the United States, opium poppies and poppy straw are prohibited.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/rules/2008/fr0206.htm|title=Authorized Sources of Narcotic Raw Materials, 21 CFR Part 1312; Docket No. DEA-282F, RIN 1117-AB03|publisher=[[Drug Enforcement Administration]], US Department of Justice|date=2008|access-date=13 September 2017|archive-date=3 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103083003/https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/rules/2008/fr0206.htm}}</ref> As the opium poppy is legal for [[culinary]] or [[aesthetic]] reasons, poppies were once grown as a cash crop by farmers in California. The law of poppy cultivation in the United States is somewhat ambiguous.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1950-01-01_3_page003.html#s009 |title=Bulletin on Narcotics – 1950 Issue 3 – 002 |publisher=UNODC |access-date=30 December 2011}}</ref> The reason for the ambiguity is that the Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942 (now [[repeal]]ed)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/RegulatoryInformation/Legislation/ucm148751.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710011353/http://www.fda.gov/RegulatoryInformation/Legislation/ucm148751.htm |archive-date=10 July 2009 |title=Controlled Substances Import and Export Act |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=30 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://codes.lp.findlaw.com/uscode/21/6/188%20to%20188n |title=21 U.S.C. § 188: US Code – Section 188 TO 188N: Repealed. Pub. L. 91-513, title III, Sec. 1101(a)(7), Oct. 27, 1970, 84 Stat. 1292 |publisher=Codes.lp.findlaw.com |access-date=30 December 2011}}</ref> stated that any opium poppies should be declared illegal, except if the farmers were issued a state [[license|permit]]. § 3 of the Opium Poppy Control Act stated: <blockquote>It shall be unlawful for any person who is not the holder of a license authorizing him to produce the opium poppy, duly issued to him by the Secretary of the Treasury in accordance with the provisions of this Act, to produce the opium poppy, or to permit the production of the opium poppy in or upon any place owned, occupied, used, or controlled by him.</blockquote> This led to the Poppy Rebellion, and to the Narcotics Bureau arresting anyone planting opium poppies and forcing the destruction of poppy fields of anyone who defied the prohibition of poppy cultivation.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.wcl.american.edu/journal/lawrev/08/anslinger.pdf?rd=1 |author=Harry J. Anslinger|volume=8 |pages=112–116|year=1959|journal=The American University Law Review|title=The traffic in narcotic drugs: The implementation of treaty obligations in regulating the traffic in narcotic drugs|access-date=31 October 2011|archive-date=1 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401175114/http://www.wcl.american.edu/journal/lawrev/08/anslinger.pdf?rd=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ha4oHkIiIuUC&q=opium+poppy+control+act+of+1944&pg=PA780 |journal=American Bar Association Journal|volume=38|pages= 778–80|date = September 1952|title=The development of international law|author=Young, Richard|doi=<!--Citation bot -->}}</ref> Though the press of those days favored the [[Federal Bureau of Narcotics]], the state of California supported the farmers who grew opium poppies for their seeds for uses in foods such as poppy seed [[muffin]]s. Today, this area of law has remained vague and remains somewhat controversial in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Richter |first1=Skip |title=Poppin' Up Poppies |url=http://www.texasgardener.com/pastissues/sepoct07/Poppies.html |website=Texas Gardener |access-date=20 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104183830/http://www.texasgardener.com/pastissues/sepoct07/Poppies.html |archive-date=4 January 2019}}</ref> The Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942 was repealed on 27 October 1970.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/21/188- |title=United States Code: Title 21,188 to 188n. Repealed. Pub. L. 91–513, title III, 1101(a)(7), Oct. 27, 1970, 84 Stat. 1292 &#124; LII / Legal Information Institute |publisher=Law.cornell.edu |access-date=30 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.joffelaw.com/uscode/21C6.html |title=21 USC Chapter 6 – Narcotic Drugs 01/03/2007 |publisher=Joffelaw.com |access-date=30 December 2011 |archive-date=6 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306102240/http://www.joffelaw.com/uscode/21C6.html }}</ref>

Under the Federal [[Controlled Substances Act]], opium poppy and poppy straw are listed as [[List of Schedule II drugs (US)|Schedule II drugs]] under ACSN 9630. Most (all?){{Clarify|date=August 2025}} states also use this classification under the uniform penal code. Possession of a Schedule II drug is a federal and state felony.

Canada forbids possessing, seeking or obtaining the opium poppy ''(Papaver somniferum)'', its preparations, derivatives, alkaloids and salts, although an exception is made for poppy seed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Controlled Drugs and Substances Act 1996 |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-38.8/|publisher=Justice Laws Website, Government of Canada|date=4 April 2018|access-date=20 June 2018}}</ref>

In some parts of Australia, ''P.&nbsp;somniferum'' is illegal to cultivate, but in [[Tasmania]], some 50% of the world supply is cultivated.<ref>{{cite web|title=Poppy Regulation Act|date=2016|url=https://dpir.nt.gov.au/primary-industry/agricultural-developments/agricultural-developments-poppy-regulation-act|publisher=Department of Primary Industry and Resources, Northern Territory Government, Australia|access-date=13 September 2017|archive-date=28 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628133514/https://dpir.nt.gov.au/primary-industry/agricultural-developments/agricultural-developments-poppy-regulation-act}}</ref>

In [[New Zealand]], it is legal to cultivate the opium poppy as long as it is not used to produce controlled drugs.<ref>Section 9(4) of the Misuse of Drugs Act states, "It shall be a defense to a charge under subsection (1) ''[Cultivation of prohibited plants]'' if the person charged proves that the prohibited plant to which the charge relates was of the species Papaver somniferum, and that it was not intended to be a source of any controlled drug or that it was not being developed as a strain from which a controlled drug could be produced."{{cite web |url=http://legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1975/0116/latest/DLM436264.html?search=sw_096be8ed80861bf8_Papaver+somniferum_25&p=1&sr=1 |title=New Zealand Legislation: Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 |access-date=7 July 2012}}</ref>

In [[United Arab Emirates]] the cultivation of the opium poppy is illegal, as is possession of poppy seed. At least one man has been imprisoned for possessing poppy seed obtained from a bread roll.<ref>{{cite news|author=McGrath, Ginny|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/news/article3333905.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010125643/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/news/article3333905.ece|archive-date=2011-10-10|title=Travellers who 'smuggle' poppy seeds face Dubai jail|work=The Times |location=UK|date=2008-02-08|access-date=2009-09-02}}</ref>

[[Myanmar]] bans cultivation in certain provinces. In northern Myanmar bans have ended a century-old tradition of growing the opium poppy. Between 20,000 and 30,000 former poppy farmers left the [[Kokang]] region as a result of the ban in 2002.<ref>[http://www.tni.org/briefing/golden-triangle-rubber-belt page 4 of the Drug Policy Briefing nr. 29] by the Transnational Institute</ref> People from the [[Wa State|Wa]] region, where the ban was implemented in 2005, fled to areas where growing opium is still possible.

In [[South Korea]], the cultivation of the opium poppy is strictly prohibited.<ref>[https://www.nongmin.com/news/NEWS/FLD/CNT/291598/view 양귀비·대마 재배 땐 '큰일'…관상용 한포기도 절대 안돼]</ref>

==Uses==
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}}

===History===
{{see also|Opium}}

Use of the opium poppy predates written history. The making and use of opium was known to the [[Minoan civilization|ancient Minoans]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Askitopoulou |first1=Helen |last2=Ramoutsaki |first2=Ioanna A |last3=Konsolaki |first3=Eleni |year= 2002|title=Archaeological evidence on the use of opium in the Minoan world |journal=International Congress Series |volume=1242 |pages=23–29 |doi=10.1016/S0531-5131(02)00769-0 }}</ref> Its sap was later named ''opion'' by the [[ancient Greeks]]. The English name is based on the [[Latin]] adaptation of the Greek form.
Evidence of the early domestication of opium poppy has been discovered through small botanical remains found in regions of the Mediterranean and west of the [[Rhine River]], predating circa 5000 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Salavert|first1=Aurélie|last2=Zazzo|first2=Antoine|last3=Martin|first3=Lucie|last4=Antolín|first4=Ferran|last5=Gauthier|first5=Caroline|last6=Thil|first6=François|last7=Tombret|first7=Olivier|last8=Bouby|first8=Laurent|last9=Manen|first9=Claire|last10=Mineo|first10=Mario|last11=Mueller-Bieniek|first11=Aldona|date=2020-11-20|title=Direct dating reveals the early history of opium poppy in western Europe|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|page=20263|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-76924-3|pmid=33219318|pmc=7679390|bibcode=2020NatSR..1020263S|issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free}}</ref> These samples found in various [[Neolithic]] sites show the incredibly early cultivation and natural spread of the plant throughout western Europe.

Opium was used for treating [[asthma]], stomach illnesses, and bad eyesight.

Opium became a major colonial commodity, moving legally and illegally through trade networks on the [[Indian subcontinent]], the [[Colonial history of the United States|Colonial United States]], [[Qing dynasty|Qing China]] and others.<ref name="Farooqui-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Farooqui |first1=Amar |title=The Global Career of Indian Opium and Local Destinies |journal=Almanack |date=December 2016 |issue=14 |pages=52–73 |doi=10.1590/2236-463320161404 |url=http://www.scielo.br/pdf/alm/n14/2236-4633-alm-14-00052.pdf |access-date=5 September 2018|doi-access=free }}</ref> Members of the [[East India Company]] saw the opium trade as an investment opportunity beginning in 1683.<ref name="Asthana-1954">{{cite journal | vauthors = Asthana SN |title=The Cultivation of the Opium Poppy in India |date=1954 |journal=Bulletin on Narcotics|issue=3 |url=https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1954-01-01_3_page002.html#s020 |access-date=5 September 2018}}</ref> In 1773, the Governor of [[Bengal]] established a monopoly on the production of Bengal opium, on behalf of the [[Company rule in India|East India Company administration]]. The cultivation and manufacture of Indian opium was further centralized and controlled through a series of acts issued between 1797 and 1949.<ref name="Asthana-1954"/><ref name="Deming-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Deming |first1=Sarah |title=The Economic Importance of Indian Opium and Trade with China on Britain's Economy, 1843–1890 |journal=Economic Working Papers |date=2011 |volume=25 |issue=Spring |url=https://www.whitman.edu/Documents/Academics/Economics/Working%20Paper%20Contents/WP_25.pdf |access-date=5 September 2018 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112023133/https://www.whitman.edu/Documents/Academics/Economics/Working }}</ref> East India Company merchants balanced an economic deficit from the importation of [[Chinese tea]] by selling Indian opium which was smuggled into China in defiance of [[Qing dynasty|Qing government]] bans. This trade led to the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s.<ref name="Rinde-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Rinde |first1=Meir  |title=Opioids' Devastating Return  |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/opioids-devastating-return |journal=Distillations |date=2018|volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=12–23 |access-date=23 August 2018 }}</ref><ref name="Deming-2011"/><ref name="Farooqui-2016"/><ref name="Mills-2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Mills |first1=James H. |title=Review of 'Opium and Empire in Southeast Asia: Regulating Consumption in British Burma' |journal=Reviews in History |date=2016 |doi=10.14296/RiH/2014/2010 |url=https://www.recensio.net/rezensionen/zeitschriften/reviews-in-history/2016/october/opium-and-empire-in-southeast-asia |access-date=5 September 2018|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-29646-6 |series=Cambridge imperial and post-colonial studies |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Many modern writers, particularly in the 19th century, have written on the opium poppy and its effects, notably [[Thomas de Quincey]] in ''[[Confessions of an English Opium Eater]]''.

The French Romantic composer [[Hector Berlioz]] used opium for inspiration, subsequently producing his [[Symphonie Fantastique]]. In this work, a young artist overdoses on opium and experiences a series of visions of his unrequited love.

In the US, the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] raided [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s [[Monticello]] estate in 1987. It removed the poppy plants that had been planted continually there since Jefferson was alive and using opium from them. Employees of the foundation also destroyed gift shop items like shirts depicting the poppy and packets of the heirloom seed.<ref name="AlterNet-2010">{{cite journal|title=How the DEA Scrubbed Thomas Jefferson's Monticello Poppy Garden from Public Memory|journal=AlterNet|url=https://www.alternet.org/story/145872/how_the_dea_scrubbed_thomas_jefferson%27s_monticello_poppy_garden_from_public_memory|access-date=7 January 2018|date=2010-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204005754/https://www.alternet.org/story/145872/how_the_dea_scrubbed_thomas_jefferson's_monticello_poppy_garden_from_public_memory |archive-date=2018-12-04}}</ref>

===Poppy seeds and oil===
{{main|Poppy seed}}
[[File:3mohn z01.JPG|thumb|Dried blue, grey and white poppy seeds used for pastries in Germany]]
[[File:Makowiec.jpg|thumb|[[Poland|Polish]] [[makowiec (pastry)|''makowiec'']], a [[nut roll]] filled with poppy seed paste]]

Poppy seeds from ''Papaver somniferum'' are an important food item and the source of [[poppyseed oil|poppy seed oil]], an edible oil that has many uses. The seeds contain very low levels of opiates and the oil extracted from them contains even less.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Papaver_somniferum.html|title=Papaver somniferum|website=www.hort.purdue.edu}}</ref> Both the oil and the seed residue also have commercial uses.

The poppy [[press cake]] as a residue of the oil pressing can be used as fodder for different animals as e.g., poultry and fancy fowls. Especially in the time of the [[Moulting|molt]] of the birds, the cake is nutritive and fits to their special needs. Next to the animal fodder, poppy offers other by-products. For example, the stem of the plant can be used for energy briquettes and [[Pellet fuel|pellets]] to heat.<ref name="Wilfried-2000">{{Cite book|title=Mohn: Sorten, Anbau, Rezepte|last=Wilfried.|first=Ahrens|date=2000|publisher=Ulmer|others=Sneyd, Jan.|isbn=978-3-8001-3112-9|location=Stuttgart (Hohenheim)|oclc=76179514}}</ref>

Poppy seeds are used as a food in many cultures. They may be used whole by bakers to decorate their products or milled and mixed with sugar as a sweet filling. They have a creamy and nut-like flavor, and when used with ground coconut, the seeds provide a unique and flavour-rich curry base. They can be dry roasted and ground to be used in wet curry (curry paste) or dry curry.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nandyala.org/mahanandi/?p=941 |title=Mahanandi " Gasagasalu ~ Bendakaaya |publisher=Nandyala.org |access-date=30 December 2011 |archive-date=3 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103083002/http://www.nandyala.org/mahanandi/?p=941 }}</ref>

When the [[European Union]] attempted to ban the cultivation of ''Papaver somniferum'' by private individuals on a small scale (such as personal gardens), citizens in EU countries where poppy seed is eaten heavily, such as countries in the Central-Eastern region, strongly resisted the plan, causing the EU to change course. [[Singapore]], [[UAE]], and [[Saudi Arabia]] are among nations that ban even having poppy seeds, not just growing the plants for them.<ref>{{cite web|title=5 Recent Food Bans from Around the World|url=https://www.femina.in/lifestyle/in-the-news/5-recent-food-bans-from-around-the-world-357.html|work=The Times of India|access-date=8 January 2018}}</ref> The UAE has a long prison sentence for anyone possessing poppy seeds.<ref>{{cite web|title=Travel Warning – Khas Khas (Poppy Seed) Imprisonment in UAE|url=http://www.hoax-slayer.com/khas-khas-poppy-seed-warning.shtml|publisher=Brett M.Christensen|access-date=8 January 2018|archive-date=19 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619080132/http://www.hoax-slayer.com/khas-khas-poppy-seed-warning.shtml}}</ref>

===Opiates===
{{main|Opium}}
[[File:Poppies-seeds-dry.png|thumb|Dried poppy seed pods and stems (plate), and seeds (bowl)]]

The opium poppy is the principal source of opium, the dried latex produced by the [[ovary (botany)|seed pods]]. Opium contains a class of naturally occurring [[alkaloids]] known as [[opiates]], that include [[morphine]], [[codeine]], [[thebaine]], [[oripavine]], [[papaverine]] and [[noscapine]].<ref>Singh, A., I. M. Menendez-Perdomo, et al. (2019). "Benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis in opium poppy: an update." Phytochem Rev 18(6): 1457–1482</ref><ref>Menéndez-Perdomo I.M., Hagel J.M. and Facchini P.J. (2021). "Benzylisoquinoline alkaloid analysis using high-resolution Orbitrap LC-MSn." J Mass Spectrom 56 (2): e4683</ref> The [[Botanical name#Components of plant names|specific epithet]] ''somniferum'' means "sleep-bringing", referring to the [[sedative]] properties of some of these opiates.<ref name=Bryant>Bronwen Jean Bryant and Kathleen Mary Knights {{google books|TQV6sLzYsOYC|Pharmacology for Health Professionals|page=290}}</ref>

The opiate drugs are extracted from opium. The latex oozes from incisions made on the green seed pods and is collected once dry. Tincture of opium or [[laudanum]], consisting of opium dissolved in alcohol or a mixture of alcohol and water, is one of many unapproved drugs regulated by the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA). Its marketing and distribution persists because its historical use preceded the Federal Food, Drug & Cosmetic Act of 1938.<ref name="IJPC-2006">{{cite web|url = http://www.ijpc.com/RxTriad/pdf/RxTriad_V09_N02_Sample.pdf|title = Unapproved Drugs, What's the Big Deal?|access-date = 2009-01-03|publisher = International Journal of Pharmaceutical Compounding, Winter 2006|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100705075733/http://www.ijpc.com/rxtriad/pdf/RxTriad_V09_N02_Sample.pdf|archive-date = 5 July 2010}}</ref> Tincture of opium B.P., containing 1% w/v of anhydrous morphine, also remains in the [[British Pharmacopoeia]],<ref>''The Extra Pharmacopeia Martindale''.  Vol. 1, 24th edition.  London: The Pharmaceutical Press, 1958, page 924.</ref> [[List of controlled drugs in the United Kingdom|listed as a Class A]] substance under the [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]].

Morphine is the predominant alkaloid found in the cultivated varieties of opium poppy that are used for opium production.<ref name="INCB">{{cite web |url=http://www.incb.org/pdf/technical-reports/narcotic-drugs/2008/part_four_All_2008.pdf |title=International Narcotics Control Bureau, Technical Reports, 2008, Part IV, Statistical information on narcotic drugs |access-date=30 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301174402/http://www.incb.org/pdf/technical-reports/narcotic-drugs/2008/part_four_All_2008.pdf |archive-date=1 March 2012 }}</ref> Other varieties produce minimal opium or none at all, such as the latex-free Sujata type. Non-opium cultivars that are planted for drug production feature a high level of thebaine or oripavine. Those are refined into drugs like oxycodone. Raw opium contains about 8–14% morphine by dry weight, or more in high-yield [[cultivar]]s.<ref name="Kapoor-1995" /> It may be used directly or chemically modified to produce semi-synthetic opioids such as [[heroin]].

==Culture==
Opium poppies (flower and fruit) appear on the coat of arms of the [[Royal College of Anaesthetists]].
{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Rätsch |first=Christian |date=2005 |orig-date=German edition: 1998 |title=The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants, Enthnopharmacology and Its Applications |translator=John R. Baker, with assistance from Annabel Lee and Cornelia Ballent |location=Rochester, Vermont |publisher=Park Street Press |isbn=978-0-89281-978-2 |oclc=57007969}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}} 
*[https://vizyonpara.com/hashas-yetistiriciligi/ ''Grow Papaver Somniferum''] from vizyonpara.com
*[http://www.maltawildplants.com/PAPV/Papaver_somniferum_subsp_setigerum.php Comprehensive profile for ''Papaver somniferum''] from MaltaWildPlants.com
*[http://opioids.com/opium/faq.html Opium FAQ v1.0] from Opioids.com
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090426104305/http://www.shaps.hawaii.edu/drugs/dea20026/dea20026.html Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast Asia] from the School of Pacific and Asian Studies {{Dead link|date=July 2022}}
*[http://www.tni.org/briefing/downward-spiral "Downward Spiral – Banning Opium in Afghanistan and Burma", Transnational Institute TNI, Debate Paper, June 2005]
*[http://www.tni.org/report/withdrawal-symptoms-golden-triangle-4 "Withdrawal Symptoms in the Golden Triangle – A Drugs Market in Disarray" TNI Paper by Tom Kramer et al.]
* Chouvy P.A., 2009, [https://web.archive.org/web/20111026180046/http://www.geopium.org/opium_uncovering_politics_poppy_chouvy_ibtauris_harvard.htm "Opium. Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy"], London, I.B. Tauris (Cambridge, Harvard University Press: 2010)

{{Opioidergics}}
{{Medicinal herbs & fungi}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q131584}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Morphine]]
[[Category:Opium]]
[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Soma (drink)]]
[[Category:Papaver|somniferum]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Flora of Malta]]
[[Category:Pharmaceutical regulation in the United States]]
[[Category:Ornamental plants]]