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{{Short description|Fad diet based on the presumed diet of Paleolithic humans}}
{{About|a modern-day diet|information on the dietary practices of Paleolithic humans|Paleolithic#Diet and nutrition}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
[[File:Paleo food.jpg|thumb|right|A meal compatible with the Paleolithic diet|alt= Filets of fish on a bed of shredded vegetables cooking in a frying pan, partially covered by sliced tomatoes.]]

The '''Paleolithic diet''', '''Paleo diet''', '''caveman diet''', or '''Stone Age diet''' is a modern [[fad diet]] its proponents regard as consisting of foods reflecting what humans ate during the [[Paleolithic]] era.<ref>{{Harvnb|de Menezes|Sampaio|Carioca|Parente|2019}}: "The Paleolithic diet has been gaining ground in the field of fad diets. It is based on food patterns of [[Anatomically modern humans|human Paleolithic ancestors]], about 2.6 million to 10,000 years ago, a period that precedes the advent of [[industrial agriculture]] and is different from today's [[modern society]]".</ref>

The diet avoids [[food processing]] and typically includes [[vegetables]], [[fruits]], [[Nut (fruit)|nut]]s, [[Root vegetable|roots]], and [[meat]] and excludes [[dairy products]], [[grains]], [[sugar]], [[legumes]], processed [[oil]]s, [[salt]], [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]], and [[coffee]].<ref>{{Harvnb| British Dietetic Association|2014}} - "The Paleo diet (also known as the Paleolithic Diet, the Caveman diet and the Stone Age Diet) is a diet where only foods presumed to be available to Neanderthals in the prehistoric era are consumed and all other foods, such as dairy products, grains, sugar, legumes, 'processed' oils, salt, and others like alcohol or coffee are excluded."</ref> Historians can trace the ideas behind the diet to "primitive" diets advocated in the 19th century. In the 1970s, [[Walter&nbsp;L. Voegtlin]] popularized a meat-centric "Stone Age" diet; in the 21st century, the best-selling books of [[Loren Cordain]] popularized the "Paleo diet".<ref>{{Harvnb|Ask EN|2010}}; {{Harvnb|Johnson|2015}}; {{Harvnb|Fitzgerald|2014}}.</ref> {{asof|2019}} the Paleolithic diet industry was worth approximately {{USD|500|link=yes}}&nbsp;million.<ref>{{Harvnb|Decker|2019}}.</ref>

In the 21st century, the sequencing of the [[human genome]] and [[DNA analysis]] of the remains of [[anatomically modern humans]] have found evidence that [[Human evolution|humans evolved]] rapidly in response to changing diet. This evidence undermines a core premise of the Paleolithic diet—that human digestion has remained essentially unchanged over time.<ref>{{Harvnb|Whoriskey|2016}}; {{Harvnb|Zuk|2013|p=133}}: "No one [...] can legitimately claim to have found the only 'natural' diet for humans. We simply ate too many different foods in the past, and have adapted to new ones".</ref> [[Paleoanthropology|Paleoanthropological evidence]] has indicated that prehistoric humans ate plant-heavy diets that regularly included grains and other starchy vegetables, in contrast to the claims made by proponents of the Paleolithic diet.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-20 |title=Science debunks a misleading myth about the paleo diet |url=https://www.inverse.com/culture/real-paleo-diet-had-carbs |access-date=2024-11-06 |website=Inverse |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wong |first=Kate |date=2024-07-01 |title=To Follow the Real Early Human Diet, Eat Everything |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/to-follow-the-real-early-human-diet-eat-everything/ |access-date=2024-11-06 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Henry |first1=Amanda G. |last2=Brooks |first2=Alison S. |last3=Piperno |first3=Dolores R. |date=2011-01-11 |title=Microfossils in calculus demonstrate consumption of plants and cooked foods in Neanderthal diets (Shanidar III, Iraq; Spy I and II, Belgium) |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=486–491 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1016868108 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3021051 |pmid=21187393}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dein |first=Simon |date=2022-10-07 |title=The myth of the golden past: Critical perspectives on the paleo diet |url=https://journals.openedition.org/aof/13805 |journal=Anthropology of Food |language=en |doi=10.4000/aof.13805 |issn=1609-9168|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Challa |first1=Hima J. |title=Paleolithic Diet |date=2024 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482457/ |access-date=2024-11-06 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29494064 |last2=Bandlamudi |first2=Manav |last3=Uppaluri |first3=Kalyan R.}}</ref> 

Advocates promote the Paleolithic diet as a way of improving [[health]].<ref>{{Harvnb|NHS|2008}}.</ref> There is some evidence that following it may lead to improvements in body composition and metabolism compared with the typical [[Western diet]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Katz|Meller|2014}}.</ref> or compared with diets recommended by some European nutritional guidelines.<ref>{{Harvnb|Manheimer|van Zuuren|Fedorowicz|Pijl|2015}}.</ref> On the other hand, following the diet can lead to [[nutritional deficiencies]], such as an inadequate [[calcium]] intake, and side effects can include [[weakness]], [[diarrhea]], and [[headache]]s.<ref>
''For calcium deficicency see'' {{Harvnb|Tarantino|Citro|Finelli|2015}}; ''for other risks see'' {{Harvnb|Obert|Pearlman|Obert|Chapin|2017}}.
</ref>

==History and terminology==
Adrienne Rose Johnson writes that the idea that the primitive diet was superior to current dietary habits dates back to the 1890s with such writers as [[Emmet Densmore]] and [[John Harvey Kellogg]], the founder of the eponymous breakfast cereal company. Densmore proclaimed that "[[bread]] is the staff of death", while Kellogg supported a diet of starchy and grain-based foods in accord with "the ways and likings of our primitive ancestors".<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|2015}}.</ref> [[Arnold DeVries]] advocated an early version of the Paleolithic diet in his 1952 book, ''Primitive Man and His Food''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Newton|2019|page=102}}.</ref> In 1958, [[Richard Mackarness]] authored ''Eat Fat and Grow Slim'', which proposed a low-carbohydrate "Stone Age" diet.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hill|1996}}; {{Harvnb|Smith|2015|p=117}}: "Mackarness, who founded the first British National Health Service clinical ecology clinic in Basingstoke, pioneered the so-called Stone Age Diet, in the belief that humans had not evolved to consume foods, including wheat and milk, developed since Paleolithic times (in fact, today's weight-reduction version of Mackarness's Stone Age diet is called the 'Paleo diet')."</ref>

In his 1975 book ''The Stone Age Diet'', gastroenterologist [[Walter L. Voegtlin]] advocated a meat-based diet, with low proportions of vegetables and starchy foods, based on his declaration that humans were "exclusively flesh-eaters" until 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zuk|2013|pp=111&ndash;112}}.</ref>

In 1985 [[Stanley Boyd Eaton]] and [[Melvin Konner]] published a controversial article in the ''[[New England Journal of Medicine]]'' proposing that modern humans were biologically very similar to their primitive ancestors and so "genetically programmed" to consume pre-agricultural foods. Eaton and Konner proposed a "discordance hypothesis" by which the mismatch between modern diet and human biology gave rise to lifestyle diseases, such as [[obesity]] and [[diabetes]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|2015}}.</ref>

The diet started to become popular in the 21st century, where it attracted a largely internet-based following using web sites, forums and social media.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chang|Nowell|2016}}.</ref>

This diet's ideas were further popularized by [[Loren Cordain]], a health scientist with a Ph.D. in physical education, who trademarked the words "The Paleo Diet" and who wrote a 2002 book of that title.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ask EN|2010}}. For Cordain's qualifications see {{Harvnb|Chang|Nowell|2016}}. For trademarking see {{Harvnb|Lowe|2014}}.</ref>

In 2012 the Paleolithic diet was described as being one of the "latest trends" in diets, based on the popularity of diet books about it;<ref>{{Harvnb|Cunningham|2012}}.</ref> in 2013 and 2014 the Paleolithic diet was [[Google]]'s most searched weight-loss method.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chang|Nowell|2016}}.</ref>

The ''Paleolithic'' or ''Paleo'' diet is also sometimes referred to as the ''caveman'' or ''Stone Age'' diet.<ref>{{Harvnb|Shariatmadari|2014}}.</ref>

==Foodstuffs==
[[File:Roastbeef.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Joint of roast beef on a wooden board, cooked medium rare and carved.|[[Roast beef]]. Some recent paleo diet variants emphasize the consumption of unprocessed animal products.]]
The basis of the diet is a re-imagining of what Paleolithic people ate, and different proponents recommend different diet compositions. Eaton and Konner, for example, wrote a 1988 book ''The Paleolithic Prescription'' with [[Marjorie Shostak]], and it described a diet that is 65% plant based. This is not typical of more recently devised paleo diets; Loren Cordain's&nbsp;&ndash; probably the most popular&nbsp;&ndash; instead emphasizes animal products and avoidance of [[processed food]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Chang|Nowell|2016}}.</ref> Diet advocates concede the modern Paleolithic diet cannot be a faithful recreation of what Paleolithic people ate, and instead aim to "translate" that into a modern context, avoiding such likely historical practices as [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Kolbert|2014}}.</ref>

Foodstuffs that have been described as permissible include:
* "vegetables, fruits, nuts, [[root vegetable|roots]], meat, and organ meats";<ref>{{Harvnb|Tarantino|Citro|Finelli|2015}}.</ref>
* "vegetables (including root vegetables), fruit (including fruit oils, e.g., olive oil, coconut oil, and [[palm oil]]), nuts, fish, meat, and eggs, and it excluded dairy, grain-based foods, legumes, extra sugar, and nutritional products of industry (including refined fats and refined carbohydrates)";<ref>{{Harvnb|Manheimer|van Zuuren|Fedorowicz|Pijl|2015}}.</ref> and
* "avoids processed foods, and emphasizes eating vegetables, fruits, nuts and seeds, eggs, and lean meats".<ref>{{Harvnb|Katz|Meller|2014}}.</ref>

The diet forbids the consumption of all [[dairy]] products. This is because milking did not exist until animals were domesticated after the Paleolithic era.<ref>{{Harvnb|Longe|2008|p=180}}: "No dairy products are allowed while on this diet. This means no milk, cheese, butter, or anything else that comes from milking animals. This is because milking did not occur until animals were domesticated, sometime after the Paleolithic age. Eggs are allowed however, because Paleolithic man would probably have found eggs in bird's nests during foraging and hunting."</ref>

===Ancestral diet===
{{further|Pleistocene human diet}}
Adopting the Paleolithic diet assumes that modern humans can reproduce the hunter-gatherer diet. Molecular biologist [[Marion Nestle]] argues that "knowledge of the relative proportions of animal and plant foods in the diets of early humans is circumstantial, incomplete, and debatable and that there are insufficient data to identify the composition of a genetically determined optimal diet. The evidence related to Paleolithic diets is best interpreted as supporting the idea that diets based largely on plant foods promote health and longevity, at least under conditions of food abundance and physical activity."<ref>{{Harvnb|Nestle|2000}}.</ref> Ideas about [[Paleolithic#Diet and nutrition|Paleolithic diet and nutrition]] are at best hypothetical.<ref>{{Harvnb|Milton|2002}}.</ref>

The data for Cordain's book came from six contemporary hunter-gatherer groups, mainly living in marginal habitats. One of the studies was on the [[!Kung people|!Kung]], whose diet was recorded for a single month, and one was on the [[Inuit diet|diet of the Inuit]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ungar|Teaford|2002}}; {{Harvnb|Lee|1969}}; {{Harvnb|Eaton|Shostak|Konner|1988}}.</ref> Due to these limitations, the book has been criticized as painting an incomplete picture of the diets of Paleolithic humans.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ungar|Teaford|2002}}.</ref> It has been noted that the rationale for the diet does not adequately account for the fact that, due to the pressures of [[artificial selection]], most modern domesticated plants and animals differ drastically from their Paleolithic ancestors; likewise, their nutritional profiles are very different from their ancient counterparts. For example, wild [[almonds]] produce potentially fatal levels of [[cyanide]], but this trait has been bred out of domesticated varieties using artificial selection. Many vegetables, such as [[broccoli]], did not exist in the Paleolithic period; broccoli, [[cabbage]], [[cauliflower]], and [[kale]] are modern [[cultivar]]s of the ancient species ''[[Brassica oleracea]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jabr|2013}}.</ref>

Trying to devise an ideal diet by studying contemporary hunter-gatherers is difficult because of the great disparities that exist; for example, the animal-derived calorie percentage ranges from 25% for the [[Gwi people]] of southern Africa to 99% for the Alaskan [[Nunamiut]]. Descendants of populations with different diets have different genetic adaptations to those diets, such as the ability to digest sugars from starchy foods. Modern hunter-gatherers tend to exercise considerably more than modern office workers, protecting them from heart disease and diabetes, though highly processed modern foods also contribute to diabetes when those populations move into cities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbons|2014}}.</ref>

A 2018 review of the diet of hunter-gatherer populations found that the dietary provisions of the Paleolithic diet had been based on questionable research, and were "difficult to reconcile with more detailed ethnographic and nutritional studies of hunter-gatherer diet".<ref>{{Harvnb|Pontzer|Wood|Raichlen|2018}}.</ref>

Researchers have proposed that cooked starches met the energy demands of an increasing brain size, based on variations in the copy number of genes encoding [[amylase]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Zimmer|2015}}; {{Harvnb|Hardy|Brand-Miller|Brown|Thomas|Copeland|2015}}.</ref>

==Health effects==
The methodological quality of research into the Paleolithic diet has been described as "poor to moderate".<ref>{{Harvnb|Pitt|2016}}; {{Harvnb|Obert|Pearlman|Obert|Chapin|2017}}.</ref> Some of the paleo diet's proponents have made exaggerated health claims, such as the claim that the diet can reverse [[diabetes]] and cure [[autoimmune diseases]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Pitt|2016}}; {{Harvnb|Kolbert|2014}} : "[...] proponents of the paleo diet make all sorts of claims for its efficacy. Some contend that it cures autoimmune diseases, others that it reverses diabetes."</ref> miring the diet in controversy.

Following the Paleolithic diet results in the consumption of fewer processed foods, less sugar, and less salt. Reduced consumption of such is consistent with mainstream advice about diet.<ref>{{Harvnb|British Dietetic Association|2014}}.</ref> Diets reflecting a Paleolithic pattern of nutrition also share some similarities with traditional ethnic diets, such as the [[Mediterranean diet]], which has been found to result in more health benefits than the [[Western diet]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Tarantino|Citro|Finelli|2015}}; {{Harvnb|Katz|Meller|2014}}.</ref> Following the paleolithic diet can lead to [[nutritional deficiencies]], such as those of vitamin{{nbsp}}D and calcium, which can in turn lead to compromised bone health.<ref>{{Harvnb|British Dietetic Association|2014}}; {{Harvnb|Pitt|2016}}.</ref> The increased fish consumption suggested by the diet can also lead to an elevated risk of exposure to toxins.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tarantino|Citro|Finelli|2015}}.</ref>

There is some evidence that the diet can help in achieving [[weight loss]], due to the increased [[satiety]] from the foods typically eaten.<ref>{{Harvnb|de Menezes|Sampaio|Carioca|Parente|2019}}.</ref> One trial of [[obese]] postmenopausal women found improvements in weight and fat loss after six months, but the benefits had ceased by 24 months. Side effects among these participants included "weakness, diarrhea, and headaches". As with any other diet regime, the Paleolithic diet leads to weight loss because of overall decreased [[caloric deficit|caloric intake]], rather than any specific feature of the diet itself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Obert|Pearlman|Obert|Chapin|2017}}.</ref>

There is no good evidence that following a Paleolithic diet reduces the risk of [[cardiovascular disease]] or [[metabolic syndrome]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Ghaedi|Mohammadi|Mohammadi|Ramezani-Jolfaie|2019}}; {{Harvnb|Manheimer|van Zuuren|Fedorowicz|Pijl|2015}}.</ref> nor is there any evidence that the Paleolithic diet is effective in treating [[inflammatory bowel disease]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hou|Lee|Lewis|2014}}: "Even less evidence exists for the efficacy of the SCD, FODMAP, or Paleo diets. Furthermore, the practicality of maintaining these interventions over long periods of time is doubtful."</ref>

The Paleolithic diet is similar to the [[Atkins diet]], in that it encourages the consumption of large amounts of [[red meat]], especially meats high in [[saturated fat]]. Increased consumption of red meat can lead to a higher incidence of cardiovascular disease.<ref>{{Harvnb|Longe|2008|p=182}}.</ref>

==Proposed rationale and reception==
[[File:Melvin_Konner_closeup.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Melvin Konner]], co-author of a 1985 paper setting out a hypothetical basis for the Paleolithic diet]]

The stated rationale for the Paleolithic diet is that human genes today are not different from human genes of 10,000 years ago, and that the diet of that time is therefore the best fit with humans today.<ref>{{Harvnb|Obert|Pearlman|Obert|Chapin|2017}}.</ref> Loren Cordain has described the paleo diet as "the one and only diet that ideally fits our genetic makeup".<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbons|2014}}.</ref>

The argument is that modern humans have not been able to biologically adapt to contemporary circumstances.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carrera-Bastos|Fontes-Villalba|O'Keefe|Lindeberg|Cordain|2011}}.</ref> According to Cordain, before the agricultural revolution, hunter-gatherer diets rarely included grains, and obtaining milk from wild animals would have been "nearly impossible".<ref>{{Harvnb|Cordain|Eaton|Sebastian|Mann|2005}}</ref> Advocates of the diet argue that the increase in [[diseases of affluence]] after the dawn of agriculture was caused by these changes in diet. Others, however, have countered that it may be that pre-agricultural hunter-gatherers did not suffer from the diseases of affluence because they did not live long enough to develop them.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ungar|Grine|Teaford|2006}}.</ref>

According to the model from the evolutionary discordance hypothesis, "many [[chronic disease]]s and [[degenerative disease|degenerative conditions]] evident in modern [[Western culture|Western]] populations have arisen because of a mismatch between [[Stone Age]] genes and modern lifestyles."<ref>{{Harvnb|Elton|2008|p=9}}.</ref> Advocates of the modern paleo diet have formed their dietary recommendations based on this hypothesis. They argue that modern humans should follow a diet that is nutritionally closer to that of their Paleolithic ancestors.

The evolutionary discordance is incomplete, since it is based mainly on the genetic understanding of the human diet and a unique model of human ancestral diets, without taking into account the flexibility and variability of the human dietary behaviors over time.<ref>{{Harvnb|Turner|Thompson|2013}}.</ref> Studies of a variety of populations around the world show that humans can live healthily with a wide variety of diets and that humans have evolved to be flexible eaters.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leonard|2002}}.</ref> Lactase persistence, which confers [[lactose tolerance]] into adulthood, is an example of how some humans have adapted to the introduction of dairy into their diet. While the introduction of grains, dairy, and legumes during the [[Neolithic Revolution]] may have had some adverse effects on modern humans, if humans had not been nutritionally adaptable, these technological developments would have been dropped.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jabr|2013}}.</ref>

Since the publication of Eaton and Konner's paper in 1985, analysis of the [[DNA]] of primitive human remains has provided evidence that evolving humans were continually adapting to new diets, thus challenging the hypothesis underlying the Paleolithic diet.<ref>{{Harvnb|Whoriskey|2016}}.</ref> Evolutionary biologist [[Marlene Zuk]] writes that the idea that our genetic makeup today matches that of our ancestors is misconceived, and that in debate Cordain was "taken aback" when told that 10,000 years was "plenty of time" for an evolutionary change in human digestive abilities to have taken place. On this basis Zuk dismisses Cordain's claim that the paleo diet is "the one and only diet that fits our genetic makeup".<ref>{{Harvnb|Zuk|2013|p=114}}.</ref>

Paleoanthropologist [[Peter Ungar]] has written that the paleo diet is a "myth", on account both of its invocation of a single suitable diet when in reality humans have always been a "work in progress", and because diet has always been varied because humans were spread widely over the planet.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ungar|2017}}.</ref>

Anthropological geneticist [[Anne Stone (academic)|Anne C. Stone]] has said that humans have adapted in the last 10,000 years in response to radical changes in diet. In 2016, she was quoted as saying "It drives me crazy when Paleo-diet people say that we've stopped evolving—we haven't."<ref>{{Harvnb|Whoriskey|2016}}.</ref>

Melvin Konner has said the challenge to the hypothesis is not greatly significant since the real challenges to human non-adaptation have occurred with the rise of ever-more refined foodstuffs in the last 300 years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Whoriskey|2016}}.</ref>

==Environmental impact==
A 2019 analysis of diets in the United States ranked consumption of a Paleolithic diet as more environmentally harmful than consumption of an omnivorous diet, though not so harmful as a [[low-carbohydrate diet|ketogenic diet]].<ref>{{Harvnb|O'Malley|Willits-Smith|Aranda|Heller|2019}}.</ref>

[[Elizabeth Kolbert]] has written the Paleolithic diet's emphasis on meat consumption is a "disaster" on account of meat's comparatively high energy production costs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kolbert|2014}}.</ref>

==Popularity==
A lifestyle and ideology have developed around the diet.<ref>{{Harvnb|Goldstein|2010}}; {{Harvnb|Wilson|2015}}.</ref> "Paleolithic" products include clothing, [[smartphone apps]], and cookware. Many Paleolithic cookery books have been bestsellers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chang|Nowell|2016}}.</ref>

{{asof|2019}} the market for products with the word "Paleo" in their name was worth approximately $US500&nbsp;million, with strong growth prospects despite pushback from the scientific community. Some products were taking advantage of the trend by touting themselves as "paleo-approved" despite having no apparent link to the movement's tenets.<ref>{{Harvnb|Decker|2019}}.</ref>

Like many [[list of diets|other diets]], some proponents promote the Paleolithic diet by an [[appeal to nature]] and a narrative of [[conspiracy theories]] about how nutritional research, which does not support the supposed benefits of the paleolithic diet, is controlled by a malign [[food industry]].<ref>{{Harvnb|NHS|2008}}; {{Harvnb|Kolbert|2014}}; {{Harvnb|Hall|2014}}: "Fad diets and 'miracle' diet supplements promise to help us lose weight effortlessly. Different diet gurus offer a bewildering array of diets that promise to keep us healthy and make us live longer: vegan, Paleo, Mediterranean, low fat, low carb, raw food, gluten-free [...] the list goes on."</ref> Paleolithic diet advocate John Durant has blamed suppression of the truth about diet in the United States on "the vegetarian lobby".<ref>{{Harvnb|Kolbert|2014}}.</ref>

==See also==
{{Columns-list |colwidth=20em |
* [[List of historical cuisines]]
* [[List of diets]]
* [[Low-carbohydrate diet]]
* [[Modern primitive]]
* [[Nutritional genomics]]
* [[Paleo Foundation]]
* [[Peganism]]
* [[Pleistocene human diet]]
* [[Raw foodism]]
{{portal inline|Evolutionary biology}}<br>
{{portal inline|Food}}
}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite journal |department=Ask EN |date=January 2010 |title=The modern take on the Paleo diet: is it grounded in science? |journal=Environmental Nutrition |issue=7 |url=https://universityhealthnews.com/topics/nutrition-topics/the-modern-take-on-the-paleo-diet-is-it-grounded-in-science/ |url-access=subscription |ref={{harvid|Ask EN|2010}} }}
*{{Cite web |url=https://www.bda.uk.com/resource/top-5-worst-celebrity-diets-to-avoid-in-2015.html |title=Top 5 Worst Celebrity Diets to Avoid in 2015 |date=8 December 2014 |publisher=[[British Dietetic Association]] |ref={{harvid|British Dietetic Association|2014}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025032114/https://www.bda.uk.com/resource/top-5-worst-celebrity-diets-to-avoid-in-2015.html |archive-date=2020-10-25 |url-status=dead }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Carrera-Bastos P, Fontes-Villalba M, O'Keefe J, Lindeberg S, Cordain L |year=2011 |title=The western diet and lifestyle and diseases of civilization |url=https://www.dovepress.com/getfile.php?fileID=9163 |journal=Research Reports in Clinical Cardiology |pages=15 |doi=10.2147/RRCC.S16919 |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Chang ML, Nowell A |title=How to make stone soup: Is the "Paleo diet" a missed opportunity for anthropologists? |journal=Evol. Anthropol. |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=228–31 |date=September 2016 |pmid=27753214 |doi=10.1002/evan.21504 |s2cid=12918685 }}
*{{Cite journal|last1=Cordain|first1=Loren|last2=Eaton|first2=S. Boyd|last3=Sebastian|first3=Anthony|last4=Mann|first4=Neil|last5=Lindeberg|first5=Staffan|last6=Watkins|first6=Bruce A.|last7=O'Keefe|first7=James H.|last8=Brand-Miller|first8=Janette|year=2005|title=Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century|url=https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/81/2/341/4607411|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|language=en|volume=81|issue=2|pages=341–54|doi=10.1093/ajcn.81.2.341|pmid=15699220|issn=0002-9165|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Cunningham E |year=2012 |title=Are diets from paleolithic times relevant today? |journal=[[Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics]] |volume=112 |issue=8 |page=1296 |doi=10.1016/j.jand.2012.06.019 |pmid=22818735}}
*{{cite journal |journal=Nutritional Outlook |title=Paleo Diet: Is the paleo diet here to stay, or a short-lived trend? |year=2019 |vauthors=Decker KJ |issue=4 |volume=22 |url=https://www.nutritionaloutlook.com/view/paleo-diet-paleo-diet-here-stay-or-short-lived-trend }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=de Menezes EV, Sampaio HA, Carioca AA, Parente NA, Brito FO, Moreira TM, de Souza AC, Arruda SP |title=Influence of Paleolithic diet on anthropometric markers in chronic diseases: systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Nutr J |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=41 |date=July 2019 |pmid=31337389 |pmc=6647066 |doi=10.1186/s12937-019-0457-z |type=Systematic review |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite book |vauthors=Eaton SB, Shostak M, Konner M |title=The Paleolithic Prescription: A Program of Diet and Exercise and a Design for Living |publisher=[[Harper and Row]] |year=1988 |page=[https://archive.org/details/paleolithicpresc00eato/page/79 79] |isbn=978-0060916350 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/paleolithicpresc00eato/page/79 }}
*{{Cite book |vauthors=Elton S |year=2008 |chapter=Environments, Adaptation, and Evolutionary Medicine: Should We be Eating a Stone Age Diet? |veditors=Elton S, O'Higgins P |title=Medicine and Evolution: Current Applications, Future Prospects |place=Boca Raton, FL |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-5134-6}}
*{{Cite book |vauthors=Fitzgerald M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bh1bBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |title=Diet Cults: The Surprising Fallacy at the Core of Nutrition Fads and a Guide to Healthy Eating for the Rest of Us |publisher=Pegasus Books |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-60598-595-4 }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Ghaedi E, Mohammadi M, Mohammadi H, Ramezani-Jolfaie N, Malekzadeh J, Hosseinzadeh M, Salehi-Abargouei A |title=Effects of a Paleolithic Diet on Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials |journal=Adv Nutr |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=634–46 |date=July 2019 |pmid=31041449 |pmc=6628854 |doi=10.1093/advances/nmz007 }}
*{{cite journal |journal=National Geographic Magazine |vauthors=Gibbons A |title=The Evolution of Diet |date=September 2014 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/foodfeatures/evolution-of-diet/ }}
*{{Cite news |vauthors=Goldstein J |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/fashion/10caveman.html?_r=0 |title=The New Age Cavemen and the City |date=January 8, 2010 |work=[[The New York Times]] }}
*{{Cite news |vauthors=Hall H |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-394997140 |title=Food myths: what science knows (and does not know) about diet and nutrition |work=[[Skeptic (U.S. Magazine)|Skeptic]] |year=2014 |issue=4 |volume=19 |page=10 |author-link=Harriet A. Hall }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Hardy K, Brand-Miller J, Brown KD, Thomas MG, Copeland L |title=The Importance of Dietary Carbohydrate in Human Evolution |journal=Q Rev Biol |volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=251–68 |date=September 2015 |pmid=26591850 |doi=10.1086/682587 |s2cid=28309169 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1470393/ }}
*{{cite news |vauthors=Hill R |year=1996 |title=Obituary: Dr Richard Mackarness |newspaper=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/obituary-dr-richard-mackarness-1303347.html }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Hou JK, Lee D, Lewis J |date=October 2014 |title=Diet and inflammatory bowel disease: review of patient-targeted recommendations |journal=[[Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology]] |type=Review |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=1592–600 |doi=10.1016/j.cgh.2013.09.063 |pmc=4021001 |pmid=24107394 |quote=Even less evidence exists for the efficacy of the SCD, FODMAP, or Paleo diets. Furthermore, the practicality of maintaining these interventions over long periods of time is doubtful.}}
*{{Cite web |vauthors=Jabr F |date=3 June 2013 |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-paleo-diet-half-baked-how-hunter-gatherer-really-eat/ |title=How to Really Eat Like a Hunter-Gatherer: Why the Paleo Diet Is Half-Baked |website=[[Scientific American]] }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Johnson AR |date=2015 |title=The Paleo Diet and the American Weight Loss Utopia, 1975–2014 |journal=Utopian Studies|volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=101–124 |doi=10.5325/utopianstudies.26.1.0101 |publisher=Penn State University Press |s2cid=144735157 }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Katz DL, Meller S |year=2014 |title=Can we say what diet is best for health? |journal=[[Annual Review of Public Health]] |volume=35 |pages=83–103 |doi=10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182351 |pmid=24641555 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite magazine |vauthors=Kolbert E |magazine=The New Yorker |title=Stone Soup{{snd}}How the Paleolithic life style got trendy |date=20 July 2014 |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/07/28/stone-soup }}
*{{cite journal |title=Kung Bushmen Subsistence: An Input-Output Analysis |journal=Contributions to Anthropology: Ecological Essays. Ottawa: National Museums of Canada |year=1969 |vauthors=Lee R |issue=230 |pages=73–94 }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Leonard WR |date=1 December 2002 |title=Food for Thought: Dietary change was a driving force in human evolution |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1202-106 |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/food-for-thought/ |access-date=20 January 2016 |url-access=subscription |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=287 |issue=6 |pages=106–15 |pmid=12469653 }}
*{{Cite book |vauthors=Longe JL |year=2008 |title=The Gale Encyclopedia of Diets: A Guide to Health and Nutrition |publisher=The Gale Group |isbn=978-1-4144-2991-5}}
*{{Cite news |vauthors=Lowe K |date=20 July 2014 |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/health/2024082823_paleodietxml.html |title=A dissenting view on the Paleo Diet |work=[[The Seattle Times]] |access-date=17 March 2015 }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Manheimer EW, van Zuuren EJ, Fedorowicz Z, Pijl H |title=Paleolithic nutrition for metabolic syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=102 |issue=4 |pages=922–32 |date=October 2015 |pmid=26269362 |pmc=4588744 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.115.113613 }}
*{{Cite book |vauthors=Milton K |year=2002 |editor=Ungar, Peter S. |editor2=Teaford, Mark F. |title=Human Diet: Its Origins and Evolution |publisher=Bergin and Garvey |isbn=978-0-89789-736-5 |pages=111–122 |chapter=Hunter-gatherer diets: wild foods signal relief from diseases of affluence |chapter-url=http://nature.berkeley.edu/miltonlab/pdfs/humandiet.pdf |location=[[Westport, Connecticut|Westport, CT]] }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Nestle M |date=March 2000 |title=Paleolithic diets: a sceptical view |journal=[[Nutrition Bulletin]] |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=43–47 |doi=10.1046/j.1467-3010.2000.00019.x |author-link1=Marion Nestle}}
*{{cite book |vauthors=Newton DE |year=2019|title=Vegetarianism and Veganism: A Reference Handbook|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-6763-7}}
*{{Cite web |ref={{harvid|NHS|2008}} |url=http://www.nhs.uk/news/2008/05May/Pages/Cavemanfaddiet.aspx |title=Caveman fad diet |date=9 May 2008 |website=Choices |publisher=[[NHS]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725212012/http://www.nhs.uk/news/2008/05May/Pages/Cavemanfaddiet.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2017 |access-date=2 August 2008 |url-status=dead }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Obert J, Pearlman M, Obert L, Chapin S |year=2017 |title=Popular Weight Loss Strategies: a Review of Four Weight Loss Techniques |journal=Current Gastroenterology Reports |type=Review |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=61 |doi=10.1007/s11894-017-0603-8 |pmid=29124370|s2cid=45802390 }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Malley K, Willits-Smith A, Aranda R, Heller M, Rose D |title=Vegan vs Paleo: Carbon Footprints and Diet Quality of 5 Popular Eating Patterns as Reported by US Consumers |journal= Current Developments in Nutrition |volume=1 |issue=Supplement 1 |year=2019 |pages=nzz047.P03–007–19 |doi=10.1093/cdn/nzz047.P03-007-19|doi-access=free |pmc=6574879 }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Pitt CE |title=Cutting through the Paleo hype: The evidence for the Palaeolithic diet |journal=Aust Fam Physician |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=35–38 |date=2016 |pmid=27051985 }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Pontzer H, Wood BM, Raichlen DA |date=2018-12-01 |title=Hunter-gatherers as models in public health |journal=[[Obesity Reviews]] |volume=19 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=24–35 |issn=1467-789X |pmid=30511505 |s2cid=54489120 |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt1m87g85c/qt1m87g85c.pdf?t=plqcrq |doi=10.1111/obr.12785 |doi-access=free }}
*{{Cite web |vauthors=Shariatmadari D |date=22 October 2014 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/oct/22/what-language-tells-us-about-stone-age-diet-linguistics |title=What language tells us about the roots of the stone age diet |website=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=17 March 2015 }}
*{{cite book |vauthors=Smith M |year=2015 |title=Another Person's Poison: A History of Food Allergy |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-16484-9}}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Tarantino G, Citro V, Finelli C |title=Hype or Reality: Should Patients with Metabolic Syndrome-related NAFLD be on the Hunter-Gatherer (Paleo) Diet to Decrease Morbidity? |journal=J Gastrointestin Liver Dis |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=359–68 |date=September 2015 |pmid=26405708 |doi=10.15403/jgld.2014.1121.243.gta |type=Review|doi-access=free }}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Turner |first1=BL |last2=Thompson |first2=AL |year=2013 |title=Beyond the Paleolithic prescription: incorporating diversity and flexibility in the study of human diet evolution |journal=[[Nutrition Reviews]] |type=Review |volume=71 |issue=8 |pages=501–10 |doi=10.1111/nure.12039 |pmc=4091895 |pmid=23865796}}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Ungar PS, Grine FE, Teaford MF |year=2006 |title=Diet in Early ''Homo'': A Review of the Evidence and a New Model of Adaptive Versatility |journal=[[Annual Review of Anthropology]] |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=209–28 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123153 |issn=0084-6570}}
*{{cite book|vauthors=Ungar PS, Teaford MF|title=Human Diet: Its Origin and Evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GDELypdTUcC&pg=PA67|date=1 January 2002|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=978-0-89789-736-5|pages=67–}}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Ungar PS |journal=[[Scientific American]] |title=The 'True' Human Diet |date=17 April 2017 |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-true-human-diet/ }}
*{{Cite news |vauthors=Whoriskey P |date=7 March 2016 |title=Paleo-diet debates evolve into something bigger |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/paleo-diet-debates-evolve-into-something-bigger/2016/03/07/792828ba-d690-11e5-be55-2cc3c1e4b76b_story.html }}
*{{Cite news |vauthors=Wilson J |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/mar/16/paleo-isnt-a-fad-diet-its-an-ideology |title=Paleo isn't a fad diet, it's an ideology that selectively denies the modern world |date=March 16, 2015 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=February 5, 2016 }}
*{{cite news|vauthors=Zimmer C|date=13 August 2015|title=For Evolving Brains, a 'Paleo' Diet Full of Carbs|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/13/science/for-evolving-brains-a-paleo-diet-full-of-carbs.html|access-date=14 August 2015|work=[[The New York Times]]}}
*{{Cite book |vauthors=Zuk M |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7iKwAgAAQBAJ |title=Paleofantasy: What Evolution Really Tells Us about Sex, Diet, and How We Live |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co |isbn=978-0-393-08137-4 |author-link=Marlene Zuk }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Diet Fads: Understanding Science and Society |edition=2nd |title=Paleo Diet |year=2014 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |vauthors=Bijlefeld M, Zoumbaris SK |pages=164–166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 |isbn=978-1-61069-760-6}}
* {{cite web |vauthors=Gorski D |author-link=David Gorski |publisher=[[Science-Based Medicine]] |date=18 March 2013 |access-date=1 February 2015 |title=It's a part of my paleo fantasy, it's a part of my paleo dream |url=http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/its-a-part-of-my-paleo-fantasy-its-a-part-of-my-paleo-dream/}}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Henry AG, Brooks AS, Piperno DR |title=Plant foods and the dietary ecology of Neanderthals and early modern humans |journal=J. Hum. Evol. |volume=69 |pages=44–54 |date=April 2014 |pmid=24612646 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.12.014 }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Konner M, Eaton S |year=2010 |title=Paleolithic Nutrition: Twenty-Five Years Later |journal=[[Nutrition in Clinical Practice]] |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=594–602 |doi=10.1177/0884533610385702 |pmid=21139123}}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Osborne DL, Hames R |year=2014 |title=A life history perspective on skin cancer and the evolution of skin pigmentation |journal=[[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]] |volume=153 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=anthropologyfacpub |issn=0002-9483 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.22408 |pmid=24459698 |s2cid=13175245|url-access=subscription }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Ramsden C, Faurot K, Carrera-Bastos P, Cordain L, De Lorgeril M, Sperling L |year=2009 |title=Dietary Fat Quality and Coronary Heart Disease Prevention: A Unified Theory Based on Evolutionary, Historical, Global, and Modern Perspectives |journal=Current Treatment Options in Cardiovascular Medicine |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=289–301 |pmid=19627662 |pmc=10150942 |s2cid=1058038 |doi=10.1007/s11936-009-0030-8}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-interactive-timeline Human Timeline (Interactive)] – [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]], [[National Museum of Natural History]] (August 2016).

{{Diets}}
{{Fad diets}}

[[Category:Fad diets]]
[[Category:Meat-based diets]]
[[Category:Raw foodism]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]