View source for Ottoman architecture

{{short description|Architecture of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:P1020390.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]] (or Blue Mosque) in Istanbul, an example of the [[Classical Ottoman architecture|classical style]] of Ottoman architecture, showing [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] influence.]]
{{Culture of the Ottoman Empire sidebar}}

'''Ottoman architecture''' is an architectural style or tradition that developed under the [[Ottoman Empire]] over a long period,<ref>
*{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M.|location= |page=82 |chapter=Ottoman |quote=Throughout their history the Ottomans remained supporters of art and artists. Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium. The result was a rationalist monumentality that favored spatial unity and architectonic expression. |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}
*{{Harvnb|Kuban|2010|p=7}}: "Ottoman architecture developed as a unique, enduring architectural style combining the Mediterranean and Near and Middle Eastern traditions in parallel with the political structure of an Ottoman Empire situated at the point of intersection of Asia and Europe and of the Islamic and Christian worlds."
*{{Cite book |last=Gladiss |first=Almut von |title=Islam: Art and Architecture |publisher=h.f.ullmann |year=2011 |isbn=9783848003808 |editor-last=Hattstein |editor-first=Markus |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=The Ottoman Empire: Architecture |quote=Ottoman art has developed its own particular form of expression in architecture, ceramic tiles and vases, textiles, and last but not least, the art of the book. It set new standards of quality in many fields. The unrestrained enthusiasm of the ruler for ceremonial, the immense financial strength of the empire, an appreciation of planning and precision, as well as an inexhaustible source of ideas which flowed from the master builders, artists, and craftsmen from both Islamic and Christian backgrounds, all helped Ottoman art to flourish over a long period of time. |editor-last2=Delius |editor-first2=Peter}}
*{{Harvnb|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=134}}: "The longevity of the Ottomans led to a comparatively clear and consistent stylistic development."
</ref> undergoing some significant changes during its history.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kuban|2010|p=679}}: "The second important problem in any account of Ottoman architecture concerns the stages in the emergence of radical change. The Green Imaret, Süleymaniye, Nuruosmaniye and Ortaköy mosques are expressions of radically different cultural eras. In the history of Ottoman architecture, architectural design passed through several successive but very clearly distinct stages."</ref> It first emerged in northwestern [[Anatolia]] in the late 13th century<ref>{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=35}} "The earliest extant Ottoman buildings are in north-western Anatolia, where the Osmanlı Turks first appeared toward the end of the thirteenth century."</ref> and developed from earlier [[Anatolian Seljuk architecture|Seljuk Turkish architecture]], with influences from [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] and [[Iranian architecture|Iranian]] architecture along with other architectural traditions in the [[Middle East]].<ref>
*{{Cite book |title=Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1977 |editor-last=Harris |editor-first=Cyril M. |page=485 |language=en |chapter=Seljuk architecture}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Ousterhout |first=Robert |date=1995 |title=Ethnic Identity and Cultural Appropriation in Early Ottoman Architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtbeBrAHhxgC&q=Ottoman+Architecture&pg=PA60 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=12 |page=60|isbn=9004103147 }}
*{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M.|location= |page=82 |chapter=Ottoman |quote=Throughout their history the Ottomans remained supporters of art and artists. Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium. The result was a rationalist monumentality that favored spatial unity and architectonic expression. |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}
*{{Harvnb|Ostergren & Le Boss 2011|pp=215–216}}: "The grand tradition of Ottoman architecture, established in the 16th century, differed markedly from that of the earlier Moors. It was derived from both the Byzantine Christian tradition, outlined above, and native Middle Eastern forms used by the Islamic Seljuk Turks, who preceded the Ottomans. The Byzantine tradition, particularly as embodied in Hagia Sophia, was perhaps the major source of inspiration."
*{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=21}}: "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."
</ref> [[Early Ottoman architecture]] experimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into the [[Classical Ottoman architecture|classical Ottoman style]] of the 16th and 17th centuries. This style was a mixture of native Turkish tradition and influences from the [[Hagia Sophia]], resulting in monumental mosque buildings focused around a high central [[dome]] with a varying number of [[semi-dome]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=21}} "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Ostergren & Le Boss 2011|pp=215–216}}: "The grand tradition of Ottoman architecture, established in the 16th century, differed markedly from that of the earlier Moors. It was derived from both the Byzantine Christian tradition, outlined above, and native Middle Eastern forms used by the Islamic Seljuk Turks, who preceded the Ottomans. The Byzantine tradition, particularly as embodied in Hagia Sophia, was perhaps the major source of inspiration."</ref><ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman" /> The most important architect of the classical period is [[Mimar Sinan]], whose major works include the [[Şehzade Mosque]], [[Süleymaniye Mosque]], and [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]].<ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last1=Bloom|editor-first1=Jonathan M.|chapter=Ottoman|editor-last2=Blair|editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref><ref name="AgostonMasters2010">{{cite book|author1=Gábor Ágoston|author2=Bruce Alan Masters|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC|date=2010|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7|page=50}}</ref> The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of certain [[Ottoman decoration|Ottoman decorative arts]], most notably in the use of [[Iznik pottery|Iznik tiles]].{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=75}}

Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was opened to external influences, particularly [[Baroque architecture]] in [[Western Europe]]. Changes appeared during the [[Tulip Period architecture|style of the Tulip Period]], followed by the emergence of the [[Ottoman Baroque style]] in the 1740s.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=505–509, 517–518}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=18–22, 55 and after}} The [[Nuruosmaniye Mosque]] is one of the most important examples of this period.{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=355}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=526}} The [[Ottoman architecture in the 19th–20th centuries|architecture of the 19th century]] saw more influences imported from Western Europe, brought in by architects such as those from the [[Balyan family]].{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}} [[Empire style]] and [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] motifs were introduced and a trend towards [[Eclecticism in architecture|eclecticism]] was evident in many types of buildings, such as the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=605–606}} The last decades of the Ottoman Empire saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman revivalism, also known as the [[First national architectural movement|First National Architectural Movement]], by architects such as [[Mimar Kemaleddin]] and [[Vedat Tek]].<ref name="BloomBloom2009">{{cite book |author1=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA379 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set |author2=Blair |author3=Sheila S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |pages=379 |chapter=Kemalettin}}</ref>{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}}

Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of [[Bursa]], [[Edirne]], and [[Istanbul]] ([[Constantinople]]), as well as in several other important administrative centers such as [[Amasya]] and [[Manisa]]. It was in these centers that most important developments in Ottoman architecture occurred and that the most monumental Ottoman architecture can be found.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=679}} Major religious monuments were typically architectural complexes, known as a ''[[külliye]]'', that had multiple components providing different services or amenities. In addition to a [[mosque]], these could include a [[madrasa]], a [[hammam]], an [[imaret]], a [[Sebil (fountain)|sebil]], a market, a [[caravanserai]], a [[Kuttab|primary school]], or others.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the [[Balkans]] ([[Rumelia]]), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and [[North Africa]]n provinces older [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] styles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=571–596}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=251}}

==Early Ottoman period (14th to 15th centuries)==
{{Main|Early Ottoman architecture}}

=== Before 1453 ===
The first Ottomans were established in northwest Anatolia near the borders of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Their position at this frontier encouraged influences from [[Byzantine architecture]] and other ancient remains, and there are examples of architectural experimentation under many local Turkish dynasties in the region during this period.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=134}} One of the early Ottoman stylistic distinctions that emerged was a tradition of designing more complete façades in front of mosques, especially in the form of a [[portico]] with arches and columns.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=134}} Another early distinction was the reliance on domes.<ref name=":243" /> The first Ottoman structures were built in [[Söğüt]], the earliest Ottoman capital, and in nearby [[Bilecik]], but they have not survived in their original form. They include a couple of small mosques and a mausoleum built in [[Ertuğrul]]'s time (late 13th century).{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=15–16}} [[Bursa]] was captured in 1326 by the Ottoman leader [[Orhan]]. It served as the Ottoman capital until 1402, becoming a major center of patronage and construction.<ref name=":2422">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last1=Bloom|editor-first1=Jonathan M.|chapter=Bursa|editor-last2=Blair|editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> Orhan also captured [[İznik]] in 1331, turning it into another early center of [[Turkish art|Ottoman art]].<ref name=":242">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last1=Bloom|editor-first1=Jonathan M.|chapter=Iznik|editor-last2=Blair|editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> In this early period there were generally three types of mosques: the single-domed mosque, the T-plan mosque, and the multi-unit or multi-dome mosque.<ref name=":243">{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last1=Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan M.|chapter=Architecture; VI. c. 1250–c. 1500; B. Anatolia |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref>

[[File:Green Mosque Iznik DSCF2399.jpg|thumb|The [[Green Mosque, İznik|Green Mosque]] in [[İznik]] (1378–1391) is an early example of the single-domed mosque type. The prayer hall is covered by a large dome (right), while its entrance is preceded by a [[portico]] covered by smaller domes (left).|left]]
The [[Hacı Özbek Mosque]] (1333) in İznik is the oldest Ottoman mosque with an inscription that documents its construction{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=134}} and it is the oldest example of the Ottoman single-domed mosque, consisting of a square chamber covered by a dome.<ref>Vibhavari Jani, ''Diversity in Design: Perspectives from the Non-Western World'', (Fairchild Books, 2011), 135.</ref> Another early single-domed mosque is the [[Green Mosque, İznik|Green Mosque in İznik]] (1378–1391), which is the first Ottoman mosque for which the name of the architect (Hacı bin Musa) is known.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=20–21}} The main dome covers a square space and the transition between the round base of the dome and the square chamber below is achieved through a series of triangular carvings known as "Turkish triangles", a type of [[pendentive]] which was common in [[Sultanate of Rum|Anatolian Seljuk]] and early Ottoman architecture.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=21}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Turkish triangle {{!}} architecture|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Turkish-triangle|access-date=2021-08-06|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>

[[File:Yeşil_Cami_alt_kat_planı.jpg|thumb|upright|Floor plan of the [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] in [[Bursa]] (1412 –1424), which exemplifies the "T-plan" type, with three domed [[iwan]]s branching off a central domed space, with the larger iwan aligned with the ''[[qibla]]'' (top).]]
In 1334–1335, Orhan built a mosque in İznik that no longer stands but has been excavated by archeologists. It is significant as the earliest known example of a type of building called a ''zaviye'' (from Arabic ''[[Zawiya (institution)|zawiya]]''), "T-plan" mosque, or "Bursa-type" mosque.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=134–135}} This type of building is characterized by a central court, typically covered by a dome, with [[iwan]]s (domed or vaulted halls that are open to the courtyard) on three sides, one of which is oriented towards the ''[[qibla]]'' (direction of prayer) and contains the ''[[mihrab]]'' (wall niche symbolizing the ''qibla''). The front façade usually incorporated a portico along its entire width. The iwans on the side and the other various rooms attached to these buildings may have served to house [[Sufism|Sufi]] students and traveling [[dervish]]es, since the Sufi brotherhoods were one of the main supporters of the early Ottomans.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=135}} Variations of this floor plan were the most common type of major religious structure sponsored by the early Ottoman elites. The "Bursa-type" label comes from the fact that multiple examples of this kind were built in and around Bursa, including the [[Orhan Gazi Mosque]] (1339), the [[Hüdavendigar Mosque|Hüdavendigar (Murad I) Mosque]] (1366–1385), the [[Bayezid I Mosque|Yildirim Bayezid I Mosque]] (completed in 1395), and the [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] built by [[Mehmed I]] (1412–1424).{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=142–144}} The Green Mosque is notable for its extensive [[tile]] decoration in the ''[[cuerda seca]]'' technique. It is the first instance of lavish [[Ottoman decoration#Tile decoration|tile decoration in Ottoman architecture]].{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=142–144}} These mosques were all part of larger religious complexes (''[[külliye]]''s) that included other structures offering services such as [[madrasa]]s (Islamic colleges), [[hammam]]s (public bathhouses), and [[imaret]]s (charitable kitchens).{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}}

[[File:ULU MOSQUE CAMİİ BURSA TURKEY - panoramio (14).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The multi-domed interior of the [[Grand Mosque of Bursa]] (1396–1400)|left]]
The most unusual mosque of this period is the multi-domed [[congregational mosque]] known as the [[Grand Mosque of Bursa]] or {{Lang|tr|Ulu Cami}}. The mosque was commissioned by [[Bayezid I]] after the [[Battle of Nicopolis]] in 1396 and finished in 1399–1400. It consists of a large [[hypostyle]] hall divided into twenty equal [[Bay (architecture)|bays]] in a rectangular four-by-five grid, each covered by a dome supported by stone piers.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=139–141}} After Bayezid I was defeated at the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402, the Ottoman capital was moved to [[Edirne]] in [[Thrace]]. The last major multi-dome mosque built by the Ottomans (with some exceptions), is the [[Old Mosque, Edirne|Old Mosque]] ({{Lang|tr|Eski Cami}}) in Edirne, built between 1403 and 1414.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=139–141}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=55}} In later periods, the multi-dome building type was adapted for use in non-religious buildings instead,{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=57}} such as ''[[bedesten]]s'' (market halls).<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Köprülü Bağbancı |first=Özlem |title=The Bazaar in the Islamic City: Design, Culture, and History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9789774165290 |editor-last=Gharipour |editor-first=Mohammad |pages=97–114 |chapter=Commerce in the Emerging Empire: Formation of the Ottoman Trade Center in Bursa |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QnkWywAACAAJ&pg=PP1}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Duranti |first=Andrea |title=The Bazaar in the Islamic City: Design, Culture, and History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9789774165290 |editor-last=Gharipour |editor-first=Mohammad |pages=229–250 |chapter=A Caravanserai on the Route to Modernity: The Case of the Valide Han of Istanbul |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44vnCwAAQBAJ&dq=A+Caravanserai+on+the+Route+to+Modernity%3A+The+Case+of+the+Valide+Han+of+Istanbul&pg=PA229}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite web |last=Türkoğlu |first=İnci |title=Grand Bazaar |url=http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;ISL;tr;Mon01;28;en |access-date=2020-06-24 |website=Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers}}</ref>

[[File:Edirne view of Üç Şerefeli Mosque (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Üç Şerefeli Mosque]] in Edirne (1437–1447) represented a significant evolution in Ottoman mosque design, with a courtyard leading to a prayer hall centered around a large dome.]]
The reign of [[Murad II]] ({{Reign|1421|1451}}) marked an important architectural development in the form of the [[Üç Şerefeli Mosque]], built in Edirne from 1437 to 1447.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=145}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=143}} It has a very different design from earlier mosques, with a nearly square floor plan divided between a rectangular courtyard and a rectangular prayer hall. The open-air courtyard has a central fountain and is surrounded by a portico of arches and domes, with a decorated central portal leading into the courtyard from the outside and another one leading from the courtyard into the prayer hall. The prayer hall is centered around a huge dome which covers most of the middle part of the hall, while the sides of the hall are covered by pairs of smaller domes. The central dome is larger than any other Ottoman dome built before this.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=97}}{{Efn|The dome is around 24 meters in diameter according to Godfrey Goodwin and some other sources,{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=97}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Akçıl |first=Nesrin Çiçek |date=2012 |title=ÜÇ ŞEREFELİ CAMİ ve KÜLLİYESİ |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/uc-serefeli-cami-ve-kulliyesi |access-date=2024-10-15 |website=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi |language=tr}}</ref> while [[Doğan Kuban]] writes that it is 27 meters.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=145}}}} The mosque has a total of four [[minaret]]s, arranged around the four corners of the courtyard. Its southwestern minaret was the tallest Ottoman minaret built up to that time and features three balconies (from which the mosque's name derives).{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=99–100}} This new design was a culmination of previous architectural experimentation and foreshadowed the features of later Ottoman mosque architecture.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=145}}

=== After 1453 ===
[[File:Istanbul 18 (40094161444).jpg|thumb|''Babüsselam'', the gate to the Second Courtyard of the [[Topkapı Palace]]. The palace was established by [[Mehmed II]] in 1459. This gate may be one of the structures still partly dating to his reign.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=188}}]]
After he [[Fall of Constantinople|conquered Constantinople]] (present-day Istanbul) in 1453, one of Sultan [[Mehmed II]]'s first constructions in the city was a palace, known as the [[Eski Saray|Old Palace]] ({{Lang|tr|Eski Saray}}).{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=213}} In 1459, he began construction of a second palace known as the New Palace (''{{Lang|tr|Yeni Saray}}'') and later as the [[Topkapı Palace]] ("Cannon-Gate Palace").{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=214–215}} It was mostly laid out between 1459 and 1465,{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010}} but it has since been repeatedly modified over subsequent centuries by different rulers and today it is an accumulation of different styles and periods. The palace consists of multiple courtyards, enclosures, and pavilions spread across a precinct delimited by an outer wall. Its seemingly irregular layout was a reflection of a clear hierarchical organization of functions and private residences, with the innermost areas reserved for the privacy of the sultan and his innermost circle.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=214–215}}

[[File:Fatihcomplex.jpg|thumb|16th-century illustration showing the original [[Fatih Mosque, Istanbul|Fatih Mosque]] (top) in Istanbul, built from 1463 to 1470. (Most of the original building was destroyed in the [[1766 Istanbul earthquake|1766 earthquake]].)|left]]
Mehmed II's largest contribution to religious architecture was the [[Fatih Mosque, Istanbul|Fatih Mosque]] complex in Istanbul, built from 1463 to 1470. It was part of a very large ''külliye'' which also included a ''tabhane'' (guesthouse for travelers), an imaret, a ''[[Bimaristan|darüşşifa]]'' (hospital), a [[caravanserai]] (hostel for traveling merchants), a ''[[Kuttab|mektep]]'' (primary school), a library, a hammam, shops, a cemetery with the founder's mausoleum, and eight madrasas along with their annexes.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=177–180}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010}} The buildings largely ignored any existing topography and were arranged in a strongly symmetrical layout on a vast square terrace with the monumental mosque at its center.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=215}} The original mosque was mostly destroyed by an [[1766 Istanbul earthquake|earthquake in 1766]]. Its design has been reconstructed by scholars using historical sources.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=215–216}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=178}} It likely reflected the combination of the Byzantine church tradition (especially the [[Hagia Sophia]]) with the Ottoman tradition that had evolved since the early imperial mosques of Bursa and Edirne.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=215}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=178–179}} Drawing on the ideas established by the earlier Üç Şerefeli Mosque, it comprised a rectangular courtyard leading to a domed prayer hall. The latter was covered by a large central dome with a semi-dome behind it (on the ''qibla'' side), flanked by a row of three smaller domes on either side.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=215}}

[[File:BeyazıtCami1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Bayezid II Mosque, Istanbul|Bayezid II Mosque]] in Istanbul (1500–1505)]]
After Mehmed II, the reign of [[Bayezid II]] (1481–1512) is again marked by extensive architectural patronage, of which the two most outstanding and influential examples are the [[Complex of Sultan Bayezid II|Bayezid II Complex]] in Edirne and the [[Bayezid II Mosque, Istanbul|Bayezid II Mosque]] in Istanbul.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=144, 168}} The Bayezid II Mosque in Istanbul, built between 1500 and 1505, again features a courtyard leading to a square prayer hall. However, its prayer hall makes use of two semi-domes aligned with the main central dome, while the side aisles are each covered by four smaller domes. Compared to earlier mosques, this results in a much more sophisticated "cascade of domes" effect for the building's exterior profile.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=|pp=216–218}} This design, with its deliberate arrangement of established Ottoman architectural elements into a strongly symmetrical plan, is another culmination of previous architectural exploration and represents the last step towards the classical Ottoman style.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=168}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=201–207}}

==Classical period (16th to 17th centuries)==
{{Main|Classical Ottoman architecture}}
The start of the classical period is strongly associated with the works of the imperial architect [[Mimar Sinan]].<ref name=Goodwin>{{cite book |title=Sinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values Today |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-86356-172-6 |last=Goodwin |first=Godfrey |publisher=Saqi Books |location=London}}</ref><ref name=Stratton>{{cite book |title=Sinan |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-684-12582-4 |last=Stratton |first=Arthur |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sinan00stra }}</ref> During this period the bureaucracy of the Ottoman state, whose foundations were laid in Istanbul by Mehmet II, became increasingly elaborate and the profession of the architect became further institutionalized.<ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman"/> The long reign of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] is also recognized as the apogee of Ottoman political and [[Culture of the Ottoman Empire|cultural]] development, with extensive patronage in art and architecture by the sultan, his family, and his high-ranking officials.<ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman"/> In this period, Ottoman architecture, especially under the work and influence of Sinan, saw a new unification and harmonization of the various architectural elements and influences that it had previously absorbed but which had not yet been fully synthesized into a collective whole.<ref name="Goodwin" /> Ottoman architecture used a limited set of general forms – such as domes, semi-domes, and arcaded porticos – which were repeated in every structure and could be combined in a limited number of ways.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=213}} The ingenuity of successful architects such as Sinan lay in the careful and calculated attempts to solve problems of space, proportion, and harmony.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=213}} This period is also notable for the development of [[Iznik pottery|Iznik tile]] decoration in Ottoman monuments, with the artistic peak of this medium beginning in the second half of the 16th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=110}}

=== The era of Sinan ===
The master architect of the classical period, Mimar Sinan, served as the chief court architect (''mimarbaşi'') for some 50 years from 1538 until his death in 1588.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=218, 227}} Sinan credited himself with the design of over 300 buildings,{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=198}} though another estimate of his works puts it at nearly 500.<ref name=":2432">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last1=Bloom|editor-first1=Jonathan M.|chapter=Architecture; I. Introduction; E. Patrons and architects.|editor-last2=Blair|editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> He is credited with designing buildings as far as [[Buda]] (present-day [[Budapest]]) and [[Mecca]].{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=219}} He was probably not present to directly supervise projects far from the capital, so in these cases his designs were most likely executed by his assistants or by local architects.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=219–220}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=291}}

{{Multiple image
| image1            = Sehzade Mosque DSCF3254.jpg
| image2            = Shezade mosque 9510.jpg
| total_width       = 
| footer            = The [[Şehzade Mosque]] (1545–1548) in Istanbul was [[Mimar Sinan]]'s first major imperial commission.
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 220
}}
Sinan's first major imperial commission was the [[Şehzade Mosque]] complex, which Suleiman dedicated to [[Şehzade Mehmed]], his son who died in 1543.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=206}} The complex was built between 1545 and 1548.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=218}} The mosque has a rectangular floor plan divided into two equal squares, with one square occupied by the courtyard and the other occupied by the prayer hall.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=218}} The prayer hall consists of a central dome surrounded by semi-domes on four sides, with smaller domes occupying the corners. Smaller semi-domes also fill the space between the corner domes and the main semi-domes. This design represents the culmination of the previous domed and semi-domed buildings in Ottoman architecture, bringing complete symmetry to the dome layout.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=258, 271–272}} Sinan's early innovations are also evident in the way he organized the structural supports of the dome. Instead of having the dome rest on thick walls all around it (as was previously common), he concentrated the load-bearing supports into a limited number of buttresses along the outer walls of the mosque and in four pillars inside the mosque itself at the corners of the dome. This allowed for the walls in between the buttresses to be thinner and able to accommodate more windows to bring in more light.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=218–219}} Sinan also moved the outer walls inward, near the inner edge of the buttresses, so that the latter were less visible inside the mosque.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=218–219}} On the outside, he added domed porticos along the lateral façades of the building which further obscured the buttresses and gave the exterior a greater sense of monumentality.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=218–219}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=210}}

[[File:Sehzade_Mosque_Gurlitt_1912.jpg|left|thumb|Floor plan and elevation of the [[Şehzade Mosque]], showing the symmetrical layout of the central dome and four main semi-domes. This basic design was eventually repeated in many later mosques in the Ottoman Empire.]]
The basic design of the Şehzade Mosque, with its symmetrical dome and four semi-dome layout, proved popular with later architects and was repeated in classical Ottoman mosques after Sinan (e.g. the [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]], the [[New Mosque, Istanbul|New Mosque]] at [[Eminönü]], and the 18th-century reconstruction of the Fatih Mosque).{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=228–230}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=340, 345–346, 358, 394, 408}} Despite this legacy and the symmetry of its design, Sinan considered the Sehzade Mosque his "apprentice" work and was not satisfied with it.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=218}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=207}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=261, 272}} He did not repeat its layout in any of his other works during his career. He instead experimented with other designs that seemed to aim for a completely unified interior space and for ways to emphasize the visitor's perception of the main dome upon entering a mosque. One of the results of this objective was that any space that did not belong to the central domed space was reduced to a minimum, subordinate role, if not altogether absent.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=261}}

{{Multiple image
| image1            = SüleymaniyeMosqueIstanbul (cropped).jpg
| image2            = Suleymaniye Mosque 1319.jpg
| footer            = The [[Süleymaniye Mosque]] (1550–1557) in Istanbul is one of the most important monuments of the classical Ottoman period
| total_width       = 
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 220
}}

In 1550, Sinan began construction for the [[Süleymaniye Mosque|Süleymaniye complex]], a monumental religious and charitable complex dedicated to Suleiman. Construction finished in 1557. Following the example of the earlier Fatih complex, it consists of many buildings arranged around the main mosque in the center, on a planned site occupying the summit of a hill in Istanbul.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=222}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=279–293}} The Süleymaniye Mosque complex is one of the most important symbols of Ottoman architecture and is often considered by scholars to be the most magnificent mosque in Istanbul.{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|p=199}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=277}}<ref name=":5" /> The mosque itself has a form similar to that of the earlier Bayezid II Mosque: a central dome preceded and followed by semi-domes, with smaller domes covering the sides.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=280–283}} In particular, the building replicates the central dome layout of the Hagia Sophia and this may be interpreted as a desire by Suleiman to emulate the structure of the Hagia Sophia, demonstrating how this ancient monument continued to hold tremendous symbolic power in Ottoman culture.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=280–283}} Nonetheless, Sinan employed innovations similar to those he used previously in the Şehzade Mosque: he concentrated the load-bearing supports into a limited number of columns and pillars, which allowed for more windows in the walls and minimized the physical separations within of the prayer hall.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=222–224}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=282–284}} The exterior façades of the mosque are characterized by ground-level porticos, two large [[Tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]]-like walls below the dome that are pierced by an array of windows, and domes and semi-domes that progressively culminate upwards – in a roughly [[pyramid]]al fashion – to the large central dome.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=222–224}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=225}}

[[File:Rüstem Pasha Mosque MG 9845 (14209890859).jpg|left|thumb|Interior of the [[Rüstem Pasha Mosque]] in Istanbul (circa 1561), covered with [[Iznik tiles]]]]
After designing the Süleymaniye complex, Sinan appears to have focused on experimenting with the single-domed space.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=261}} In the 1550s and 1560s, he experimented with an "octagonal baldaquin" design for the main dome, in which the dome rests on an octagonal [[Tholobate|drum]] supported by a system of eight pillars or buttresses. An example of this is the [[Rüstem Pasha Mosque]] (1561) in Istanbul.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=257–259}} This mosque is also famous for its wide array of Iznik tiles covering the walls of its exterior portico and its interior, unprecedented in Ottoman architecture,{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=224–225}} contrasting with the usually restrained decoration Sinan employed in other buildings.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}}

{{Multiple image
| image1            = Ist-Ath - 99 cropped.jpg
| image2            = Selimiye Mosque Mosque 0170.jpg
| footer            = The [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]] in Edirne (1568–1574), dominated by a single huge dome, was considered by Sinan to be his crowning masterpiece.
| total_width       = 450
}}

Sinan's crowning masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, which was begun in 1568 and completed in 1574 (or possibly 1575).{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=225–227}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=295–299}}  Its prayer hall is notable for being completely dominated by a single massive dome, whose view is unimpeded by the structural elements seen in other large domed mosques before this.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=261, 267}} This design is the culmination of Sinan's spatial experiments, making use of the octagonal baldaquin as the most effective method of integrating the round dome with the rectangular hall below by minimizing the space occupied by the supporting elements of the dome.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=257–258, 295, 301, 307}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=208}} The dome is supported on eight massive pillars which are partly freestanding but closely integrated with the outer walls. Additional outer buttresses are concealed in the walls of the mosque, allowing the walls in between to be pierced with a large number of windows.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=226}} Sinan's biographies praise the dome for its size and height, which is approximately the same diameter as the Hagia Sophia's main dome;{{efn|The dome's diameter is {{Convert|31.22|m|ft}}, whereas the slightly elliptical dome of the Hagia Sophia has a diameter ranging from {{Convert|30.9 to 31.8|m|ft}}. While Sinan's biography claims that the dome is also higher, this may refer only to the fact that the dome is taller from its base to its apex, as the curvature of the Hagia Sophia's dome is flatter and thus less tall. From the ground level to its apex, the dome is {{Convert|42.5|m|ft}} high whereas the Hagia Sophia's is {{Convert|55.6|m|ft}} high.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=|pp=120, 144–145}}}} the first time that this had been achieved in Ottoman architecture.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=226}}

=== After Sinan ===
{{Multiple image
| image1            = Sultanahmetcamii ilkkezbuacidan.JPG
| image2            = Mosque in Istanbul internal view 3 (retouched).jpg
| footer            = [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]] in Istanbul (1609–1617)
| total_width       = 
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 220
}}
After Sinan, the classical style became less creative and more repetitive by comparison with earlier periods.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=213}} [[Davud Agha]] succeeded Sinan as chief architect. Among his most notable works, all in Istanbul, are the Cerrahpaşa Mosque (1593), the Koca Sinan Pasha Complex on [[Mese (Constantinople)|Divanyolu]] (1593), the [[Gazanfer Ağa]] Medrese complex (1596), and the Tomb of Murad III (completed in 1599).{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010}}{{Sfn|Freely|2011}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=337–339}} Some scholars argue that the [[Nışançı Mehmed Pasha Mosque]] (1584–1589), whose architect is unknown, should be attributed to him.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=381–382}}{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=322}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=336}} Its design is considered highly accomplished and it may be one of the first Ottoman mosques to be fronted by a garden courtyard.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=336}}{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=322}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010}}

The Sultan Ahmed I Mosque, begun in 1609 and completed in 1617,{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=228}} was designed by Sinan's apprentice, Mehmed Agha.{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|p=107}} The mosque's size, location, and decoration suggest it was intended to be a rival to the nearby Hagia Sophia.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=362–363}} Its design essentially repeats that of the Şehzade Mosque.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=361–379}} On the outside, Mehmed Agha opted to achieve a "softer" profile with the cascade of domes and the various curving elements, differing from the more dramatic juxtaposition of domes and vertical elements seen in earlier classical mosques by Sinan.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=364}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=344}} It is also the only Ottoman mosque to have as many as six minarets.<ref name=":5" /> On the inside, the mosque's lower walls are lavishly decorated with thousands of predominantly blue Iznik tiles; along with the painted decoration on the rest of the walls, this has given the mosque its popular name, the Blue Mosque.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=365}} After the Sultan Ahmed I Mosque, no further great imperial mosques dedicated to a sultan were built in Istanbul until the mid-18th century. Mosques continued to be built and dedicated to other dynastic family members, but the tradition of sultans building their own monumental mosques lapsed.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=115–116}}

[[File:Baghdad Kiosk at Topkapi Palace.jpg|thumb|Baghdad Kiosk in Topkapı Palace (1639)]]
Some of the best examples of early 17th-century Ottoman architecture are also to be found in Topkapı Palace, at the Revan Kiosk (1635) and Baghdad Kiosk (1639), built by [[Murad IV]] to commemorate his victories against the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]].{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=229}} Both are small pavilions raised on platforms overlooking the palace gardens. Both are harmoniously decorated on the inside and outside with predominantly blue and white tiles and richly-inlaid window shutters.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=229}}

== Tulip Period (early 18th century) ==
{{Main|Tulip Period architecture}}
[[File:4213_Istanbul_-_Topkapi_-_Harem_-_Camera_dei_frutti_(ca._1718-1730)_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_27-5-2006.jpg|thumb|The Fruit Room in the Harem of Topkapı Palace (1705){{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=35}}]]
The historical period known as the [[Tulip Period]] or Tulip Era is considered to have begun in 1718, during [[Ahmed III]]'s reign ({{Reign|1703|1730}}), and lasted until the [[Patrona Halil]] revolts of 1730, when Ahmed III was overthrown. These years of peace inaugurated a new era of growing cross-cultural exchange between the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=22–26}} From the 18th century onward, European influences were thus introduced into Ottoman architecture as the Ottoman Empire itself became more open to outside influences.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=21}}<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last1=Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan M.|chapter=Architecture; VII. c. 1500–c. 1900; A. Ottoman Empire |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> The period saw significant influence from the French [[Rococo]] style (part of the wider [[Baroque architecture|Baroque style]]) that emerged around this time under the reign of [[Louis XV]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=506}} In addition to European influences, the decoration of the Tulip Period was also influenced by [[Safavid art]] and architecture to the east.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=506, 509}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=29–30}} Although the new architectural style that emerged at this time is generally associated with the Tulip Period, constructions from the first years of Ahmed III's reign, such as the so-called Fruit Room created in 1705 within Topkapı Palace, demonstrate that the new style was already in existence by then.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=|pp=36–37}}

[[File:Women in gardens at Sadabad (from Zenanname) (cropped version).jpg|left|thumb|Illustration from the ''[[Zenanname]]'' showing the gardens and canal of [[Sa'dabad Pavilion|Sadâbâd]]]]
One of the most important creations of the Tulip Period was the [[Sa'dabad Pavilion|Sadâbâd Palace]], a new summer palace designed and built by Damat Ibrahim Pasha in 1722–1723 for Ahmed III.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=514–515}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=26}} It was located at [[Kâğıthane]], a rural area on the outskirts of the city with small rivers that flow into the [[Golden Horn]] inlet. The palace grounds included a long marble-lined canal, the ''Cedval-i Sim'', around which were gardens, pavilions, and palace apartments in a landscaped setting. This overall design probably emulated French pleasure palaces as a result of the reports about Paris and [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]] brought back by Ottoman ambassador [[Yirmisekiz Mehmed Çelebi|Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmed Efendi]].{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=373}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=515–516}} The regular inhabitants of Istanbul also used the surrounding area as a recreational ground for excursions and picnics.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=26}} This was a new practice in Ottoman culture that brought the public within close proximity of the ruler's abode for the first time.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=26}}

[[File:Brunnen Ahmet III 2013-03-18b.jpg|thumb|[[Fountain of Ahmed III|Ahmed III Fountain]] near Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (1728)]]
The culmination of the Tulip Period style is represented by a series of monumental stand-alone fountains that were mostly built between 1728 and 1732.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=374}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=509–510}} Water took on an enlarged role in architecture and the urban landscape of Istanbul during the Tulip Period. In the first half of the 18th century, Istanbul's water supply infrastructure was renovated and expanded. In 1732, an important water distribution structure, the ''taksim'', was first built on what is now [[Taksim Square]].{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=375}} The new fountains were unprecedented in Ottoman architecture. Previously, fountains and sebils only existed as minor elements of larger charitable complexes or as ''shadirvan''s inside mosque courtyards. The ''[[maidan]]'' fountain, or a stand-alone fountain at the center of a [[Town square|city square]], was introduced for the first time in this period.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=510}} The first and most remarkable of these is the [[Ahmed III Fountain]] built in 1728 next to the Hagia Sophia and in front of the outer gate of Topkapı Palace.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=374}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=510–511}}

[[File:Ahmed III Library DSCF2700.jpg|left|thumb|Ahmed III Library in Topkapı Palace, Istanbul (1719){{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=371–373}}]]
The construction of stand-alone library structures was another new trend influenced by European ideas, as the Ottomans traditionally did not build libraries except as secondary elements attached to religious complexes. The earlier [[Köprülü Library]], built in 1678 was the first of its kind, but other early examples date from the reign of Ahmed III during the Tulip Period.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=558–560}}
[[File:Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha Mosque interior general view in 2015 0002.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha Mosque]] in Istanbul (1734–1735)]]
One of the few major religious complexes built in this period and one of the last major monuments of the Tulip Period stage in Ottoman architecture is the [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha Mosque]] complex, completed in 1734–1735 and sponsored by the [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha|grand vizier of the same name]].{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=376–377}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=524}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=104}} This mosque still reflects an overall classical form but the flexible placement of the various components of the complex around a garden enclosure is more reflective of the new changes in tastes. The interior of the mosque is decorated with tiles from the [[Palace of the Porphyrogenitus|Tekfursaray]] kilns, which were of lesser quality than those of the earlier Iznik period. One group of tiles is painted with an illustration of the [[Masjid al-Haram|Great Mosque of Mecca]], a decorative detail found in other examples from this era.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=376–377}}

== Baroque period (18th century to early 19th century) ==
{{Main|Ottoman Baroque architecture}}
[[File:Nuruosmaniye Mosque Mars 2013.jpg|thumb|[[Nuruosmaniye Mosque]] in Istanbul (1748–1755), one of the major landmarks of the [[Ottoman Baroque architecture|Ottoman Baroque]] period]]
During the 1740s a new Ottoman or Turkish "Baroque" style emerged in its full expression and rapidly replaced the style of the Tulip Period.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=517–518}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=21–22}} This shift signaled the final end to the classical style.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=517}} The political and cultural conditions which led to the Ottoman Baroque trace their origins in part to the Tulip Period, when the Ottoman ruling class opened itself to [[Western world|Western]] influence.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=21–22}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=507}} After the Tulip Period, Ottoman architecture openly imitated European architecture, so that architectural and decorative trends in Europe were often mirrored in the Ottoman Empire at the same time or after a short delay.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=505}} Changes were especially evident in the ornamentation and details of new buildings rather than in their overall forms, though new building types were eventually introduced from European influences as well.<ref name=":5" /> The term "Turkish Rococo", or simply "Rococo",{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=517}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971}} is also used to describe the Ottoman Baroque, or parts of it, due to the similarities and influences from the French Rococo style in particular, but this terminology varies from author to author.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=260}}

[[File:Abdulhamit I sebil.jpg|left|thumb|Sebil of Abdülhamid I, Istanbul (circa 1780){{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=223}}]]
The first structures to exhibit the new Baroque style are several fountains and sebils built by elite patrons in Istanbul in 1741–1742.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=64–65}} The most important monument heralding the new Ottoman Baroque style is the [[Nuruosmaniye Mosque]] complex, begun by Mahmud I in October 1748 and completed by his successor, [[Osman III]] (to whom it is dedicated), in December 1755.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=111}} [[Doğan Kuban]] describes it as the "most important monumental construction after the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne", marking the integration of European culture into Ottoman architecture and the rejection of the classical Ottoman style.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=526}} It also marked the first time since the Sultan Ahmed I Mosque (early 17th century) that an Ottoman sultan built his own imperial mosque complex in Istanbul, thus inaugurating the return of this tradition.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=115}}

The [[Ayazma Mosque]] in Üsküdar was built between 1757–58 and 1760–61.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=387}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=172}} It is essentially a smaller version of the Nuruosmaniye Mosque, signaling the importance of the latter as a new model to emulate.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=174}} Although smaller, it is relatively tall for its proportions, enhancing its sense of height. This trend towards height was pursued in later mosques.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=387, 418}}

[[File:Turistik geçmiş ve ıhtişam by ismail soytekinoğlu - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Baroque decoration on the exterior of the Imperial Council (Divan) Hall in Topkapı Palace]]
In Topkapı Palace, the Ottoman sultans and their family continued to build new rooms or remodel old ones throughout the 18th century, introducing Baroque and Rococo decoration in the process. Some examples include the Baths of the Harem section, probably renovated by Mahmud I around 1744,{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=98–99, 158–159, 242–243, 261}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|p=79}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=393}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=430, 435–436}} As in the preceding centuries, other palaces were built around Istanbul by the sultan and his family. Previously, the traditional Ottoman palace configuration consisted of different buildings or pavilions arranged in a group, as was the case at Topkapı Palace, the [[Edirne Palace]], and others.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=437}} However, at some time during the 18th century there was a transition to palaces consisting of a single block or single large building.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=437–438}}

[[File:04400 Yukarıtavla-Doğubayazıt-Ağrı, Turkey - panoramio (15).jpg|left|thumb|[[Ishak Pasha Palace]], near present-day [[Doğubayazıt]] (completed around 1784)]]
Beyond Istanbul, the greatest palaces were built by powerful local families, but they were often built in regional styles that did not follow the trends of the Ottoman capital.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=404}} The [[Azm Palace]] in Damascus, for example, was built around 1750 in a largely Damascene style.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=404}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qasr al-Azm – Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum|url=http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;ISL;sy;Mon01;21;en|access-date=2021-08-28|website=islamicart.museumwnf.org}}</ref> In eastern Anatolia, near present-day [[Doğubayazıt]], the [[Ishak Pasha Palace]] is an exceptional and flamboyant piece of architecture that mixes various local traditions including Seljuk Turkish, [[Armenian architecture|Armenian]], and [[Architecture of Georgia (country)|Georgian]]. It was begun in the 17th century and generally completed by 1784.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=404–407}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=583–584}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=İshak Paşa Palace – Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum|url=http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;ISL;tr;Mon01;31;en|access-date=2021-08-28|website=islamicart.museumwnf.org}}</ref>

[[File:James Robertson - Nusretiye Mosque and the Tophane Square - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|[[Nusretiye Mosque]] in [[Tophane]], Istanbul (1822–1826)]]
The [[Nusretiye Mosque]], Mahmud II's imperial mosque, was built between 1822 and 1826 at Tophane.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=417}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=269}} The mosque is the first major imperial work by Krikor Balyan.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=417}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=270}} It is sometimes described as belonging to the Empire style, but is considered by [[Godfrey Goodwin (scholar)|Godfrey Goodwin]] and Doğan Kuban as one of the last Baroque mosques,{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=417}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=631}} while Ünver Rüstem describes the style as moving away from the Baroque and towards an Ottoman interpretation of [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassicism]].{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=270}} Goodwin also describes it as the last in a line of imperial mosques that started with the Nuruosmaniye.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=417}} Despite its relatively small size the mosque's tall proportions creates a sense of height, which may the culmination of a trend that began with the Ayazma Mosque.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=418}}

== 19th-century and early 20th-century ==
{{Main|Ottoman architecture in the 19th–20th centuries}}
{{See also|First national architectural movement}}
[[File:Istanbul asv2020-02 img60 Ortaköy Mosque.jpg|thumb|[[Ortaköy Mosque]], Istanbul (1854–1856), one of many mosques in the 19th century designed with a mix of styles]]
During the reign of [[Mahmud II]] (r. 1808–1839) the [[Empire style]], a [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] style which originated in France under [[Napoleon]], was introduced into Ottoman architecture.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=505–506, 605}} This marked a trend towards increasingly direct imitation of Western styles, particularly from France.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=605}} The [[Tanzimat]] reforms that began in 1839 under Abdülmecid I sought to modernize the Ottoman Empire with Western-style reforms. In the architectural realm, this resulted in the dominance of European architects and Ottoman architects with European training.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=605 and after}} Among these, the [[Balyan family|Balyans]], an [[Armenians in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Armenian]] family, succeeded in dominating imperial architecture for much of the century. They were joined by European architects such as the [[Fossati brothers]], William James Smith, and [[Alexander Vallaury|Alexandre Vallaury]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=609–612}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=419}} After the early 19th century, Ottoman architecture was characterized by an [[Eclecticism in architecture|eclectic architecture]] which mixed or borrowed from multiple styles. The Balyans, for example, commonly combined Neoclassical or [[Beaux-Arts architecture|Beaux-arts]] architecture with highly eclectic decoration.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=605–606}} As more Europeans arrived in Istanbul, the neighbourhoods of [[Galata]] and [[Beyoğlu]] (or Pera) took on very European appearances.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=673 and elsewhere}}[[File:İstanbul 6019.jpg|thumb|[[Bulgarian St. Stephen Church|Stefan Sveti Church]] (1895–1898), the first steel building in Istanbul{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=644}}|left]]A number of mosques built in the 19th century reflect these trends, such as the [[Ortaköy Mosque]]{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|p=435}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=421–422}} and the [[Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque|Pertevniyal Valide Mosque]] in Istanbul.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=640}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|p=316}} The Tanzimat reforms also granted Christians and Jews the right to freely build new centers of worship, which resulted in new constructions, renovations, and expansions of churches and synagogues. Most of these followed the same eclecticism that prevailed in the rest of Ottoman architecture of the 19th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=643}}

[[File:Palacio de Dolmabahçe, Estambul, Turquía, 2024-09-28, DD 113.jpg|thumb|The [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] (1843–1856), on the shore of the Bosphorus, was built to serve as the new imperial palace of the Ottoman dynasty]]
Many palaces, residences, and leisure pavilions were built in the 19th century, most of them in the Bosphorus suburbs of Istanbul. The most significant is the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]], constructed for Sultan Abdülmecit between 1843 and 1856.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dolmabahçe Palace|publisher=TBMM National Palaces|year=2013|isbn=9786054700387|location=Istanbul}}</ref> It replaced the Topkapı Palace as the official imperial residence of the sultan.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=619}} The palace consists mainly of a single building with monumental proportions, which represented a radical rejection of traditional Ottoman palace design.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} The style of the palace is fundamentally Neoclassical but is characterized by a highly eclectic decoration that mixes Baroque motifs with other styles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=619–623}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=422}}

Various new types of monuments were also introduced to Ottoman architecture during this era. For example, [[Clock towers in Turkey|clock towers]] rose to prominence over the 19th century.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Ekinci|first=Ekrem Buğra|date=2017-01-06|title=Ottoman-era clock towers telling time from Balkans to Middle East|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/feature/2017/01/06/ottoman-era-clock-towers-telling-time-from-balkans-to-middle-east|access-date=2021-09-08|website=Daily Sabah}}</ref>{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=664}} The construction of railway stations was a feature of Ottoman modernisation reflecting the new infrastructure changes within the empire. The most famous example is the [[Sirkeci railway station|Sirkeci Railway Station]], built in 1888–1890 as the terminus of the [[Orient Express]]. It was designed in an Orientalist style by [[Germany|German]] architect August Jasmund (also spelled "Jachmund").{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=666–667}} In the Beyoğlu district of Istanbul, Parisian-style [[Shopping mall|shopping arcades]] appeared in the 19th century. Some consisted of a small courtyard filled with shops and surrounded by buildings, while others were simply a passage or alley (''pasaj'' in Turkish) lined with shops, sometimes covered by a glass roof.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=672}} Other commercial building types that appeared in the late 19th century included hotels and banks.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=670–671}}

[[File:Bahnhofsfront-Istanbul-Sirkeci retouched 2.jpg|thumb|The [[Sirkeci railway station|Sirkeci Railway Station]] in Istanbul (1888–1890), designed in Orientalist style{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=666–667}}]]
A local interpretation of [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] fashion steadily arose in the late 19th century, initially used by European architects such as Vallaury. This trend combined "neo-Ottoman" motifs with other motifs from wider Islamic architecture.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=606–607 and after}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=425}} The eclecticism and European imports of the 19th century eventually led to the introduction of Art Nouveau, especially after the arrival of Raimondo D'Aronco in the late 19th century. D'Aronco came at the invitation of Sultan Abdülhamid II and served as chief court architect between 1896 and 1909.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=606}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=427}} Istanbul became a new center of Art Nouveau and a local flavour of the style developed.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=606, 673}} The new style was most prevalent in the new apartment buildings being built in Istanbul at the time.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=617–618}}

[[File:Istanbul Grand Post Office.jpg|thumb|The [[Grand Post Office]] in Sirkeci, Istanbul, is one of the earliest Ottoman Revival buildings that marked the [[First national architectural movement]] (1909)]]
The final period of architecture in the Ottoman Empire developed after 1900 and in particular after the [[Young Turks]] took power in 1908–1909, in what was then called the "National Architectural Renaissance" and since referred to as the [[First national architectural movement]] of Turkish architecture.<ref name=Bozdogan>{{cite book |title=Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-295-98152-9 |last=Bozdogan |first=Sibel |publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle and London}}</ref> The approach in this period was an Ottoman Revival style, a reaction to influences in the previous 200 years that had come to be considered "foreign", such as Baroque and Neoclassical architecture, and was intended to promote Ottoman patriotism and self-identity.<ref name="Bozdogan"/> This was related to earlier Ottoman architecture in rather the same manner as other roughly contemporaneous [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalist architectures]] related to their stylistic inspirations.<ref name="Bozdogan"/> New government-run institutions that trained architects and engineers, established in the late 19th century and further centralized under the Young Turks, became instrumental in disseminating this "national style".<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Ersoy |first=Ahmet |title=Architecture and the late Ottoman historical imaginary: reconfiguring the architectural past in a modernizing empire |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=9780367432836 |pages=241–242 |language=en}}</ref>

== Dome design ==
{{See also|List of Ottoman domes}}[[File:Penditifkuppel.svg|left|thumb|upright|Basic schematic illustration of a dome with four [[pendentive]]s]]
The dome was a paramount feature of Ottoman architecture for most of its history. In religious architecture, the dome and the integration of the interior with the central domed space could be a symbol for the "oneness of God" (''[[tawhid]]'').<ref name=":52">{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last1=Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan M. |chapter=Architecture; VII. c. 1500–c. 1900; A. Ottoman Empire; 1. Introduction |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Akin |first=Günkut |date=1995 |title=The "Müezzi̇n Mahfi̇li̇" and Pool of the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523224 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=12 |pages=78 |doi=10.2307/1523224 |issn=0732-2992|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Especially after Sinan, the design of monumental Ottoman buildings was conceptualized with the central dome above as its starting point, rather than the floor plan being conceived first and the roofing system after.{{Sfn|Kuban|1987|p=74}} Under Sinan, the core of the design was more specifically the domed baldaquin, which is to say the dome and its basic structural support system: a set of pillars or buttresses in a square, hexagonal, or octagonal configuration – involving four, six, or eight pillars, respectively.{{Sfn|Kuban|1987|p=76}} Thanks to the influence of the Hagia Sophia and early Ottoman mosque designs, the central dome was often accompanied with semi-domes and the transition from the base of the dome to the space below was typically accomplished through [[pendentive]]s.<ref name=":0522">{{Cite book |last=Tabbaa |first=Yasser |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2017 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Dome |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref> The focus on the central dome also led Ottoman architects to emphasize verticality in their designs.<ref name=":52" />

[[File:Kara Ahmed Pasha Mosque by Gurlitt 1912.jpg|thumb|upright|Plan and elevation of the [[Kara Ahmed Pasha Mosque]] (1554), showing a hexagonal baldaquin support for the main dome,{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=244}} one of several designs Sinan experimented with.]]
The dome itself remained geometrically simple in Ottoman architecture. While many different types of domes had previously developed in Islamic architecture and while contemporary European architecture experimented with ostentatious dome constructions, Ottoman architects consistently used simple hemispheric domes.{{Sfn|Kuban|1987|p=73}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=459–462}} Sinan knew of double-shelled domes, which were used in earlier Islamic architecture, and he employed them in the Mausoleum of Suleiman{{Sfn|Kuban|1987|p=82}} and in multiple other mausoleums.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|pp=373, 381, 434}} Nonetheless, they were not the norm and the Ottomans more regularly used single-shelled domes in almost every context.{{Sfn|Kuban|1987|p=|pp=75–76}} For example, the huge dome of Sinan's masterpiece, the [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]] in Edirne, is a single-shelled construction.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=246}} When double-shelled domes were used, the outer and inner shells had the same shape, thus maintaining the same profile on the outside as on the inside.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jani |first=Vibhavari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3u9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130 |title=Diversity in Design: Perspectives from the Non-Western World |publisher=A&C Black |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-56367-755-7 |pages=130 |language=en}}</ref> Ottoman domes were not raised on prominent [[Tholobate|drums]], unlike their Byzantine predecessors,{{Sfn|Kuban|1987|p=82}} but their outer edge usually rested on a circle of alternating buttresses and windows.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=92}}

Since the early Ottoman period, domes were usually built with brick, a material that was convenient for this purpose because it was relatively light. This remained the usual practice even after stone replaced brick as the main material for walls after the early period. Wood was used for the [[centring]] during construction.{{Sfn|Petersen|1996|p=217}} On the outside, early domes were commonly covered with terracotta tiles but by the 16th century they were generally covered with lead.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=17}}{{Sfn|Petersen|1996|p=217}}

== Decoration ==
{{Main|Ottoman decoration}}

=== Tile decoration ===
{{See also|Iznik pottery}}[[File:Yeşil Cami - Faience.jpg|thumb|''[[Cuerda seca]]'' tile decoration in the [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] in Bursa (1424)|left]]
Glazed tile decoration in the ''[[cuerda seca]]'' technique was used in early Ottoman monuments. The most extensive example is the [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] and the associated [[Green Tomb]] in Bursa (early 15th century).{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=14}} The tiles of the Green Mosque complex generally have a deep green ground mixed with combinations of blue, white, and yellow forming [[arabesque]] motifs. A large portion of the tiles are cut into hexagonal and triangular shapes that were then fitted together to form murals.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=60–61}} Some of the tiles are further enhanced with arabesque motifs applied in gilt gold glazing over the other colours.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} The artistic style of these tiles – and of other early Ottoman art – was influenced by an "International Timurid" taste that emerged from the intense [[Timurid art|artistic patronage of the Timurids]], who controlled a [[Timurid Empire|large empire]] across the Middle East and Central Asia.<ref name=":06">{{Cite journal |last=Necipoğlu |first=Gülru |date=1990 |title=From International Timurid to Ottoman: A Change of Taste in Sixteenth-Century Ceramic Tiles |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523126 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=7 |pages=136–170 |doi=10.2307/1523126 |jstor=1523126 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=142–144, 232, 234}}

[[File:Muradiye mosque in Edirne 123.jpg|thumb|Blue and white tilework with Chinese influences at the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Murad II Mosque]] in Edirne (circa 1435)]]
The same kind of tilework is found in the mihrab of the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Murad II Mosque]] in Edirne, completed in 1435, along with the first examples of a new technique with [[underglaze]] blue on a white background, with touches of turquoise. The motifs on these tiles include [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotuses]] and [[camellia]]-like flowers on spiral stems.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=20–21}} These [[chinoiserie]]-like motifs, along with the focus on blue and white colours, most likely reflect an influence from contemporary [[Chinese ceramics|Chinese porcelain]] – although the evidence for Chinese porcelain reaching Edirne at this time is unclear.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=20–21}}

[[File:Sehzade mosque tomb of Sehzade Mehmed DSCF6382.jpg|thumb|''Cuerda seca'' tilework in the [[Şehzade Mosque|tomb of Şehzade Mehmed]] (1548) |left]]
Another stage in Ottoman tiles is evident in the surviving tiles of the [[Fatih Mosque, Istanbul|Fatih Mosque]] (1463–70) and in the [[Yavuz Selim Mosque|Selim I Mosque]] (1520–22). In these mosques the windows are topped by [[lunette]]s filled with ''cuerda seca'' tiles with motifs in green, turquoise, [[cobalt blue]], and yellow.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|pp=235, 262}} Chinese motifs such as dragons and clouds also appear for the first time on similar tiles in Selim I's tomb, built behind his mosque in 1523.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}} A more extravagant example of this type of tilework can be found inside the tomb of [[Şehzade Mehmed]] in the cemetery of the [[Şehzade Mosque]] (1548).{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|pp=186–187}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=73}}

[[File:Topkapi circumcision room tiles DSCF2278.jpg|thumb|Details of blue-and-white tiles (early 16th century) on the exterior of the Circumcision Room in [[Topkapı Palace]]]]
In the late 15th century, in the 1470s or 1480s, the ceramic industry in the city of [[İznik]] was growing and began producing a new "blue-and-white" [[fritware]] which adapted and incorporated Chinese motifs in its decoration.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=28–34}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=234}} The most extraordinary tile panels from this stage of Ottoman ceramic art are a series of panels on the exterior of Circumcision Pavilion (''Sünnet Odası'') in Topkapı Palace. At least some of these tiles are believed to date from the 1520s and feature large floral motifs in blue, white, and turquoise.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=56–60}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=237}} They exemplify the advent of the [[saz style|''saz'' style]]: a motif in which a variety of flowers are attached to gracefully curving stems with serrated leaves, appearing in the 16th century.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=237}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=56}} This continued to reflect earlier influences of the "International Timurid" style, but it also demonstrates the development of an increasingly distinct Ottoman artistic style at this time.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=237}}

[[File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5702.jpg|left|thumb|Details of tiles at the [[Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque, Kadırga|Sokullu Mehmed Pasha Mosque]] in Istanbul (1572), produced during the artistic apogee of [[Iznik tiles]]]]
The architect [[Mimar Sinan]] generally used tile decoration in a fairly restrained manner and seems to have preferred focusing on the architecture as a whole rather than on overwhelming decoration.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=442–443}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=74}} An exception to this austerity is the extensive tilework in the [[Rüstem Pasha Mosque]] (1561–62),{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=74}} which also marks the beginning of the artistic peak of [[Iznik pottery|Iznik ceramic art]] from the 1560s onward.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=75}} Blue colours predominate, but the important "tomato red" colour began to make an appearance. The repertoire of motifs includes [[tulip]]s, [[Hyacinth (plant)|hyacinths]], [[Dianthus caryophyllus|carnations]], [[rose]]s, [[pomegranate]]s, [[artichoke]] leaves, [[Narcissus (plant)|narcissus]], and Chinese "cloud" motifs.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=75}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=443}}

[[File:Tiles from the Blue Mosque, Istanbul (6549288687).jpg|thumb|Detail of tiles in the [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]], Istanbul (circa 1617)]]
In the early 17th century, some features of 16th-century Iznik art began to fade, such as the use of embossed tomato red. At the same time, some motifs became more rigidly geometric and stylized.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=445}} Production was pushed to the limit for the enormous [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]] (or "Blue Mosque"), begun in 1609 and inaugurated in 1617, which contains the richest collection of tilework of any Ottoman mosque. According to official Ottoman documents it contained as many as 20,000 tiles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=445}} While the craftsmen at Iznik were still capable of producing rich and colourful tiles throughout the 17th century, there was an overall decline in quality, caused in part by the devastation of the [[Celali revolts]] and by an overall decline in commissions.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=107–108}} Some of the production continued in the city of [[Kütahya]] instead of Iznik.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Tile manufacture declined still further in the second half of the century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} By this period, blue and turquoise colours increasingly predominated, and many commissioned works limited their patterns to single tiles instead of creating larger patterns across multiple tiles.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=107–108}} Tile production in Iznik came to an end in the 18th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}}

[[File:Hekimoglu Pasha Mosque DSCF7162.jpg|thumb|Tekfursaray tiles in the [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha Mosque|Hekimoğlu Ali Paşa Mosque]] (1734), including a depiction of the Great Mosque of Mecca]]
The shortage of quality tiles in the 18th century caused Iznik tiles from older buildings to be reused and moved to new ones on multiple occasions.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}} [[Ahmed III|Ahmet III]] and his grand vizier attempted to revive the tile industry by establishing a new workshop between 1719 and 1724 at Tekfursaray in Istanbul.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}}{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} Production continued here for a while but the quality was not comparable to earlier Iznik tiles.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Pottery production also continued and even increased at Kütahya, where new styles developed alongside imitations of older classical Ottoman designs.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=115}}{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} The colours of tiles in this period were mostly turquoise and dark cobalt blue, while a brownish-red, yellow, and a deep green also appearing. The background was often discoloured, colours often ran together slightly, and the patterns were typically limited to single tiles.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}}{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} The Tekfursaray kilns ceased to function after the [[Patrona Halil rebellion]] in 1730, which deposed Ahmet III.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} Ultimately, tilework decoration in Ottoman architecture lost its significance during this century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}}

=== Painted decoration ===
[[File:Murad II Mosque DSCF5136.jpg|thumb|Partially preserved [[mural]] decoration inside the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Murad II Mosque]] in Edirne, circa 1436, depicting stylized trees and plants alongside calligraphic inscriptions]]
Painted decoration was an essential part of the decoration of Ottoman buildings, covering interior walls, ceilings, and domes. However, very little original painted decoration has been preserved in Ottoman buildings, as they were frequently repainted during later restorations.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=737 and after}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|loc=See descriptions of individual monuments}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|loc=See descriptions of individual monuments}}{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=|loc=See descriptions of individual monuments}} Paint, as well as [[gold leaf]], was applied on a variety of mediums including plaster, wood, leather or cloth, and stone. For plaster decoration, there were generally two types: {{Lang|tr|kalemişi}} and {{Lang|tr|malakâri}}. The first refers to paint being applied directly to plaster, while the second referred to applying paint onto [[relief]] decoration sculpted beforehand. The design of the ornamentation was often [[stenciled]] onto the plaster first, using paper pierced with pin holes in the shape of the motifs, over which coal dust was rubbed to leave outlines on the walls that were then painted.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=737}}

The motifs of painted decoration were typically similar to those used in other contemporary arts, such as [[Ottoman illumination|manuscript illumination]].{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=737–738}} Early examples indicate that Ottoman decoration developed a preference for floriate motifs.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=743}} One such motif that was popular throughout the history of Ottoman art is the ''rumî'' style, whose existence predates the Ottomans and which consists of scrolling, spiraling, and/or intertwining stems with stylized leaves.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=743–744}} Another floriate style that appeared in Ottoman decoration from the 15th century onward is ''hatayî'', which consists in large part of [[peonies]] and leaves shown in varying stages of budding and blooming. This style had its origins further east in China or [[Turkestan]] and it appeared in [[Islamic art]] from the 13th century onward.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}} One of the most important examples of early Ottoman painted decoration is the partially-preserved [[mural]] decoration inside the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Murad II Mosque]] in Edirne, which still dates back to its construction circa 1436. The ornamentation inside the southeastern (qibla) iwan depicts natural landscapes with stylized flowers and trees that appear to reflect the same artistic styles used in book illustrations and [[Islamic miniature|miniatures]], particularly those from the [[Timurid Empire]] further east.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=742}}

[[File:Gazi Ahmet Pasa Mosque 2836.jpg|thumb|A painted wooden ceiling under the gallery of the [[Kara Ahmed Pasha Mosque]] in Istanbul, circa 1554. This mixes a number of design elements including a central medallion, [[Saz style|''saz''-style]] motifs, and "Chinese clouds".|left]]
In the second quarter of the 16th century, the ''saz'' style (also mentioned above for tile decoration) was developed by Ottoman artist [[Şahkulu (painter)|Şahkulu]]. It was derived from the ''hatayî'' style and added new motifs, most notably large serrated leaves. It was less formal and geometrically rigid, allowing these motifs to be combined and arranged in a wide variety of ways to fill any space.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}}

The most monumental painted compositions were employed in and around the domes and semi-domes of Ottoman buildings. For much of the Ottoman era, domes were typically decorated with a circular [[Medallion (architecture)|medallion]]-like composition at the center of the dome that was filled with a calligraphic rendition of Qur'anic verses. The motif of the central medallion radiated outward to cover the rest of the dome, with the details filled by ''rumî'', ''hatayî'', or ''saz'' motifs. This type of dome decoration is well-known from the 16th century onward but it probably had appeared earlier in the 15th century as well.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=748}}

[[File:Ahmed Has Odası - Harem-i Hümayûn - Topkapı Sarayı, İstanbul (2275201973).jpg|thumb|Painted wood decoration in the Fruit Room of Topkapı Palace (1705), depicting fruit bowls and vases of flowers]]
In the later 17th century, painted decoration underwent a gradual shift in style that can be attributed to European influence. Among other trends, [[shading]] was introduced to what had previously been areas of flat colour.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=755}} This was evident not only in new buildings but also in older buildings whose decoration was redone after this period. In some of the latter cases, the traditional designs were retained during restoration but they were updated to include shading.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=751, 755}} Around the same time (in the second half of the 17th century), a new style known as ''Edirnekārī'' began to appear. It primarily depicted flowers, a traditional Ottoman motif, but with an increased level of [[Realism (arts)|naturalism]] not previously seen in Ottoman art.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=|pp=36–37}} The reign of Ahmet III ({{Reign|1703|1730}}), which include the years of the [[Tulip Period]] (1718–1730), saw the popularization of a style derived from this, featuring plentiful depictions of flowers in vases and bowls of fruit, sometimes with shading.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=755–756}} The most vivid example of this is the so-called Fruit Room, created by Ahmet III inside Topkapı Palace in 1705.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=755–756}} This new style remained popular until the end of the century.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=755–756}}

[[File:03345-Istanbul-DolmabahcePalace (3446005767).jpg|thumb|Dome of the Ceremonial Hall in the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] in Istanbul (1843–1856), painted with ''[[trompe-l'œil]]'']]
The advent of the Ottoman Baroque architectural style in the 1740s also brought new motifs of European origin or influence.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=}} By the end of the 18th century, European influence continued to grow and the new repertoire of motifs included [[garland]]s, ribbons, flower bouquets, and baskets of roses. Decoration could now be painted to appear three-dimensional, adding a new visual effect even when otherwise traditional motifs were used.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=756–758}} The ''[[trompe-l'œil]]'' technique was also introduced, particularly during the reign of [[Abdülmecid I]] ({{Reign|1839|1861}}).{{Sfn|Wharton|2015|p=123}} Examples from this period can be seen inside the [[Ortaköy Mosque]] (1850s){{Sfn|Wharton|2015|p=|pp=129, 132–133}}{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=758–759}} and in the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] (1843–1856).{{Sfn|Wharton|2015|p=132}}

=== Stone carving ===
[[File:Suleymaniye DSCF5835.jpg|thumb|Entrance portal with a [[muqarnas]] vault and inscription panels at the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul (1550–1557)|left]]
Compared to the Anatolian Seljuk architecture that came before it, Ottoman architecture treated stone carving as a less important decorative medium.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=237}} In the early Ottoman period, an exception to this paucity of traditional stone carving is the Green Mosque in Bursa, which features skilled carving of marble surfaces into vegetal arabesque and calligraphic motifs.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} This was generally not repeated in subsequent Ottoman monuments, with the partial exception of [[mihrab]]s.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=447, 449}}

Nonetheless, high-quality stone carving was still used to enrich the details of buildings throughout the Ottoman period, particularly for entrance portals, minaret balconies, niches, column [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]], and [[Molding (decorative)|moldings]]. One of the main decorative techniques in this medium was [[muqarnas]] (or "stalactite") carving, which is used in all of these aforementioned elements.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Since the Seljuk era, muqarnas semi-vaults had been a typical feature of entrance portals and mihrabs, and this tradition continued in Ottoman mosques.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mülâyim |first=Selçuk |date=2020 |title=Mukarnas |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/mukarnas |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi |language=tr}}</ref>[[File:Istanbul Nuruosmaniye Mosque courtyard entrance side in 2015 1156.jpg|thumb|Entrance portal at the [[Nuruosmaniye Mosque]] in Istanbul (1748–1755), where traditional muqarnas has been replaced with [[Ottoman Baroque architecture|baroque-style]] moldings and acanthus friezes]]In the early 18th century, around the Tulip Period, diverse new floral motifs were added to the decorative repertoire of buildings.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} These can be found in carved reliefs, employed most prolifically on the façades of fountains and sebils, which became common types of monuments commissioned during this century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=509–514}} The motifs include flowers, fruits, garlands, and rosettes, as well as designs developed from the ''hatayî'' style previously used for painted decoration.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=509}} With the advent of the Ottoman Baroque in the 18th century, Ottoman stone carving borrowed motifs directly from the relief ornamentation in French [[Rococo architecture]], including acanthus leaves, shells, baroque moldings, and [[mixtilinear arch]] forms.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=517}} Although many novelties were introduced, one traditional feature that continued throughout this period were the calligraphic inscriptions placed in panels over gates, in friezes, and in other prominent locations.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=|pp=66, 140, 193}}

==Gardens==
{{See also|Islamic garden}}
Ottoman gardens were relatively informal and tended to accommodate natural topography, unlike gardens in many other parts of the Islamic world – such as Iran or South Asia – where a more formal design was preferred with a symmetrical four-part division or other geometric layout.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=|pp=49, 106–107}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Goodwin |first=Godfrey |date=1988 |title=Gardens of the Dead in Ottoman Times |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523110 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=5 |pages=61–62 |doi=10.2307/1523110 |jstor=1523110 |issn=0732-2992|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Gardens could be planted with large trees for shade, smaller [[citrus]] trees, and flowerbeds.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=172}} [[Tulips]] were favored for flowers, even more so in the [[Tulip period|Tulip Period]] during the reign of Sultan [[Ahmed III|Ahmet III]] (r. 1703–1730).{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=|pp=172, 175}}

=== Palaces and leisure gardens ===
[[File:Topkapi_Palace,_Istanbul_(52116768973).jpg|thumb|Park area with trees in the Second Court of the [[Topkapı Palace]] in Istanbul, Turkey]]
Exemplifying this Ottoman trend, the gardens in [[Topkapı Palace]] were laid out according to the existing topography and emphasized naturalism over geometry. Some were organized as formal gardens whereas others took the appearance of semi-natural parks, with some sections consisting of formal [[parterre]]s that were then placed inside larger informal garden areas.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=|pp=174–175}} [[Sultan Suleyman]] was a lover of gardens and employed some 2,500 gardeners to tend to roses, cypresses, and other flowering plants in the palace grounds. Ahmet III had a tulip garden planted in the Fourth Court of the palace, just outside the Circumcision Room.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=175}}

One documented exception to the general trend of informal design was the Karabali Garden, laid out in the early 16th century in [[Kabataş, Beyoğlu|Kabataş]] (a district of Istanbul). It had four symmetrical quadrants divided by axial paths, making it an uncommon example of the ''[[chahar bagh]]''-type garden in an Ottoman context.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=173}}

Garden pavilions were a common feature of palaces and private gardens, designed to provide shelter for residents and visitors as they enjoyed views of the gardens. They are depicted in many [[Ottoman miniature]] paintings. They were often simple open kiosks with arches or columns supporting a sloped roof, but there were also more monumental tower-pavilions such as the Tower of Justice in Topkapı Palace or the Cihannüma in the [[Edirne Palace]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Atasoy |first=Nurhan |date=2004 |title=Ottoman Garden Pavilions and Tents |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523340 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=21 |pages=15–19 |doi=10.1163/22118993-90000050 |jstor=1523340 |issn=0732-2992|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Ottoman sultans and elites built many other palaces, leisure kiosks, and estates, especially along the shores of the [[Bosporus|Bosphorus]] and the [[Sea of Marmara]] around Istanbul. An illustration of the Bosphorus from 1738–9 shows many walled gardens lining both of its shores. These waterside palaces often had one side overlooking the water and the other side overlooking gardens.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=172}} The Topkapı-style tradition of a sprawling palace with multiple pavilions amidst gardens made a comeback in the late 19th century when Sultan [[Abdulhamid II]] (r. 1876–1909) moved his residence to the new [[Yıldız Palace]], which is set inside a large park area on the slopes overlooking the Bosphorus.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=|pp=176–177}}

=== Mosques and cemeteries ===
[[File:Süleymaniye Mosque Graveyard 20220315 (6).jpg|thumb|Cemetery behind the [[Süleymaniye Mosque]] in Istanbul. Ottoman cemeteries were also gardens and were often established next to mosques.]]
Large Ottoman ''[[Külliye|küllliye]]'' complexes, which consisted of a mosque with other charitable and religious buildings around it, were often set inside an outer enclosure. The grounds and common spaces of these enclosures were planted with grass and trees, around which the various structures were organized.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=100}}

Some Ottoman mosques in Istanbul also had trees planted inside their courtyards. At the [[Fatih Mosque, Istanbul|Fatih Mosque]], the courtyard once contained four [[cypress]] trees planted around a central fountain, a composition likely originating from the now-vanished [[Atrium (architecture)|atrium]] of the [[Hagia Sophia]], which featured the same arrangement. A late 18th-century illustration of the [[Süleymaniye Mosque]] also indicates the presence of trees in its courtyard.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=100}} According to Godfrey Goodwin, the first mosque to have a courtyard filled with a garden may be either the [[Mesih Mehmed Pasha Mosque]] or the [[Nışançı Mehmed Pasha Mosque]],{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=336}} both built in the same neighborhood around 1585.{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|p=|pp=246, 250}}

In Ottoman society, cemeteries and places of burial were usually gardens. Cypress trees were a common presence in this context as well.<ref name=":0" /> Many Ottoman mosques were accompanied by garden-cemeteries. At the Fatih and Süleymaniye mosques, these garden-cemeteries are set behind the ''[[qibla]]'' wall of the mosque and contain the mausoleum of the sultan who founded the mosque, along with other burials.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|pp=100–101, 174}} The cemeteries were planted with trees and flowers but the graves themselves may have also been imagined as miniature gardens, since they contain small plots laid out for planting and some of the tombstones even have holes to anchor vines.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=174}}

== Architecture in the provinces ==
{{Further|Classical Ottoman architecture#Architecture in the provinces|Ottoman Baroque architecture#Architecture in the provinces}}{{See also|Ottoman architecture in Egypt}}
[[File:20130606_Mostar_150.jpg|left|thumb|[[Stari Most]] (Old Bridge) in [[Mostar]] (1557–1566) is one of the most celebrated Ottoman monuments in the [[Balkans]].{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=313}}]]
The main developments in Ottoman architecture generally took place in the capital cities (Bursa, Edirne, Istanbul) and other major administrative centers that were closely associated with the Ottoman dynasty, where imperial patronage was most concentrated.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=679}} Beyond these imperial centers, Ottoman provincial governors and other local elites sponsored their own constructions, but the architectural style of these buildings varied depending on local context.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=571–596}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=251}}

In Europe ([[Rumelia]]) and in western [[Anatolia]], Ottoman constructions mostly imitated the trends of the capital, though there were still local variations and eccentricities.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=571–596}} In the [[Balkans]], the reign of [[Murad II]] ({{Reign|1421|1451}} with brief interruption) saw many renovations of early Ottoman buildings and also the construction of multiple new mosques and civic or religious complexes.{{Sfn|Boykov|2013|p=51–57}} Nearly all the other important Ottoman monuments in the European provinces beyond Istanbul and Edirne date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Building activity was particularly intense in the 16th century, even surpassing that of Anatolia, but it declined over the course of the 17th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=587–589}} [[Sarajevo]], [[Mostar]], [[Skopje]], [[Plovdiv]] and [[Thessaloniki]] were among the most important cities in the region and their Ottoman monuments often reflect a classical style.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=587–593}} As in many other provincial areas of the empire, mosques in the Balkans generally consisted of the single-dome type with one minaret, though some were also built with sloped wooden roofs instead.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=587}}
[[File:Khan_As'ad_Pasha_Panorama.jpg|thumb|The [[Khan As'ad Pasha]] in [[Damascus]] (1753) is an example of the Ottoman penchant for domed units being integrated into local Syrian building styles.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Degeorge |first=Gérard |title=Damascus |publisher=Flammarion |year=2004 |isbn=2080304569 |pages=192–198}}</ref>]]
In other regions which had been [[Islamized]] long before the Ottomans, local [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] traditions were not easily displaced and remained highly relevant in the construction of new buildings. In [[Egypt]] and the [[Syria (region)|Syrian region]], the [[Mamluk architecture|Mamluk architectural style]] that existed before the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|Ottoman conquest of 1516–1517]] was largely continued while incorporating elements and ideas of Ottoman architecture to varying degrees.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=584–585}}{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=34}} The regions along the edges of Anatolia, Syria, and [[Mesopotamia]] (around southeastern Turkey today) also resisted assimilation to the culture of the Ottoman capital and continued to be strongly influenced by local styles. For example, [[Diyarbakır|Diyarbakir]], [[Van, Turkey|Van]], and [[Adana]] were important regional centers that retained or developed their own local architectural styles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=572–579}} Further afield in North Africa, particularly in [[Ottoman Algeria]] and [[Ottoman Tunisia]], which were autonomous for much of the Ottoman era, the local [[Moorish architecture|western Islamic style]] was blended with Ottoman architecture in different ways.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1 |title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780300218701 |location= |pages=214–243}}</ref> In [[Baghdad]], Ottoman-era mosques were built almost entirely according to local traditions.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=587}}

==See also==
{{commons category}}
* [[List of mosques commissioned by the Ottoman dynasty]]
* [[List of Ottoman palaces in Istanbul]]
* [[Ottoman tents]]
* [[Clock towers in Turkey]]
* [[List of Ottoman domes]]
* [[Architecture of Turkey]]
* [[Ajyad Fortress]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last1=Acun|first1=Hakkı|title=Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Saat Kuleleri|year=2011|location=Ankara|publisher=Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Yayınları|isbn=9789751623706}}
* {{Cite book|last=Atasoy|first=Nurhan|title=Harem|publisher=Bilkent Kültür Girişimi Publications|year=2011|isbn=9786055495060}}
* {{Cite book |last=Aslanapa |first=Oktay |url= |title=Turkish Art and Architecture |publisher=Praeger Publ. |year=1971 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bağcı |first=Serpil |title=Ottoman Civilization |publisher=Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture |year=2002 |isbn=9751730732 |editor-last=Inalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |location=Ankara |pages=737–759 |language=en |chapter=Painted Decoration in Ottoman Architecture |editor-last2=Renda |editor-first2=Günsel}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Blair |first1=Sheila S. |author-link=Sheila Blair |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3 |title=The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250–1800 |last2=Bloom |first2=Jonathan M. |author-link2=Jonathan M. Bloom |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1995 |isbn=9780300064650}}
*{{Cite thesis |last=Boykov |first=Grigor |url=http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/handle/11693/15822 |title=Mastering the conquered space: resurrection of urban life in Ottoman upper Thrace (14th–17th c) |publisher=İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University (PhD thesis) |year=2013 |hdl=11693/15822 |type=Thesis}}
*{{Cite book|last=Carswell|first=John|title=Iznik Pottery|publisher=British Museum Press|year=2006|isbn=9780714124414|edition=Second}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ersoy |first=Ahmet |url= |title=History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the 'Lands of Rum' |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-16320-1 |editor-last=Bailey |editor-first=Julia |series=Muqarnas |pages=117–139 |language=en |chapter=Architecture and the search for Ottoman origins in the Tanzimat period |editor-last2=Bozdoğan |editor-first2=Sibel |editor-last3=Necipoğlu |editor-first3=Gülru |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBbgOTsAHQ8C&dq=%22ottoman+architecture%22+definition&pg=PA117}}
* {{cite book|last=Freely|first=John|title=A History of Ottoman Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgp46TUFK7wC|year=2011|publisher=WIT Press|isbn=978-1-84564-506-9}}
*{{Cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Godfrey |author-link=Godfrey Goodwin (scholar) |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman0000good |title=A History of Ottoman Architecture |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=1971 |isbn=0-500-27429-0}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Kuban |first=Doğan |author-link=Doğan Kuban |date=1987 |title=The Style of Sinan's Domed Structures |url=https://www.archnet.org/publications/4121 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=4 |pages=72–97}}
*{{Cite book|last=Kuban|first=Doğan|title=Ottoman Architecture|publisher=Antique Collectors' Club|year=2010|isbn=9781851496044|translator-last=Mill|translator-first=Adair}}
* {{Cite book |last=Necipoğlu |first=Gülru |author-link=Gülru Necipoğlu |url= |title=History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the 'Lands of Rum' |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-474-2332-4 |series=Muqarnas |editor-last=Bailey |editor-first=Julia |editor-last2=Bozdoğan |editor-first2=Sibel |editor-last3=Necipoğlu |editor-first3=Gülru |pages=160–161 |language=en |chapter=Creation of a national genius: Sinan and the historiography of 'classical' Ottoman architecture |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HMWwCQAAQBAJ&dq=Ottoman+which+rejected+the+eclectic+revivalist+style+promoted+by+the&pg=PA160}}
* {{Cite book |last=Necipoğlu |first=Gülru |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofsinanarchit0000neci/ |title=The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2011 |isbn=9781861892539 |edition=Revised |orig-year=2005}}
*{{Cite book|last=Öney|first=Gönül|title=Ottoman Civilization|publisher=Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture|year=2002|isbn=9751730732|editor-last=Inalcık|editor-first=Halil|volume=2|location=Ankara|pages=698–735|chapter=Ottoman Tiles and Pottery|editor-last2=Renda|editor-first2=Günsel}}
*{{Cite book|ref={{harvid|Ostergren & Le Boss 2011}}|last1=Ostergren|first1=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-1fwix23zMC|title=The Europeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment|last2=Le Boss|first2=Mathias|publisher=Guilford Press|year=2011|isbn=9781609181413|edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book |last=Petersen |first=Andrew |title=Dictionary of Islamic Architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hcebK67IRhkC&pg=PA1 |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-20387-3}}
* {{cite book|first1=Abd al-Qadir al-|last1=Rihawi|first2=Émilie E.|last2=Ouéchek|year=1975|chapter=Les deux ''takiyya'' de Damas|title=Bulletin d'études orientales|volume=28 |pages=217–225 |publisher=Institut Francais du Proche-Orient |jstor=41604595 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41604595}}
* {{cite book |last=Ruggles |first=D. Fairchild |author-link=D. Fairchild Ruggles |title=Islamic Gardens and Landscape |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=j.ctt3fhhqz |year=2008 |isbn=9780812240252 |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicgardensla0000rugg |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book|last=Rüstem|first=Ünver|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_p0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR1|title=Ottoman Baroque: The Architectural Refashioning of Eighteenth-Century Istanbul|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2019|isbn=9780691181875}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Sumner-Boyd |first1=Hilary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2G6KDwAAQBAJ |title=Strolling Through Istanbul: The Classic Guide to the City |last2=Freely |first2=John |publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks |year=2010 |edition=Revised |isbn=978-0-85773-005-3 |language=en}}
*{{cite book|last1=Trankova|first1=Dimana|last2=Georgieff |first2= Anthony|last3=Matanov|first3= Hristo|title= A Guide to Ottoman Bulgaria |publisher=Vagabond Media|location=Sofia|date=2011 |isbn=9789549230673|url=http://www.vagabond.bg/ottomanbulgaria/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115040440/http://www.vagabond.bg/ottomanbulgaria/|archive-date=2011-11-15}}
*{{Cite book |last=Wharton |first=Alyson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SdSLDwAAQBAJ&q=ortakoy+mosque+style |title=The Architects of Ottoman Constantinople: The Balyan Family and the History of Ottoman Architecture |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-85773-813-4 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Caroline |title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide |date=2018 |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |edition=7th |isbn=978-9774168550}}
*{{Cite book|last=Yerasimos|first=Stéphane|title=Constantinople: Istanbul's Historical Heritage|publisher=H.F. Ullmann|year=2012|isbn=9783848000531|edition=English|translator-last=Schreiber|translator-first=Sally M.|translator-last2=Hoffman|translator-first2=Uta|translator-last3=Loeffler|translator-first3=Ellen}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite conference |last= Canbulat |first= Ibrahim |title= The Ottoman House: Evaluation of Structure and Form |book-title= 4th International Conference on Structural Health Assessment of Timber Structures |pages= 83–94 |publisher= Yıldız Technical University |date= 2017 |location= Istanbul |url= https://www.academia.edu/34622384}}

==External links==
* [http://www.turkishculture.org/pages.php?ParentID=6 Turkish Architecture]
* [http://turkishtravelblog.com/ottoman-houses-turkey/ A look at the traditional Ottoman houses of Turkey]

{{Ottoman Empire topics}}
{{Ottoman architecture |state=collapsed}}
{{Islamic architecture}}
{{Islamic art}}
{{Archhistory}}
{{Architecture of Europe}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ottoman Architecture}}
[[Category:Ottoman architecture| ]]
[[Category:Medieval architecture]]
[[Category:Architectural styles]]
[[Category:Islamic architecture]]
[[Category:Architecture in Turkey]]
[[Category:14th-century architecture]]
[[Category:15th-century architecture]]
[[Category:16th-century architecture]]
[[Category:17th-century architecture]]
[[Category:18th-century architectural styles]]
[[Category:19th-century architecture]]
[[Category:20th-century architecture]]