View source for Osco-Umbrian languages

{{short description|Group of Italic languages}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Osco-Umbrian
| altname       = Sabellic, Sabellian
| region        = Ancient south and central [[Italy]]
| extinct       = 1st millennium BC-1st millennium AD
| familycolor   = Indo-European
| fam2          = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| ancestor      = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
| ancestor2     = [[Proto-Italic language|Proto-Italic]]
| child1        = [[Oscan language|Oscan]] †
| child2        = [[Umbrian language|Umbrian]] †
| child3        = [[Volscian language|Volscian]] †
| child4        = [[Sabines#Language|Sabine]] †
| child5        = [[South Picene language|South Picene]] †
| child6        = [[Marsi#Language|Marsian]] †
| child7        = [[Paeligni#Language|Paeligni]] †
| child8        = [[Hernici#Language|Hernican]] †
| child9        = [[Marrucini#Language|Marrucinian]] †
| child10       = [[Pre-Samnite language|Pre-Samnite]] †
| glotto        = sabe1249
| glottorefname = Sabellic
| map           = Iron Age Italy.svg
| mapcaption    = Ethnolinguistic map of Italy in the [[Iron Age]], before the [[Roman conquest of Italy|Roman expansion and conquest of Italy]]
}}
The '''Osco-Umbrian''', '''Sabellic''' or '''Sabellian languages''' are an extinct group of [[Italic languages]], the [[Indo-European languages]] that were spoken in central and southern [[Italy]] by the Osco-Umbrians before being replaced by [[Latin]], as the power of [[ancient Rome]] expanded. Their written attestations developed from the middle of the 1st millennium BC to the early centuries of the 1st millennium AD. There is one text of about 4,000 words in Umbrian, but otherwise the languages are known almost exclusively from inscriptions, principally of [[Oscan language|Oscan]] and [[Umbrian language|Umbrian]], but there are also some Osco-Umbrian loanwords in Latin. Besides the two major branches of Oscan and Umbrian (and their dialects), South Picene may represent a third branch of Sabellic.<ref>Helmut Rix Sabellische Texte: Die Texte des Oskischen, Umbrischen und Südpikenischen. Heidelberg: Carl Winter University Press, 2002 pp4f</ref> The whole linguistic Sabellic area, however, might be considered a [[dialect continuum]]. Paucity of evidence from most of the "minor dialects" contributes to the difficulty of making these determinations.

== Relationship with the Italic languages ==
{{main|Italic languages}}
Following an original theory by [[Antoine Meillet]], the Osco-Umbrian languages were traditionally considered  a branch of the [[Italic languages]], a language family that grouped [[Latin]] and [[Faliscan language|Faliscan]] together with several other related languages.<ref>Francisco Villar, ''Gli Indoeuropei e le origini dell'Europa'', pp. 474-475.</ref> 
This unitary scheme was criticized by, among others, [[Alois Walde]], Vittore Pisani and [[Giacomo Devoto]], who proposed a classification of the Italic languages into two distinct Indo-European branches. This view gained some acceptance in the second half of the 20th century, although the exact processes of formation and penetration into Italy remains the object of research.<ref name=villar>Villar, cit., pp. 447–482.</ref> 
Proponents such as Rix later rejected the idea, and the unitary theory (proposing the descent of all Italic languages from a unique common ancestor) remains dominant.<ref>Paolo Pocetti, "The Documentation of Italic", in ''Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook'', vol. 2, ed. Jared Klein, Brian Joseph, and Matthias Fritz (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2017), 1-19. {{ISBN|311052175X}}, 9783110521757</ref> In any case, it is plausible that the spread of all those languages took place through progressive inflows of Indo-European populations of eastern origin, with [[Osci]] and [[Umbri]] reaching the Italian peninsula after [[Latins (Italic tribe)|Latins]] and [[Falisci]], but before [[Iapygians]] and [[Messapians]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Foundations of Latin|author=Philip Baldi|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|year=2018|page=104|isbn=9783110892604}}</ref>

== Historical, social and cultural aspects ==
The two main branches of the Sabellic languages, spoken in the heart of the Italian peninsula, are [[Oscan language|Oscan]] in the south and Umbrian to the north of Oscan. Included among the Sabellic languages are: [[Volscian language|Volscian]], [[Sabines|Sabine]], [[South Picene language|South Picene]], [[Marsi#Language|Marsian]], [[Paeligni#Language|Paeligni]], [[Hernici#Language|Hernican]], [[Marrucini#Language|Marrucinian]] 
and [[Pre-Samnite language|Pre-Samnite]].

[[Aequian language|Aequian]] and [[Vestinian language|Vestinian]] have traditionally been ascribed to either the Oscan group or the Umbrian group. However, they are all poorly attested, and such a division is not supported by evidence. It appears that they may have formed part of a [[dialect continuum]], with Umbrian in the north, Oscan in the south and the 'Sabellic' languages in between (see next section) having features of both.<ref>Rex Wallace, 2008, "Sabellian Languages", in Woodard, ed., ''The Ancient Languages of Europe,'' CUP, p 98</ref>

However, there were also colonies that spoke Oscan, scattered throughout [[southern Italy]] and [[Sicily]]. Oscan was the language of the [[Samnites|Samnite]] tribes, powerful enemies of the Romans, who took years to subdue them (the [[Samnite Wars|Samnite wars]] took place from 370 BC to 290 BC).

These languages are known from a few hundred inscriptions dating from between 400 BC and the 1st century AD. In Pompeii there are numerous Oscan inscriptions, such as dedications in public buildings and signs.

[[Umbrian language|Umbrian]] began a process of decline when the Umbrians were subdued by the Romans and the process of [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanisation]] led to its demise. Of all the Osco-Umbrian languages, it is the one that is the best known, mainly because of the [[Iguvine Tablets]].

== Distribution ==
These languages were spoken in [[Samnium]] and in [[Campania]], partly in [[Apulia]], [[Basilicata|Lucania]] and [[Calabria|Bruttium]], as well as by the [[Mamertines]] in the Sicilian colony of Messana ([[Messina]]).

== Past usage ==
''Sabellic'' was originally the collective [[ethnonym]] of the [[Italic people]] who inhabited central and southern Italy at the time of [[Roman expansion]]. The name was later used by [[Theodor Mommsen]] in his ''Unteritalische Dialekte'' to describe the pre-Roman dialects of Central Italy that were neither Oscan nor Umbrian.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|wstitle=Sabellic|volume=23|page=963|inline=y}}</ref>

The term is currently used for the Osco-Umbrian languages as a whole. The word "Sabellic" was once applied to all such minor languages, Osco-Umbrian or not. [[North Picene language|North Picene]] was included, even though it remains unclear whether it is related.

== Classification ==
[[File:Linguistic Landscape of Central Italy.png|thumb|upright=1.7|Linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion]]
The Osco-Umbrian languages or dialects of which testimony is preserved are:<ref>Vetter, 1953; Adiego-Lajara, 1992; Rix, 2000.</ref>
*Oscan, with spoken languages in the southern central region of the Italian peninsula, which includes:
**[[Oscan language|Oscan]] is the best documented language of the group, along with other varieties that are poorly known and considered related to Oscan:
***[[Marrucini#Language|Marrucinian]]
***[[Paeligni#Language|Paeligni]]
*Umbrian, with languages spoken in the northern central region of the peninsula.
**[[Umbrian language|Umbrian]]
**[[Marsian language|Marsian]]
**[[Sabines#Language|Sabine]]
**[[Volscian language|Volscian]]
**[[Hernici#Language|Hernican]]
*Picene-Pre-Samnite
**[[South Picene language|South Picene]]
**[[Pre-Samnite language|Pre-Samnite]], a language documented in the south, but which seems to contain characteristics closer to South Picene than to Oscan.
*Unknown
**[[Aequian language|Aequian]]
**[[Vestinian language|Vestinian]] (Most likely Oscan, like their neighbors [[Paeligni]] and [[Marrucini]], whom the Vestini were closely connected with.)
Little-documented variants collectively known as "Sabellic dialects" are ascribed without much evidence to the two main groups. Some authors doubt such traditional classification, placing, for example, Aequian and Vestinian in opposite branches, instead of grouping them together.<ref>Coleman, 1986</ref>

== Linguistic description ==
The Osco-Umbrian languages were [[fusional language|fusional inflected languages]] with 7 different morphological cases in the singular of substantives, similar to those of [[Latin]].

=== Differences from Latin ===
Although the Osco-Umbrian languages are far more poorly attested than Latin, a corpus of a few thousand words' worth of inscriptions has allowed linguists to deduce some cladistic innovations and retentions. For example, while [[Proto-Indo-European]] aspirates appear as ''b'', ''d'' and ''h/g'' between vowels in Latin (''medius'' < ''*medʰyos''), the aspirates all appear in Sabellic as ''f'' (Oscan ''mefiai'' < ''*medʰyos''). In addition, while Latin retained the Proto-Indo-European labiovelar series ("Q-Italic"), the Osco-Umbrian languages merged them with the labials ("P-Italic"): Latin ''quattuor'', Oscan ''petora'' both 'four'.

== See also ==
{{portal|languages}}
*[[Italic peoples]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
*{{cite book|last=Villar|first=Francisco|author-link=:it:Francisco Villar|date=1997|title=Gli Indoeuropei e le origini dell'Europa|trans-title=Indo-Europeans and the origins of Europe|language=Italian|location=Bologna, Il Mulino|isbn=88-15-05708-0}}

==Further reading==
*Adams, Douglas Q., and James P. Mallory. 1997. "Italic languages." In ''The encyclopedia of Indo-European culture.'' Edited by James P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, 314–19. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn.
*[[Philip Baldi|Baldi, Philip]]. 2002. ''The foundations of Latin.'' Berlin: de Gruyter.
*Beeler, Madison S. 1952. "The relation of Latin and Osco-Umbrian." ''Language'' 28: 435–43.
*————. 1966. "The interrelationships within Italic." In ''Ancient Indo-European dialects: Proceedings of the Conference on Indo-European Linguistics held at the University of California, Los Angeles, April 25–27, 1963.'' Edited by Henrik Birnbaum and Jaan Puhvel, 51–58. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
* {{cite book|last=Buck |first=Carl Darling |date=1904 |title=A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian: with a Collection of Inscriptions and a Glossary |url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofoscanum00buckuoft |publication-place=Boston |publisher=Ginn & Company |oclc=1045590290}}
*Clackson, James. 2015. "Subgrouping in the Sabellian Branch of Indo‐European." ''Transactions of the Philological Society'' 113 (1): 4–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-968X.12034
*Coleman, Robert. 1986. "The Central Italic languages in the period of the Roman expansion." ''Transactions of the Philological Society'' 84(1): 100–131.
* Conway, Robert Seymour  1897. ''The Italic Dialects: Edited with a Grammar and Glossary''. 2 voll. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=h9LUmVntJoMC Vol. 1]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=4TnRAAAAMAAJ Vol. 2]
*de Vaan, Michiel. 2008. ''Etymological dictionary of Latin and the other Italic languages.'' Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 7. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
*Dupraz, Emmanuel. 2012. ''Sabellian Demonstratives: Forms and Functions.'' Leiden: Brill.
*Mercado, Angelo. 2012. ''Italic Verse: A Study of the Poetic Remains of Old Latin, Faliscan, and Sabellic.'' Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck.
*Middei, Edoardo. "[http://hdl.handle.net/11222.digilib/134634 Gli antroponimi sabellici in *-ai̭os e le basi onomastiche con morfo-struttura aCCa-] (Sabellian personal names with *-ai̭os and the onomastic bases with the morpho-structural pattern acca-). In: ''Graeco-Latina Brunensia''. 2015, vol. 20, iss. 2, pp. 105-121. {{ISSN|2336-4424}}
*Nishimura, Kanehiro. "Superlative Suffixes *-ismo- and *-isim̥mo in Sabellian Languages." Glotta 81 (2005): 160–83. www.jstor.org/stable/40267191.
* Planta, R. von 1892–1897.  ''Grammatik der oskisch-umbrischen Dialekte''. 2 voll. Strassburg: K. J. Trubner. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SnHRAAAAMAAJ Vol. 1]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=uFlNAQAAMAAJ Vol. 2]
*Poccetti, Paolo. "Lingue sabelliche". In: ''Palaeohispanica: revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua'' n. 20 (2020): pp.&nbsp;403–494. {{ISSN|1578-5386}} DOI: 10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.399
*Poultney, James. 1951. "Volscians and Umbrians." ''American Journal of Philology'' 72: 113–27.
*Tikkanen, Karin. 2009. ''A comparative grammar of Latin and the Sabellian languages: The system of case syntax.'' PhD diss., Uppsala Univ.
*Weiss, Michael L. 2010. ''Language and Ritual In Sabellic Italy: The Ritual Complex of the Third and the Fourth Tabulae Iguvinae.'' Leiden: Brill.
*Woodard, Roger D. 2008. ''The Ancient Languages of Europe.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

== External links ==
* "[https://www.prin-italia-antica.unifi.it/index.html?newlang=eng Languages and Cultures of Ancient Italy. Historical Linguistics and Digital Models]", Project fund by the Italian Ministry of University and Research (P.R.I.N. 2017)
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Sabini|volume=23|pages=965-966}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Osco-Umbrian languages
  |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

{{Italic languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Osco-Umbrian languages}}
[[Category:Osco-Umbrian languages| ]]