View source for Olive oil

{{Short description|Liquid fat made from olives}}
{{About||the [[Popeye]] character|Olive Oyl}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox oils
 |name=Olive oil
 |image=Oliven V1.jpg
 |imagesize=250px
 |caption=Extra virgin olive oil presented with green and black preserved table olives
 |composition=
  |water=
 |solids=
 |sterols=
 |fatcomposition=y
 |sat= [[Palmitic acid]]: 13.0%<br />[[Stearic acid]]: 1.5%
 |interster=
 |trans=
 |unsat=> 85%
 |monoun=[[Oleic acid]]: 70.0%<br />[[Palmitoleic acid]]: 0.3–3.5%
 |polyun=[[Linoleic acid]]: 15.0%<br />[[α-Linolenic acid]]: 0.5%
 |o3=
 |o6=
 |o9=
 |properties=y
 |energy_per_100g={{convert|3700|kJ|kcal|abbr=on}}
 |melt= {{convert|−6.0|°C|°F|abbr=on}}
 |boil= {{convert|299|°C|°F|abbr=on}}
 |smoke= {{convert|190–215|°C|°F|abbr=on}} (extra virgin)<ref name="sgray">{{cite journal |last=Gray |first=Sarah |s2cid=132454216 |title=Cooking with extra virgin olive oil |journal=ACNEM Journal |volume=34 |issue=2 |date=2015 |pages=8–12 }}</ref><br /> {{convert|215|°C|°F|abbr=on}} (virgin)<ref name="alzaa">{{cite journal |last1=De Alzaa |first1=F. |last2=Guillaume |first2=C. |last3=Ravetti |first3=L. |title=Evaluation of Chemical and Physical Changes in Different Commercial Oils during Heating |journal=Acta Scientific Nutritional Health |volume=2 |issue=6 |date=June 2018 |pages=2–11 |url=https://www.chhs.colostate.edu/krnc/monthly-blog/cooking-with-fats-and-oils/ |access-date=May 6, 2021 |archive-date=May 6, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506104931/https://www.chhs.colostate.edu/krnc/monthly-blog/cooking-with-fats-and-oils/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />{{convert|210|°C|°F|abbr=on}} (refined)
 |roomtemp=Liquid
 |sfi20=
 |sg20=0.911<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRDC5098497 |title=United States Department of Agriculture: "Grading Manual for Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil" |access-date=June 25, 2013 |archive-date=October 31, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031123925/http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRDC5098497 |url-status=dead }}</ref><!-- converted from "The density of olive oil at 20 degrees Celsius is 7.6 pounds per U.S. gallon" -->
 |visc20= 84&nbsp;[[Poise (unit)|cP]]
 |refract=1.4677–1.4705 (virgin and refined)<br />1.4680–1.4707 (pomace)
 |iodine=75–94 (virgin and refined)<br />75–92 (pomace)
 |acid =maximum: 6.6%{{Inconsistent|date=July 2019|reason=Why is this % so different? Does it comport with any citations??}} (refined and pomace)<br />0.8% (extra virgin)
 |aciddeg=
 |ph=
 |sapon=184–196 (virgin and refined)<br />182–193 (pomace)
 |peroxide= 20 (virgin)<br />10 (refined and pomace)
}}
{{Special characters}}

'''Olive oil''' is a [[vegetable oil]] obtained by pressing whole [[olive]]s (the fruit of ''[[Olea]] europaea'', a traditional [[Tree fruit|tree crop]] of the [[Mediterranean Basin]]) and extracting the oil.

It is commonly used in cooking for frying foods, as a [[condiment]], or as a [[salad dressing]]. It can also be found in some [[cosmetics]], [[pharmaceuticals]], [[soap]]s, and [[fuel]]s for traditional [[oil lamp]]s. It also has additional uses in some religions. The olive is one of three core food plants in [[Mediterranean cuisine]], with wheat and grapes. Olive trees have been cultivated around the Mediterranean since the 8th millennium BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dodd |first=Emlyn |date=2026 |title=The Archaeology of Olive Oil Production in Roman and Pre-Roman Italy |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/737823 |journal=[[American Journal of Archaeology]] |volume=130 |issue=1 |pages=115–151 |doi=10.1086/737823 |issn=0002-9114|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In 2022, Spain was the world's largest producer, manufacturing 24% of the world's total. Other large producers were Italy, Greece, and Turkey, collectively accounting for 59% of the global market.<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=Olive oil production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |year=2025 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) |access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref>

The composition of olive oil varies with the [[cultivar]], altitude, time of harvest, and extraction process. It consists mainly of [[oleic acid]] (up to 83%), with smaller amounts of other [[fatty acid]]s including [[linoleic acid]] (up to 21%) and [[palmitic acid]] (up to 20%). Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) is required to have no more than 0.8% [[Olive oil acidity|free acidity]], and is considered to have favorable flavor characteristics.<!--see Prosodol ref below-->

== History ==

Olive oil has long been a common ingredient in [[Mediterranean cuisine]], including [[ancient Greek cuisine|ancient Greek]] and [[cuisine of ancient Rome|Roman cuisine]]. Wild olives, which originated in [[Asia Minor]], were collected by [[Neolithic]] people as early as the 8th millennium BC.<ref name="Davidson, s.v. Olives">{{cite book|last=Davidson|first=Alan|year=1999|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-211579-0|at=''s.v.'' Olives}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/oliveWorld/olivo.html |title=International Olive Council |access-date=October 5, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026133432/http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/oliveWorld/olivo.html |archive-date=October 26, 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Besides food, olive oil has been used for religious [[ritual]]s, [[medicine]]s, as a [[fuel]] in [[oil lamp]]s, [[soap-making]], and skincare application.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dodd |first=Emlyn |date=2026 |title=The Archaeology of Olive Oil Production in Roman and Pre-Roman Italy |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/737823 |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=130 |issue=1 |pages=115–151 |doi=10.1086/737823 |issn=0002-9114|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Sparta]]ns and other Greeks used oil to rub themselves while exercising in the [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasia]]. From its beginnings early in the 7th century BC, the cosmetic use of olive oil quickly spread to all of the Hellenic city-states, together with athletes training in the nude, and lasted close to a thousand years despite its great expense.<ref>Scanlon, Thomas F. (2005). "The Dispersion of Pederasty and the Athletic Revolution in sixth-century BC Greece", in ''[[Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and in the Classical Tradition of the West]]'', ed. B.C. Verstraete and V. Provençal, Harrington Park Press.</ref><ref>Kennell, Nigel M. "Most Necessary for the Bodies of Men: Olive Oil and its By-products in the Later Greek Gymnasium" in Mark Joyal (ed.), ''In Altum: Seventy-Five Years of Classical Studies in Newfoundland'', 2001; popis pp. 119–133.</ref> Olive oil was also popular as a form of birth control; [[Aristotle]] in his ''[[History of Animals]]'' recommends applying a mixture of olive oil combined with either oil of [[cedrus|cedar]], ointment of [[lead]], or ointment of [[frankincense]] to the [[cervix]] to prevent pregnancy.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Medical History of Contraception|author=Himes, Norman E.| publisher=Gamut Press| year=1963|pages=86–87}}</ref>

=== Early cultivation ===
[[File:Klazomenai.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Ancient Greek olive oil production workshop in [[Klazomenai]], [[Ionia]] (modern Turkey)]]

The exact date and location of olive tree domestication are unclear. The modern olive tree may have originated in ancient Persia and [[Mesopotamia]] and spread to the [[Levant]] and later to [[North Africa]], though some scholars argue for an Egyptian origin.<ref name=review>{{cite journal |last1=Kapellakis |first1=Iosif Emmanouil |s2cid=84992505 |title=Olive oil history, production and by-product management |journal=Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology |date=2008 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1007/s11157-007-9120-9|bibcode=2008RESBT...7....1K }}</ref>

The oldest traces of olive oil in [[Italy]] date back to the [[3rd millennium BC]].<ref>https://www.cittadellolio.it/2019/08/05/a-noto-un-olio-doliva-di-4-000-anni-fa/#:~:text=L%27olio%20d%27oliva%20più,mai%20rinvenuta%20finora%20in%20Italia».</ref> The olive tree reached Greece, [[Carthage]] and [[Libya]] sometime in the [[28th century BC]], having been spread westward by the [[Phoenicians]].<ref name=review/> Until around 1500 BC, eastern coastal areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} Evidence also suggests that olives were being grown in [[Crete]] as long ago as 2500 BC. The earliest surviving olive oil [[amphora]]e date to 3500 BC ([[Early Minoan]] times), though the production of olive oil is assumed to have started before 4000 BC.<ref>Foley, B. P.; Hansson, M. C.; Kourkoumelis, D. P.; & Theodoulou, T. A. (2012). "Aspects of ancient Greek trade re-evaluated with amphora DNA evidence". ''Journal of Archaeological Science'', 39(2), 389-398.</ref> Olive trees were certainly cultivated by the [[Late Minoan]] period (1500 BC) in Crete, and perhaps as early as the Early Minoan.<ref>Riley, F. R. "Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties, Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil". ''Oxford Journal of Archaeology'' '''21''':1:63–75 (2002).</ref> The cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the island's economy, as it did across the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hadjisavvas |first1=Sophocles |last2=Chaniotis |first2=Angelos |date=2012 |title=Wine and olive oil in Crete and Cyprus: socio-economic aspects |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23541207 |journal=British School at Athens Studies |volume=20 |pages=157–173 |jstor=23541207 |issn=2159-4996}}</ref> Later, as Greek colonies were established in other parts of the Mediterranean, olive farming was introduced to places like [[Spain]] and continued to spread throughout the [[Roman Empire]].<ref name=review/>

Olive trees were introduced to the [[Americas]] in the 16th century, when cultivation began in areas with a climate similar to the Mediterranean, such as Chile, Argentina, and [[California]].<ref name=review/>

Recent [[genetic studies]] suggest that species used by modern cultivars descend from multiple wild populations, but detailed history of domestication is unknown.<ref>Besnarda, Guillaume; André Bervillé, "Multiple origins for Mediterranean olive (''Olea europaea'' L. ssp. ''europaea'') based upon mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms", ''Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences – Series III – Sciences de la Vie'' '''323''':2:173–181 (February 2000); Breton, Catherine; Michel Tersac and André Bervillé, "Genetic diversity and gene flow between the wild olive (oleaster, ''Olea europaea'' L.) and the olive: several Plio-Pleistocene refuge zones in the Mediterranean basin suggested by simple sequence repeats analysis", ''Journal of Biogeography'' '''33''':11:1916 (November 2006).</ref>

=== Trade and production ===
[[File:Turkey.Bodrum042.jpg|thumb|Ancient oil press (Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum, Turkey)]]

[[Archaeological evidence]] in [[Galilee]] shows that by 6000 BC olives were being turned into olive oil<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium-8-000-year-old-olive-oil-found-in-galilee-1.5347955|author=Schuster, Ruth|date=17 December 2014|title=8,000-year old olive oil found in Galilee, earliest known in world|newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=17 December 2014|archive-date=February 7, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207222735/https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium-8-000-year-old-olive-oil-found-in-galilee-1.5347955|url-status=dead}}</ref> and in 4500 BC at a now-submerged prehistoric settlement south of [[Haifa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Galili |first1=Ehud |last2=Stanley |first2=Daniel Jean |last3=Sharvit |first3=Jacob |last4=Weinstein-Evron |first4=Mina |title=Evidence for Earliest Olive-Oil Production in Submerged Settlements off the Carmel Coast, Israel |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |date=December 1997 |volume=24 |issue=12 |pages=1141–1150 |doi=10.1006/jasc.1997.0193|bibcode=1997JArSc..24.1141G }}</ref>

Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state [[Ebla]] (2600–2240 BC), which were located on the outskirts of [[Aleppo]]. Here, some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe the lands of the king and the queen. These belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in the [[Tanakh]].<ref name="ucsc1">{{cite web|url=http://history.ucsc.edu/undergraduate/undergraduate-research/electronic-journal/journal-pdfs/Brown_2011.pdf|title=By the Rivers of Babylon: The Near Eastern Background and Influence on the Power Structures Ancient Israel and Judah|author=Brown, Nathaniel R.|publisher=history.ucsc.edu|date=June 11, 2011|access-date=July 30, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810141555/http://history.ucsc.edu/undergraduate/undergraduate-research/electronic-journal/journal-pdfs/Brown_2011.pdf|archive-date=August 10, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Dynastic [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] before 2000&nbsp;BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria, and [[Canaan]], and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth. Remains of olive oil have been found in jugs over 4,000 years old in a tomb on the island of [[Naxos]] in the [[Aegean Sea]]. [[Sinuhe]], the Egyptian exile who lived in northern Canaan c.1960&nbsp;BC, wrote of abundant olive trees.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/sinuhe.htm |last1=Gardiner |first1=Alan H. |year=1916 |title=Notes on the Story of Sinuhe |publisher=Librairie Honoré Champion |location=Paris |access-date=December 28, 2008 |archive-date=April 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402003751/http://reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/sinuhe.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Minoans used olive oil in religious ceremonies. The oil became a principal product of the [[Minoan civilization]], where it is thought to have represented wealth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Riley |first=F.R. |date=February 1, 2002 |title=Olive oil production on bronze age Crete: nutritional properties, processing methods and storage life of Minoan olive oil |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-0092.00149 |journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology |language=en |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=63–75 |doi=10.1111/1468-0092.00149 |issn=0262-5253|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Olive oil was also a major export of [[Mycenaean Greece]] (c. 1450–1150 BC).<ref>{{cite book|last=Castleden|first=Rodney|title=The Mycenaeans|year=2005|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-36336-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kfi0dAlfJaoC|page=107|quote=Huge quantities of olive oil were produced and it must have been a major source of wealth. The simple fact that southern Greece is far more suitable climatically for olive production may explain why the Mycenaean civilization made far greater advances in the south than in the north. The oil had a variety of uses, in cooking, as a dressing, as soap, as lamp oil, and as a base for manufacturing unguents.|access-date=April 3, 2016|archive-date=January 15, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115132907/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kfi0dAlfJaoC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=review/> Scholars believe the oil was made by a process where olives were placed in [[woven mat]]s and squeezed. The oil was collected in vats. This process was known from the [[Bronze Age]], was used by the Egyptians, and continued to be used through the [[Hellenistic period]].<ref name=review/> In the Iron Age, settlements in and around the [[Judaean Foothills|Judaean Lowlands]], including [[Ekron]], [[Timnah]], and [[Gezer]], emerged as key hubs for olive oil production and commerce.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |last=Shafer-Elliott |first=Cynthia |title=Fruits, Nuts, Vegetables, and Legumes |date=2022 |work=T&T Clark Handbook of Food in the Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel |pages=144 |editor-last=Fu |editor-first=Janling |url=https://www.bloomsburyfoodlibrary.com/encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9780567679826&tocid=b-9780567679826-chapter8 |access-date=2025-07-27 |series=T&T Clark Handbooks |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=T&T Clark |language=en |isbn=978-0-567-67982-6 |editor2-last=Shafer-Elliott |editor2-first=Cynthia |editor3-last=Meyers |editor3-first=Carol}}</ref> Evidence from the [[Samaria Ostraca|Samaria ostraca]], discovered in the capital of the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]], includes a reference to "washed oil," a term believed to refer to virgin olive oil.<ref name=":2" />

[[File:Olive Press in Pompeji.JPG|thumb|left|Olive crusher ''(trapetum)'' in Pompeii (79 AD)]]
The importance of olive oil as a commercial commodity increased after the Roman conquest of Egypt, Greece, and Asia Minor, which led to more trade along the Mediterranean. Olive trees were planted throughout the entire Mediterranean basin during the evolution of the [[Roman Republic]] and [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. According to the historian [[Pliny the Elder]], Italy had "excellent olive oil at reasonable prices" by the 1st century AD—"the best in the Mediterranean".{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} As olive production expanded in the 5th century AD the Romans began to employ more sophisticated production techniques such as the [[olive press]] and ''trapetum'' (pictured left).<ref name=review/> Many ancient presses still exist in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and some dating to the Roman period are still used today.<ref name="ceipac ub">{{cite journal |last1=Blázquez |first1=J. M. |title=The Latest Work on the Export of Baetican Olive Oil to Rome and the Army |journal=Greece and Rome |date=October 1992 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=173–188 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500024153 }}</ref> Productivity was greatly improved by Joseph Graham's development of the [[hydraulic]] pressing system in 1795.<ref name=review/>

Olive oil may have been produced as early as the Bronze Age in Italy, though this intensified throughout the first millennium BCE and into the Roman period. Some of the earliest evidence of rotary olive mills for the production of olive oil have been found in southern Italy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dodd |first=Emlyn |date=2026 |title=The Archaeology of Olive Oil Production in Roman and Pre-Roman Italy |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/737823 |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=130 |issue=1 |pages=115–151 |doi=10.1086/737823 |issn=0002-9114|doi-access=free }}</ref> The importance of olive oil as a commercial commodity increased through the Roman Republic and Empire. According to the historian [[Pliny the Elder]], Italy had "excellent olive oil at reasonable prices" by the 1st century AD—"the best in the Mediterranean".{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} More sophisticated production techniques such as the [[olive press]] and ''trapetum'' (pictured left) became increasingly widespread throughout the Imperial era, and eventually screw presses were commonly used to produce olive oil from Spain to the eastern Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dodd |first=Emlyn |last2=Limbergen |first2=Dimitri Van |date=2024-01-01 |title=The ‘Place’ of Urban Wineries and Oileries in the Greek and Roman World |url=https://www.brepolsonline.net/content/journals/10.1484/J.JUA.5.137202 |journal=Journal of Urban Archaeology |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=81–108 |doi=10.1484/J.JUA.5.137202 |issn=2736-2426|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="review" /> Many ancient presses still exist in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and some dating to the Roman period are still used today.<ref name="ceipac ub">{{cite journal |last1=Blázquez |first1=J. M. |title=The Latest Work on the Export of Baetican Olive Oil to Rome and the Army |journal=Greece and Rome |date=October 1992 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=173–188 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500024153 }}</ref> Productivity was greatly improved by Joseph Graham's development of the [[hydraulic]] pressing system in 1795.<ref name="review" />

[[File:The Manufacture of Oil drawn and engraved by J Amman in the Sixteenth Century.png|thumb|upright|''The Manufacture of Oil'', 16th-century engraving by [[Jost Amman]]]]

=== Symbolism and mythology ===
The olive tree has historically been a symbol of peace between nations. It has played a religious and social role in [[Greek mythology]], especially concerning the city of [[Ancient Athens|Athens]], named after the goddess [[Athena]] because her gift of an olive tree was held to be more precious than rival [[Poseidon]]'s gift of a salt spring.<ref name=review/>

== Varieties ==
{{Main article|List of olive cultivars}}

There are many [[List of olive cultivars|olive cultivars]], each with a particular flavor, texture, and shelf life that make them more or less suitable for different applications, such as direct human consumption on bread or in salads, indirect consumption in domestic cooking or catering, or industrial uses such as animal feed or engineering applications.<ref name="ucdavis1">{{cite web|url=http://oliveoil.ucdavis.edu/research/files/OliveOilWasteManagementtablenopatents.pdf|title=Olive Processing Waste Management: Summary|author=Nicole Sturzenberger|publisher=oliveoil.ucdavis.edu|date=2007|access-date=July 30, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808050118/http://oliveoil.ucdavis.edu/research/files/OliveOilWasteManagementtablenopatents.pdf|archive-date=August 8, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> During the stages of maturity, olive fruit changes color from green to violet, and then black. Olive oil taste characteristics depend on the stage of ripeness at which olive fruits are collected.<ref name=ucdavis1/>

== Uses ==
=== Culinary use ===
[[File:Vinegar & Oil.JPG|right|thumb|[[Vinegar]] and olive oil]]
[[File:Artisan_bread_with_olive_oil_and_salt.jpg|thumb|Olive oil served with bread]]
Olive oil is an important [[cooking oil]] in countries surrounding the Mediterranean, and it forms one of the three staple food plants of [[Mediterranean cuisine]], the other two being wheat (as in [[pasta]], bread, and [[couscous]]), and the [[grape]], used as a dessert fruit and for wine.<ref>{{cite book |last=Essid |first=Mohamed Yassine |chapter=Chapter 2. History of Mediterranean Food |title=MediTerra: The Mediterranean Diet for Sustainable Regional Development |publisher=Presses de Sciences Po |date=2012 |isbn=978-2724612486 |pages=51–69 |url=http://www.cairn.info/mediterra-2012-english--9782724612486-page-51.htm |access-date=May 12, 2016 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511090115/https://www.cairn.info/mediterra-2012-english--9782724612486-page-51.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Extra virgin olive oil is mostly used raw as a condiment and as an ingredient in [[salad dressings]]. If uncompromised by heat, the flavor is stronger. It can also be used for [[sautéing]].

When extra virgin olive oil is heated above {{convert|210|-|216|C|F|abbr=on}}, depending on its free fatty acid content, the unrefined particles within the oil are burned. This leads to a deteriorated taste. Refined olive oils are suited for [[deep frying]] because of the higher [[smoke point]] and milder flavour.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.accc.gov.au/consumers/groceries/olive-oil|title=Olive oil: ''Refined olive oils''|website=www.accc.gov.au|access-date=July 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719084013/https://www.accc.gov.au/consumers/groceries/olive-oil|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Extra virgin oils have a smoke point around {{convert|180|–|215|C}},<ref name="sgray" /> with higher-quality oils having a higher smoke point,<ref>{{Cite book|title=The extra virgin olive oil handbook|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|year=2014|isbn=9781118460436|editor-last=Peri|editor-first=Claudio|location=Chichester, West Sussex, UK|pages=356|oclc=861120215}}</ref> whereas refined light olive oil has a smoke point up to {{convert|230|C}}.<ref name="sgray" /> That they can be used for deep frying is contrary to the [[common misconception]] that there are no olive oils with a smoke point as high as many other [[vegetable oil]]s. In the misconception, heating at these high temperatures is theorised to impact taste or nutrition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gritzer |first=Daniel |date=May 15, 2023 |title=Cooking With Olive Oil: Should You Fry and Sear in It or Not? |url=https://www.seriouseats.com/cooking-with-olive-oil-faq-safety-flavor |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518234258/https://www.seriouseats.com/cooking-with-olive-oil-faq-safety-flavor |archive-date=May 18, 2024 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |website=[[Serious Eats]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=McManus |first=Lisa |date=August 2, 2023 |title=Olive Oil 101: How to Shop |url=https://www.americastestkitchen.com/guides/7395-olive-oil-101 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330062043/https://www.americastestkitchen.com/guides/7395-olive-oil-101 |archive-date=March 30, 2024 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |website=[[America's Test Kitchen]]}}</ref>

=== Religious use ===

==== Christianity ====
The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican churches use olive oil for the [[oil of catechumens]] (used to bless and strengthen those preparing for baptism) and oil of the sick (used to confer the Sacrament of [[Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church|anointing of the sick]] or extreme unction). Olive oil mixed with a perfuming agent such as [[Balsam of Mecca|balsam]] is [[consecrated]] by [[bishop]]s as sacred [[chrism]], which is used to confer the sacrament of [[confirmation]] (as a symbol of the strengthening of the Holy Spirit), in the rites of [[baptism]] and the [[Holy Orders|ordination]] of [[priest]]s and bishops, in the consecration of [[altar]]s and [[Church (building)|churches]], and, traditionally, in the anointing of monarchs at their [[coronation]].

[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christians]] still use oil lamps in their churches, home prayer corners, and cemeteries. A vigil lamp consists of a votive glass filled with olive oil, floating on a half-inch of water. The glass has a metal holder that hangs from a bracket on the wall or sits on a table. A cork float with a lit wick floats on the oil. To douse the flame, the float is carefully pressed down into the oil. Makeshift oil lamps can easily be made by soaking a cotton ball in olive oil and forming it into a peak. The peak is lit and then burns until all the oil is consumed, whereupon the rest of the cotton burns out. Olive oil is a usual offering to churches and cemeteries.

[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] uses virgin olive oil that the priesthood has blessed for anointing the sick.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/2010/04/healing-the-sick?lang=eng|title=Healing the Sick|first=Dallin H.|last=Oaks|website=ChurchofJesusChrist.org|access-date=July 16, 2019|archive-date=August 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828030230/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/2010/04/healing-the-sick?lang=eng|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Judaism ====
In [[Jewish]] observance, olive oil was the only fuel allowed to be used in the seven-branched [[Menorah (Temple)|menorah]] in the [[Mishkan]] service during [[the Exodus]] of the [[Tribes of Israel]] from [[Biblical Egypt|Egypt]], and later in the permanent [[Temple in Jerusalem]]. It was obtained by using only the first drop from a squeezed olive and consecrated for use only in the Temple by the priests and stored in special containers. In modern times, although candles can be used to light the [[Menorah (Hanukkah)|menorah at Hanukkah]], oil containers are preferred to imitate the original menorah.<ref>[[Babylonian Talmud]], ''[[Menachot]]'' 85b</ref>

In Judaism of Ancient Israel, olive oil was also used to prepare the [[holy anointing oil]] used for priests, kings, prophets, and others.<ref>Eisenberg, Ronald L. ''Dictionary of Jewish Terms: A Guide to the Language of Judaism'', {{isbn|1589797299}}, 2011, p. 299.</ref>

=== Other ===

Olive oil is also a natural and safe [[lubricant]], and can be used to lubricate kitchen machinery (grinders, blenders, cookware, etc.). It can also be used for illumination (oil lamps) or as the base for soaps and detergents.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.floridaconcerts.org/soap-making-the-old-way-with-wood-ash.htm |title=Soap Making from Scratch Workshop |access-date=November 23, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131120000533/http://www.floridaconcerts.org/soap-making-the-old-way-with-wood-ash.htm |archive-date=November 20, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some cosmetics also use olive oil as their base,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esenciadeolivo.es/en/the-culture-of-the-olive-tree/products/ |title=The olive essence |access-date=November 23, 2013 |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203022024/http://www.esenciadeolivo.es/en/the-culture-of-the-olive-tree/products/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and it can be used as a substitute for machine oil.<ref name="smith1">{{cite web|url=http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/hsc07b.htm|title=Castile Olive Oil Soap, Spain, 2000 BCE|publisher=smith.edu|access-date=July 30, 2014|archive-date=July 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719233255/https://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/hsc07b.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="uidaho1">{{cite web|url=http://webpages.uidaho.edu/chem276/files/7%20-%20synthesis%20of%20soap.pdf|title=Synthesis of Soap from Olive Oil|publisher=webpages.uidaho.edu|date=2010|access-date=July 30, 2014|archive-date=July 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719173446/http://webpages.uidaho.edu/chem276/files/7%20-%20synthesis%20of%20soap.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ucanr">{{cite web|url=http://ucanr.edu/?story=79|title=California olive oil is worth the splurge|publisher=ucanr.edu (Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources)|access-date=July 30, 2014|archive-date=July 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719173608/http://ucanr.edu/?story=79|url-status=live}}</ref> Olive oil has also been used as both solvent and ligand in the synthesis of cadmium selenide [[quantum dot]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sapra |first1=Sameer |last2=Rogach |first2=Andrey L. |last3=Feldmann |first3=Jochen |title=Phosphine-free synthesis of monodisperse CdSe nanocrystals in olive oil |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry |date=2006 |volume=16 |issue=33 |pages=3391 |doi=10.1039/B607022A }}</ref>

The [[Ranieri Filo della Torre]] is an international literary prize for writings about extra virgin olive oil. It yearly honors poetry, fiction, and non-fiction about extra virgin olive oil.

== Extraction ==
{{Main article|Olive oil extraction}}
{{more citations needed section|date=June 2016}}
[[File:Cold press olive oil machine at Saba Habib in Israel 2.jpg|thumb|A cold press olive oil machine in [[Israel]]]]
[[File:Frantoio Maraldi 2.JPG|thumb|Olive oil mill]]
Olive oil is produced by grinding olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical means. Green olives usually produce more bitter oil, and overripe olives can produce oil with fermentation defects, so for good olive oil, care is taken to ensure the olives are perfectly ripe. The process is generally as follows:

# The olives are ground into paste using large millstones (traditional method), hammer, blade, or disk mill (modern method).
# If ground with millstones, the olive paste generally stays under the stones for 30 to 40 minutes. A shorter grinding process may result in a more raw paste that produces less oil and has a less ripe taste; a longer process may increase oxidation of the paste and reduce the flavor. After grinding, the olive paste is spread on fiber disks, which are stacked on top of each other in a column, then placed into the press. Pressure is then applied to the column to separate the vegetal liquid from the paste. This liquid still contains a significant amount of water. Traditionally, the oil was shed from the water by gravity (oil is less dense than water). This very slow separation process has been replaced by centrifugation, which is much faster and more thorough. The centrifuges have one exit for the (heavier) watery part and one for the oil. Olive oil should not contain significant traces of vegetal water, as this accelerates the process of organic degeneration by microorganisms. The separation in smaller oil mills is not always perfect; thus, a small watery deposit containing organic particles can be found at the bottom of oil bottles.
# Modern grinders reduce the olives to paste in seconds. After grinding, the paste is stirred slowly for another 20 to 30 minutes in a particular container (malaxation), where the microscopic oil drops aggregate into larger drops, facilitating the mechanical extraction. The paste is then pressed by centrifugation/ the water is thereafter separated from the oil in a second centrifugation as described before.<p>The oil produced by only physical (mechanical) means as described above is called virgin oil.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-04|title=What's the Difference Between Extra Virgin & Regular Olive Oil?|url=https://www.oliveoil.com/whats-the-difference-extra-virgin-vs-regular-olive-oil/|access-date=2021-05-24|website=OliveOil.com|language=en|archive-date=May 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524220527/https://www.oliveoil.com/whats-the-difference-extra-virgin-vs-regular-olive-oil/|url-status=live}}</ref> Extra virgin olive oil is virgin olive oil that satisfies specific high chemical and [[organoleptic]] criteria (low free acidity, no or very little organoleptic defects). A higher grade extra virgin olive oil is mostly dependent on favourable weather conditions; a drought during the flowering phase, for example, can result in a lower quality (virgin) oil. Olive trees produce well every couple of years, so greater harvests occur in alternate years (the year in between is when the tree yields less). However, the quality is still dependent on the weather.</p>
# Sometimes the produced oil will be filtered to eliminate remaining solid particles that may reduce the shelf life of the product. Labels may indicate the fact that the oil has ''not'' been filtered, suggesting a different taste. Fresh [[unfiltered olive oil]] usually has a slightly cloudy appearance, and is therefore sometimes called ''cloudy olive oil''. This form of olive oil used to be popular only among small-scale producers but is now becoming "trendy", in line with consumers' demand for products perceived to be less processed. But generally, if not tasted or consumed soon after production, filtered olive oil should be preferred: "Some producers maintain that extra-virgin olive oils do not need filtration but also that filtration is detrimental to oil quality. This point of view should be considered erroneous and probably the result of the improper implementation of this operation. In fact, fine particles that are suspended in a virgin olive oil, even after the most effective centrifugal finishing, contain water and enzymes that may impair oil stability and ruin its sensory profile.&nbsp;... Filtration makes an extra-virgin olive oil more stable and also more attractive. If the suspended particles are not removed, they slowly agglomerate and flocculate, forming a deposit on the bottom of the storage containers. Such a deposit continues to be at risk of enzymatic spoilage and, in the worst case, of the development of anaerobic micro-organisms with further spoilage and hygienic risk.&nbsp;... It is&nbsp;... recommended that filtration be carried out as soon as possible after centrifugal separation and finishing."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The extra-virgin olive oil handbook|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2014|isbn=9781118460450|editor-last=Peri|editor-first=Claudio|location=Chichester, West Sussex, UK|pages=155–156|oclc=908158600}}</ref>

===Ancient Levant===
In the ancient [[Levant]], three methods were used to produce different grades of olive oil.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mishnah |editor-last1=Danby|editor-first1=H. |editor-link1=Herbert Danby |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |place=Oxford |year=1933 |at=8:4 (p. 502) |chapter=Menahoth |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DanbyMishnah/page/n531/mode/1up |isbn=0-19-815402-X |title-link=Mishnah }}</ref> The finest oil was produced from fully developed and ripe olives harvested solely from the apex of the tree,<ref name= "ZAmar2015">{{cite book |last=Amar |first=Z. |author-link=Zohar Amar |title=Flora and Fauna in Maimonides' Teachings |oclc=783455868|location=Kfar Darom|year=2015 |page=73 |language=he}}</ref> and lightly pressed, "for what flows from light pressure is very sweet and very thin".<ref name= "Geoponica1805">{{cite book|translator-last=Owen |translator-first=T. |translator-link=Thomas Owen (priest) |title=Geoponika – Agricultural Pursuits|volume=1 |date=1805|publisher=University of Oxford|location=London |language=en |url=https://archive.org/details/Geoponica01/page/n13/mode/1up |pages=[https://archive.org/details/Geoponica01/page/n324/mode/1up 288–289]}}</ref> The remaining olives are pressed with a heavier weight,<ref name= "Geoponica1805" /> and vary in ripeness.<ref name= "ZAmar2015" /> Inferior oil is produced from unripe olives that are stored for extended periods until they grow soft or begin to shrivel to become more fit for grinding.<ref>Cf. {{cite book |title=The Mishnah |editor-last1=Danby|editor-first1=H. |editor-link1=Herbert Danby |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |place=Oxford |year=1933|at=9:5 (p. 729) |chapter=Tohoroth |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DanbyMishnah/page/n758/mode/1up |isbn=0-19-815402-X |title-link=Mishnah }}</ref> Others are left for extended periods in pits in the ground to induce sweating and decay before they are ground.<ref>{{cite book |last=Amar |first=Z. |author-link=Zohar Amar|title=Flora and Fauna in Maimonides' Teachings |oclc=783455868 |location=Kfar Darom |year=2015 |page=74 |language=he}} s.v. [[Mishnah]] ''Tohoroth'' 9:1 ([[Maimonides]]' commentary)</ref> According to the ''[[Geoponica]]'', salt and a little [[nitre]] are added when oil is stored.<ref name= "Geoponica1805" />

In countries of the levant, a sharp-tasting green oil was sometimes extracted from unripe olives, known in medieval times as ''anpeqinon''{{verify inline|reason=This doesn't look right: medieval Greek didn't have qoppa, Latin always followed q with u, no ghits other than this page|date=July 2024}} ({{langx|grc|ὀμφάκιον, ὀμφάχινον}}; {{langx|ar|زيت الأنفاق}}), being a corruption of the [[Latin]] words {{lang|la|oleum omphacium}} and used in cuisine and in medicine.<ref name="RFrankel1994">{{cite book |last=Frankel |first=Rafael |contribution=Ancient Oil Mills and Presses in the Land of Israel |title=History and Technology of Olive Oil in the Holy Land|editor=Etan Ayalon|translator-first=Jay C. |translator-last=Jacobson |publisher=Eretz Israel Museum and Oléarus editions |location=Tel Aviv, Israel |year=1994 |page=23 |language=en |isbn=0-917526-06-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=Kitāb Aḥsan at-taqāsīm fī maʻrifat al-aqālīm |trans-title=The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions |last=Mukaddasi |author-link=Al-Muqaddasi |editor-first=M. J. |editor-last=de Goeje |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |year=1906 |page=181 |language=ar |oclc=313566614 |orig-year=3rd edition 1967}}{{clarify inline|reason=Which edition is the page number from?|date=July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Amar|first1=Z.|author-link1=Zohar Amar|last2=Serri|first2=Yaron|year=2004|title=The Land of Israel and Syria as Described by al-Tamimi – Jerusalem Physician of the 10th Century|location=Ramat-Gan|page=78 |language=he|isbn=965-226-252-8 |oclc=607157392}} Cf. [[Babylonian Talmud]], ''[[Menahot]]'' 86a, where it says that the olives used to produce this kind of oil had not reached one-third of their natural stage of ripeness, and that it was used principally as a [[depilatory]] and to flavor meat.</ref> Today, this oil is called "virgin oil" in English.<ref name="RFrankel1994"/>

===Pomace handling===

The remaining semi-solid waste, called [[pomace]], retains a small quantity (about 5–10%) of oil that cannot be extracted by further pressing, but only with chemical solvents. This is done in specialized chemical plants, not in the oil mills. The resulting oil is named [[pomace oil]].<ref name=Berbel/> Even in the ancient Roman period, pomace was commonly used as a domestic and industrial fuel source, burning at a high temperature for longer and with less smoke than charcoal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dodd |first=Emlyn |date=2026 |title=The Archaeology of Olive Oil Production in Roman and Pre-Roman Italy |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/737823 |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=130 |issue=1 |pages=115–151 |doi=10.1086/737823 |issn=0002-9114|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Handling of olive waste is an environmental challenge because the [[wastewater]], which amounts to millions of tons (billions of liters) annually in the [[European Union]], has low [[biodegradability]], is [[toxic]] to plants, and cannot be processed through conventional water treatment systems.<ref name="Berbel">{{cite journal | last1=Berbel | first1=Julio | last2=Posadillo | first2=Alejandro | title=Review and Analysis of Alternatives for the Valorisation of Agro-Industrial Olive Oil By-Products | journal=Sustainability | volume=10 | issue=1 | date=17 January 2018 | issn=2071-1050 | doi=10.3390/su10010237 | page=237| bibcode=2018Sust...10..237B | doi-access=free | hdl=10396/17426 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> Traditionally, olive pomace would be used as [[compost]] or developed as a possible [[biofuel]], although these uses introduce concern due to chemicals present in the pomace.<ref name=Berbel/> A process called "valorization" of olive pomace is under research and development, consisting of additional processing to obtain value-added [[byproduct]]s, such as [[animal feed]], [[food additive]]s for human products, and [[polyphenol|phenolic]] and [[fatty acid]] [[extract]]s for potential human use.<ref name=Berbel/>

==Global market==
=== Production ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:center; width:13em;"
|+ Olive oil production<br>{{small|2022, tonnes}}<br/>
|-
| {{ESP}} || 665,709
|-
| {{ITA}} || 331,038
|-
| {{GRE}} || 313,300
|-
| {{TUR}} || 302,400
|-
| {{TUN}} || 235,200
|-
| {{SYR}} || 189,423
|-
| {{MOR}} || 181,500
|-
| {{POR}} || 137,753
|-
| {{center|'''World'''}}|| '''2,743,216'''
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the United Nations}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=Olive oil production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |year=2025 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) |access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref>
|}

In 2022, world production of olive oil was 2.7 million [[tonne]]s, led by Spain with 24% of the total (table). Other major producers were Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Tunisia (table). 

[[Villacarrillo]], [[Province of Jaén (Spain)|Jaén]], [[Andalucía]], Spain, is a center of olive oil production. Spain's olive oil production derives 75% from the region of [[Andalucía]], particularly within [[Province of Jaén (Spain)|Jaén province]] which produces 70% of the olive oil in Spain.<ref name=Villacarrillo/> The world's largest olive oil [[Mill (grinding)|mill]] (''almazara'', in Spanish), capable of processing 2,500 tonnes of olives per day, is in the town of [[Villacarrillo]], Jaén.<ref name="Villacarrillo">{{cite web|author=Vivante, Lucy|title=Gruppo Pieralisi Powers World's Largest Olive Oil Mill in Jaén|url=http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-business/europe/worlds-largest-olive-oil-mill-jaen/21330|work=Olive Oil Times|date=2 November 2011|access-date=9 November 2015|archive-date=November 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015237/http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-business/europe/worlds-largest-olive-oil-mill-jaen/21330|url-status=live}}</ref> 

Italian major producers are the regions of [[Calabria]] and, above all, [[Apulia]]. Many PDO and PGI extra-virgin olive oils are produced in these regions. Extra-virgin olive oil is also produced in [[Tuscany]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.discovertuscany.com/typical-products-of-tuscany/the-tuscan-extra-virgin-olive-oil.html|title=Tuscan Extra Virgin Olive Oil: A Product of Excellence|website=www.discovertuscany.com|language=en|access-date=2018-07-30|archive-date=July 30, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730140447/https://www.discovertuscany.com/typical-products-of-tuscany/the-tuscan-extra-virgin-olive-oil.html|url-status=live}}</ref> in cities including [[Lucca]], [[Florence]], and [[Siena]], which are also included in the association of Città dell'Olio.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cittadellolio.it/citta-dell-olio/|title=Associazione Nazionale Città dell'Olio – Citta dell'olio|access-date=2018-07-30|archive-date=July 30, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730140419/http://www.cittadellolio.it/citta-dell-olio/|url-status=live}}</ref> Italy imports about 65% of Spanish olive oil exports.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.elconfidencial.com/economia/2013-02-10/la-marca-italia-se-queda-con-el-aceite-espanol_252186/|title=La marca Italia se queda con el aceite español. Noticias de Economía|work=El Confidencial|access-date=2017-10-19|language=es|archive-date=October 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019163506/https://www.elconfidencial.com/economia/2013-02-10/la-marca-italia-se-queda-con-el-aceite-espanol_252186/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Global consumption ===
Greece has the highest per capita consumption of olive oil worldwide, around 24&nbsp;liters per year.<ref name="DeAndreis">{{cite web |title=Olive Oil Consumption |website=North American Olive Oil Association |url=https://www.aboutoliveoil.org/olive-oil-consumption |access-date=6 April 2023 |archive-date=April 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406121242/https://www.aboutoliveoil.org/olive-oil-consumption |url-status=live }}</ref> Consumption in Spain is 15&nbsp;liters; Italy 13&nbsp;liters;<ref name="DeAndreis"/> and Syria, around 3&nbsp;liters.<ref name="SyriaConsumption">{{Cite web |title=International Olive Council | website=International Olive Oil - 16 April 2025| url=https://www.internationaloliveoil.org/olive-sector-statistics-march-2025/ | access-date=29 September 2025 }}</ref> Canada consumes 1.5&nbsp;liters and the US 1&nbsp;liter.<ref name="DeAndreis"/>

== Regulation ==
{{Main article|Olive oil regulation and adulteration}}

The [[International Olive Council]] (IOC) is an intergovernmental organisation of states that produce olives or products derived from olives, such as olive oil. The IOC officially governs 95% of international production and influences the rest. The EU regulates the use of different [[protected designation of origin]] labels for olive oils.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/olive-oil-varieties/pdo-pgi-tsg/2238|title=Olive Oil Times|access-date=September 13, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021200501/http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/olive-oil-varieties/pdo-pgi-tsg/2238|archive-date=October 21, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The United States is not a member of the IOC and is not subject to its authority, but on October 25, 2010, the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] adopted new voluntary olive oil grading standards that closely parallel those of the IOC, with some adjustments for the characteristics of olives grown in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/olive-oil-grades/usda-olive-oil-standards-begin/8087|title=New U.S. Olive Oil Standards in Effect Today|website=Olive Oil Times|access-date=September 13, 2014|date=October 25, 2010|archive-date=February 6, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206004439/https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/olive-oil-grades/usda-olive-oil-standards-begin/8087|url-status=live}}</ref> U.S. Customs regulations on "country of origin" state that if a non-origin nation is shown on the label, then the real origin must be shown on the same side of the label in letters of comparable size, so as not to mislead the consumer.<ref>{{cite web|last=Durant|first=John|url=http://rulings.customs.gov/index.asp?ru=561712&qu=%22HQ+561712%22&vw=detail|title=U.S. Customs Department, Director Commercial Rulings Division – Country of origin marking of imported olive oil; 19 CFR 134.46; "imported by" language|date=September 5, 2000|access-date=October 15, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116115422/http://rulings.customs.gov/index.asp?ru=561712&qu=%22HQ+561712%22&vw=detail|archive-date=January 16, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=United States International Trade Commission Rulings|url=http://www.faqs.org/rulings/rulings2006HQ967925.html|title=Reference to HQ 560944 ruling of the Customs and Border Protection (CBP) on April 27, 1999 ''blending of Spanish olive oil with Italian olive oil in Italy does not result in a substantial transformation of the Spanish product''|date=February 28, 2006|access-date=October 15, 2008|archive-date=February 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211160553/http://www.faqs.org/rulings/rulings2006HQ967925.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Yet most major U.S. brands continue to put "imported from Italy" on the front label in large letters and other origins on the back in very small print.<ref name="false_olive_oil_labeling_pretending_to_be_made_in_Italy">{{cite web |url=http://oliveoilonly.org/impurity/olive-oil-labels-false-labeling.htm |last=McGee |first=Dennis |title=Deceptive Olive Oil Labels on Major Brands (includes photos) |access-date=November 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206213925/http://oliveoilonly.org/impurity/olive-oil-labels-false-labeling.htm |archive-date=February 6, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> "In fact, olive oil labeled 'Italian' often comes from Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco, Spain, and Greece."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.beyondhealth.com/c.1015947/site/articles/OliveOilScandal.pdf |author=Francis, Raymond |title=The Olive Oil Scandal |website=beyondhealth.com |year=1998 |access-date=June 7, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227033236/http://www.beyondhealth.com/c.1015947/site/articles/OliveOilScandal.pdf |archive-date=December 27, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This makes it unclear what percentage of the olive oil is really of Italian origin.

=== Commercial grades ===
[[File:Italian olive oil 2007.jpg|thumb|upright=0.45|A bottle of Italian olive oil]]
All production begins by crushing or pressing the olive fruit to transform it into olive paste. This paste is [[malaxation|malaxed]] (slowly churned or mixed) to allow the microscopic oil droplets to agglomerate. The oil is then separated from the watery matter and fruit pulp with the use of a press (traditional method) or [[Centrifuge|centrifugation]] (modern method). The residue that remains after pressing or centrifugation can also produce a small amount of oil, called [[Olive mill pomace|pomace]].

One parameter used to characterise an oil is its [[Olive oil acidity|acidity]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grossi |first1=Marco |last2=Lecce |first2=Giuseppe Di |last3=Toschi |first3=Tullia Gallina |last4=Ricco |first4=Bruno |title=Fast and Accurate Determination of Olive Oil Acidity by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy |journal=IEEE Sensors Journal |date=September 2014 |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=2947–2954 |doi=10.1109/JSEN.2014.2321323 |bibcode=2014ISenJ..14.2947G |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01276347/file/Fast%20and%20Accurate%20Determination%20of%20Olive%20Oil%20Acidity%20by%20Electrochemical%20Impedance%20Spectroscopy.pdf }}</ref> In this context, "acidity" is not [[Acid#Acid strength|chemical acidity]] in the sense of [[pH]], but the percent (measured by weight) of [[Free fatty acids|free]] [[oleic acid]]. Olive oil acidity is a measure of the [[hydrolysis]] of the oil's triglycerides: as the oil degrades and becomes oxidized, more fatty acids are freed from the [[glyceride]]s, increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasing [[Rancidification#Hydrolytic|hydrolytic rancidity]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Wallace |first1=H. M. |title=Macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia, Macadamia tetraphylla and hybrids) |date=2011-01-01 |work=Postharvest Biology and Technology of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits |pages=450–474e |editor-last=Yahia |editor-first=Elhadi M. |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978184569735850019X |access-date=2025-02-13 |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |doi=10.1533/9780857092885.450 |isbn=978-1-84569-735-8 |last2=Walton |first2=D. A.|url-access=subscription }}</ref><!-- The in-line citation here for hydrolytic rancidity (https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857092885.450) is actually about macadamia nuts, but it explains the oxidation-glycerides-hydrolytic rancidity relationship quite well --> Rancidity not only impacts the taste and color but also its nutritional value.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Riaz |first1=Mian N. |title=Impact of particle size and other ingredients on extruded foods and feeds |date=2012-01-01 |work=Extrusion Problems Solved |pages=55–63 |editor-last=Riaz |editor-first=Mian N. |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9781845696641500062 |access-date=2025-02-13 |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |doi=10.1533/9780857095206.55 |isbn=978-1-84569-664-1 |last2=Rokey |first2=Galen J. |editor2-last=Rokey |editor2-first=Galen J.|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is the [[Organic peroxide|peroxide value]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grossi |first1=Marco |last2=Di Lecce |first2=Giuseppe |last3=Arru |first3=Marco |last4=Gallina Toschi |first4=Tullia |last5=Riccò |first5=Bruno |title=An opto-electronic system for in-situ determination of peroxide value and total phenol content in olive oil |journal=Journal of Food Engineering |date=February 2015 |volume=146 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.08.015 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01276359/file/An%20opto-electronic%20system%20for%20in-situ%20determination%20of%20peroxide%20value%20and%20total%20phenol%20content%20in%20ol.pdf }}</ref> which measures the degree to which the oil is [[oxidized]] by [[free radicals]], leading to ''oxidative'' rancidity. [[Phenolic acid]]s present in olive oil also add acidic [[Sensory perception|sensory]] properties to aroma and flavor.<ref name="bendini">{{cite journal |last1=Bendini |first1=Alessandra |last2=Cerretani |first2=Lorenzo |last3=Carrasco-Pancorbo |first3=Alegria |last4=Gómez-Caravaca |first4=Ana Maria |last5=Segura-Carretero |first5=Antonio |last6=Fernández-Gutiérrez |first6=Alberto |last7=Lercker |first7=Giovanni |title=Phenolic Molecules in Virgin Olive Oils: a Survey of Their Sensory Properties, Health Effects, Antioxidant Activity and Analytical Methods. An Overview of the Last Decade Alessandra |journal=Molecules |date=6 August 2007 |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=1679–1719 |doi=10.3390/12081679 |doi-access=free |pmid=17960082 |pmc=6149152 }}</ref>

The grades of oil extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as:
* ''Virgin'' means the oil was produced by the use of mechanical means only, with no chemical treatment. The term ''virgin oil'' with reference to production method includes all grades of virgin olive oil, including ''extra virgin'', ''virgin'', ''ordinary virgin'' and ''Lampante virgin'' olive oil products, depending on quality (see below).
* ''Lampante virgin oil''{{anchor|Lampante}} is olive oil extracted by virgin (mechanical) methods but not suitable for human consumption without further refining; "lampante" is the attributive form of "lampa", the Italian word for "lamp", referring to the use of such oil in [[oil lamp]]s. Lampante virgin oil can be used for industrial purposes, or refined (see below) to make it edible.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://aooa.com.au/quality-standards/olive-oil-grading/|title=The 101 of olive oil designations and definitions|publisher=Australian Olive Association|access-date=March 15, 2015|archive-date=February 26, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226204225/http://aooa.com.au/quality-standards/olive-oil-grading/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''Refined olive oil'' is olive oil obtained from any grade of virgin olive oil by refining methods that do not lead to alterations in the initial glyceridic structure. The refining process removes color, odor, and flavour from the olive oil, and leaves behind a very pure form of olive oil that is tasteless, colorless, odorless, and extremely low in free fatty acids. Olive oils sold as the grades ''extra virgin olive oil'' and ''virgin olive oil'' therefore cannot contain any refined oil.<ref name="auto" />
* ''Crude olive pomace oil'' is the oil obtained by treating olive pomace (the leftover paste after the pressing of olives for virgin olive oils) with solvents or other physical treatments, to the exclusion of oils obtained by re-esterification processes and of any mixture with other kinds of oils. It is then further refined into ''refined olive pomace oil'' and once re-blended with virgin olive oils for taste, is then known as ''olive pomace oil''.<ref name="auto" />

[[File:Olio prodotto in Liguria.JPG|thumb|Italian label for "extra vergine" olive oil]]

====International Olive Council====
In countries that adhere to the standards of the [[International Olive Council]],<ref name="ioc">{{cite web |url=http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/estaticos/view/83-designations-and-definitions-of-olive-oils |title=Designations and definitions of olive oils |publisher=International Olive Council |access-date=December 1, 2012 |archive-date=December 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203023538/http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/estaticos/view/83-designations-and-definitions-of-olive-oils |url-status=live}}</ref> as well as in Australia, and under the voluntary [[United States Department of Agriculture]] labeling standards in the United States:

'''Extra virgin olive oil''' is the highest grade of virgin olive oil derived by [[Cold extraction|cold mechanical extraction]] without use of [[solvent]]s or refining methods.<ref name=auto/><ref>{{cite web|title=What is extra virgin olive oil?|url=https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/extra-virgin-olive-oil|work=Olive Oil Times|access-date=8 February 2018|date=2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209063836/https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/extra-virgin-olive-oil|archive-date=February 9, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> It contains no more than 0.8% [[Olive oil acidity|free acidity]], and is judged to have a superior taste, having some fruitiness and no defined sensory defects.<ref name="Prosodol">{{cite web|title=Olive Oil Production|url=http://www.prosodol.gr/?q=node/203|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119060734/http://www.prosodol.gr/?q=node%2F203|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 19, 2011|publisher=Prosodol|access-date=27 November 2016}}</ref> Extra virgin olive oil accounts for less than 10% of oil in many producing countries; the percentage is far higher in some Mediterranean countries.

The International Olive Council requires the median of the fruity attribute to be higher than zero for a given olive oil in order to meet the criteria of extra virgin olive oil classification.

'''Virgin olive oil''' is a lesser grade of virgin oil, with [[Olive oil acidity|free acidity]] of up to 2.0%, and is judged to have a good taste, but may include some sensory defects.

'''Refined olive oil''' is virgin oil refined using charcoal and other chemical and physical filters, methods which do not alter the glyceridic structure. It has a free acidity, expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 0.3 grams per 100 grams (0.3%), and its other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in this standard. It is obtained by refining virgin oils to eliminate high acidity or organoleptic defects. Oils labeled as ''pure olive oil'' or ''olive oil'' are primarily refined olive oil, with a small addition of virgin oil for taste.

'''[[Olive pomace oil]]''' is refined pomace olive oil, often blended with some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but may not be described simply as ''olive oil''. It has a more neutral flavor than pure or virgin olive oil, making it less desirable to users concerned with flavor; however, it has the same fat composition as regular olive oil, giving it the same health benefits. It also has a high smoke point, and consequently is widely used in restaurants and home cooking in some countries.

==== United States ====
The United States is not a member of the IOC and does not implement its grades, but on October 25, 2010, the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) established Standards for Grades of Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil which closely parallel the IOC standards:<ref name="usda2">{{cite web |url=https://www.ams.usda.gov/grades-standards/olive-oil-and-olive-pomace-oil-grades-and-standards |title=United States Standard for Grades of Olive Oil |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] |access-date=January 20, 2016 |archive-date=November 11, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111114151/https://www.ams.usda.gov/grades-standards/olive-oil-and-olive-pomace-oil-grades-and-standards |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="usda">{{cite web |url=https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Olive_Oil_and_Olive-Pomace_Oil_Standard%5B1%5D.pdf |title=United States Standard for Grades of Olive Oil |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] |access-date=January 20, 2016 |archive-date=May 16, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516040745/https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Olive_Oil_and_Olive-Pomace_Oil_Standard%5B1%5D.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''U.S. extra virgin olive oil''' for oil with excellent flavor and odor and [[Olive oil acidity|free fatty acid content]] of not more than 0.8&nbsp;g per 100&nbsp;g (0.8%);
* '''U.S. virgin olive oil''' for oil with reasonably good flavor and odor and free fatty acid content of not more than 2&nbsp;g per 100&nbsp;g (2%);
* '''U.S. virgin olive oil Not Fit For Human Consumption Without Further Processing''' is a virgin (mechanically-extracted) olive oil of poor flavor and odor, equivalent to the IOC's {{Lang|it|lampante}} oil;
* '''U.S. olive oil''' is a mixture of virgin and refined oils;
* '''U.S. refined olive oil''' is an oil made from refined oils with some restrictions on the processing.

These grades are voluntary. Certification is available, for a fee, from the USDA.<ref name="usda" />

In 2014, California adopted a set of olive oil standards for olive oil made from California-grown olives. The California Department of Food and Agriculture Grade and Labeling Standards for Olive Oil, Refined-Olive Oil, and Olive-Pomace Oil are mandatory for producers of more than 5,000 [[US gallon|gallons]] of California olive oil. This joins other official state, federal, and international olive oil standards.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oliveoil.com/olive-oil-standards-in-the-us-overview/ |title=Olive Oil Standards in the US: An Overview |work=oliveoil.com |date=18 May 2021 |access-date=1 September 2021 |archive-date=May 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524220527/https://www.oliveoil.com/olive-oil-standards-in-the-us-overview/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Several olive producer associations, such as the [[North American Olive Oil Association]] and the [[California Olive Oil Council]], also offer grading and certification within the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aboutoliveoil.org/certified-olive-oil-list|title=NAOOA Certified Quality Seal Program|last=NAOOA|website=www.aboutoliveoil.org|language=en|access-date=2020-01-03|archive-date=January 3, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103202953/https://www.aboutoliveoil.org/certified-olive-oil-list|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cooc.com/certification-process/|title=Certification Process|website=California Olive Oil Council|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-03|archive-date=January 3, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103203002/https://www.cooc.com/certification-process/|url-status=live}}</ref> Oleologist Nicholas Coleman suggests that the California Olive Oil Council certification is the most stringent of the voluntary grading schemes in the United States.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://foodprint.org/blog/what-makes-olive-oil-extra-virgin-and-can-i-trust-the-label/|title=What Makes Olive Oil Extra Virgin and Can I Trust the Label?|date=2019-12-16|website=FoodPrint|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-03|archive-date=January 3, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103201735/https://foodprint.org/blog/what-makes-olive-oil-extra-virgin-and-can-i-trust-the-label/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Country of origin can be established by one or two-letter country codes printed on the bottle or label. Country codes include I=Italy, GR=Greece, E=Spain, TU=Tunisia, MA=Morocco, CL=Chile, AG=Argentina, AU=Australia.

=== Label wording ===
* Different names for olive oil indicate the degree of processing the oil has undergone as well as the quality of the oil. Extra virgin olive oil is the highest grade available, followed by virgin olive oil. The word "virgin" indicates that the olives have been pressed to extract the oil; no heat or chemicals have been used during the extraction process, and the oil is pure and unrefined. Virgin olive oils contain the highest levels of [[polyphenol]]s, antioxidants that have been linked with better health.<ref>{{cite journal | year = 2010 | title = Bone density scan ... Olive oil ... Bursitis | journal = Women's Health Advisor | volume = 14 | issue = 7| page = 8 }}{{MEDRS|date=June 2024}}</ref>
* ''Olive Oil'', which is sometimes denoted as being "Made from refined and virgin olive oils" is a blend of refined olive oil with a virgin grade of olive oil.<ref name="auto"/> ''Pure'', ''Classic'', ''Light'' and ''Extra-Light'' are terms introduced by manufacturers in countries that are non-traditional consumers of olive oil for these products to indicate both their composition of being only 100% olive oil, and also the varying strength of taste to consumers. Contrary to a common consumer belief, they do not have fewer calories than extra virgin oil, as implied by the names.<ref name=Bogle>{{cite news |last1=Bogle |first1=Deborah |first2=Tom |last2=Mueller |title=Losing our Virginity |work=[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)|The Advertiser]] |date=12 May 2012 |pages=11–14 }}</ref>
* ''Cold pressed'' or ''Cold extraction'' means "that the oil was not heated over a certain temperature (usually {{convert|27|C|F|-1}}) during processing, thus retaining more nutrients and undergoing less degradation".<ref name="pomace">{{cite web | author=Williams, Daniel | title=Olive pomace oil: not what you might think | publisher=Olive Oil Times | date=9 September 2010 | url=https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/olive-oil-grades/olive-pomace-oil/6210 | access-date=15 March 2019 | archive-date=April 23, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423181954/https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/olive-oil-grades/olive-pomace-oil/6210 | url-status=live }}</ref> The difference between ''Cold Extraction'' and ''Cold Pressed'' is regulated in Europe, where the use of a centrifuge, the modern method of extraction for large quantities, must be labelled as ''Cold Extracted'', while only a physically pressed olive oil may be labelled as ''Cold Pressed''. In many parts of the world, such as Australia, producers using centrifugal extraction still label their products as ''Cold Pressed''.
* ''First cold pressed'' means "that the fruit of the olive was crushed exactly one time – i.e., the ''first press.'' The ''cold'' refers to the temperature range of the fruit at the time it is crushed".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://consumers.californiaoliveranch.com/frequently-asked-questions/what-does-first-cold-pressed-olive-olive-oil-really-mean/|title=California Olive Ranch|access-date=September 13, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023318/http://consumers.californiaoliveranch.com/frequently-asked-questions/what-does-first-cold-pressed-olive-olive-oil-really-mean/|archive-date=November 17, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Calabria (Italy) the olives are collected in October. In regions like Tuscany or Liguria, the olives collected in November and ground, often at night, are too cold to be processed efficiently without heating. The paste is regularly heated above the environmental temperatures, which may be as low as 10–15&nbsp;°C, to extract the oil efficiently with only physical means. Olives pressed in warm regions like Southern Italy or Northern Africa may be pressed at significantly higher temperatures, although not heated. While it is important that the pressing temperatures be as low as possible (generally below 25&nbsp;°C) there is no international reliable definition of "cold pressed".<br />Furthermore, there is no "second" press of virgin oil, so the term "first press" means only that the oil was produced in a press vs. other possible methods.
* ''[[Protected designation of origin]]'' (PDO) and ''[[protected geographical indication]]'' (PGI) refer to olive oils with "exceptional properties and quality derived from their place of origin as well as from the way of their production".<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.agrocert.gr/pages/Content.asp?cntID=26&catID=15 | script-title=el:Προϊόντα Προστατευόμενης Ονομασίας Προέλευσης και Προστατευόμενης Γεωγραφικής Ένδειξης | trans-title = Protected Designation of Origin and Protected Geographical Indication | language = el | access-date = May 9, 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721074325/http://www.agrocert.gr/pages/content.asp?cntID=26&catID=15 | archive-date = July 21, 2011 | url-status = dead | df = mdy-all }}</ref>
* The label may indicate that the oil was bottled or packed in a stated country. This does not necessarily mean that the oil was produced there. The origin of the oil may sometimes be marked elsewhere on the label; it may be a mixture of oils from multiple countries.<ref name="false_olive_oil_labeling_pretending_to_be_made_in_Italy"/>
* The U.S. Food and Drug Administration permitted a claim on olive oil labels stating: "Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about two tablespoons (23&nbsp;g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease."<ref name=Drummond>Drummond, Linda. ''Sunday Telegraph'' (Australia), October 17, 2010 Sunday, Features; p. 10.</ref>

=== Adulteration ===
There have been allegations, particularly in Italy and Spain, that regulation can be sometimes lax and corrupt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rai.it/dl/Report/puntata/ContentItem-17eecee5-475b-44cb-9839-0177ef27d2b0.html|title=Report Scusi, Lei E' Vergine?|website=rai.it|access-date=July 7, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106023558/http://www.rai.it/dl/Report/puntata/ContentItem-17eecee5-475b-44cb-9839-0177ef27d2b0.html|archive-date=November 6, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Major shippers are claimed to routinely adulterate olive oil so that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" in Italy actually meets the specification.<ref name="Mueller">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/08/13/070813fa_fact_mueller|title=Slippery Business|author=Mueller, Tom|date=August 13, 2007|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=28 January 2016|archive-date=June 13, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613183536/http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/08/13/070813fa_fact_mueller|url-status=live}}</ref> In some cases, [[colza oil]] (extracted from [[rapeseed]]) with added color and flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil.<ref name=eubusiness>{{cite web |url=http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309195531/http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23 |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 9, 2008 |title=EUbusiness.com |df=mdy-all }}</ref> This extensive fraud prompted the Italian government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils.<ref name="telegraph">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/05/07/nfood07.xml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509023359/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/05/07/nfood07.xml |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2007 |title=Murky Italian olive oil to be pored over |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |first=Malcolm |last=Moore |date=May 7, 2007 |access-date=May 20, 2010}}</ref> In February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory.<ref name=eubusiness/> Under EU rules, olive oil may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil.<ref name="telegraph" />

Extra-virgin olive oil has strict requirements and is checked for "sensory defects" that include: rancid, fusty, musty, winey (vinegary), and muddy sediment. These defects can occur for different reasons. The most common are:
* Raw material (olives) infected or battered
* Inadequate harvest, with contact between the olives and soil<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.novaoliva.com/?page_id=222&lang=en |title=草刈りは定期的に |publisher=Novaoliva.com |date=February 21, 2013 |access-date=May 21, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117024305/http://www.novaoliva.com/?page_id=222&lang=en |archive-date=November 17, 2015 |url-status=usurped }}</ref>

In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted Operation Golden Oil, arresting 23 people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Moore |first1=Malcolm |title=Italian police crack down on olive oil fraud |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1580807/Italian-police-crack-down-on-olive-oil-fraud.html |work=The Telegraph |date=5 March 2008 }}</ref> In April 2008, another operation impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and southern Italy for adding [[chlorophyll]] to [[Sunflower oil|sunflower]] and [[soybean oil|soya bean oil]] and selling it as extra virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad; 25,000 liters of the fake oil were seized and prevented from being exported.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.scotsman.com/world/Forty-arrested-in-new-39fake39.4005000.jp |title=Forty arrested in new 'fake' olive oil scam |location=Edinburgh |work=The Scotsman |first=Nick |last=Pisa |date=April 22, 2008 |access-date=April 22, 2008 |archive-date=January 9, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109171716/http://news.scotsman.com/world/Forty-arrested-in-new-39fake39.4005000.jp |url-status=live }}</ref>

On March 15, 2011, the prosecutor's office in Florence, Italy, working in conjunction with the forestry department, indicted two managers and an officer of Carapelli, one of the brands of the Spanish company Grupo SOS (which recently changed its name to Deoleo). The charges involved falsified documents and food fraud. Carapelli lawyer Neri Pinucci said the company was not worried about the charges and that "the case is based on an irregularity in the documents."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-business/details-expected-thursday-investigations-deodorized-olive-oils/14291|title=Investigations Into Deodorized Olive Oils|website=Olive Oil Times|access-date=September 13, 2014|date=March 29, 2011|archive-date=November 7, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107112823/https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-business/details-expected-thursday-investigations-deodorized-olive-oils/14291|url-status=live}}</ref>

In February 2012, Spanish authorities investigated an international olive oil fraud in which palm, avocado, sunflower, and other cheaper oils were passed off as Italian olive oil. Police said the oils were blended in an industrial biodiesel plant and adulterated in a way to hide markers that would have revealed their true nature. The oils were not toxic and posed no health risk, according to a statement by the [[Guardia Civil]]. Nineteen people were arrested following the year-long joint probe by the police and Spanish tax authorities, as part of  Operation Lucerna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-business/europe/operation-lucerna-olive-oil-fraud/24815|title=Spanish Police Say Palm, Avocado, Sunflower Was Passed Off as Olive Oil|website=Olive Oil Times|date=February 14, 2012|access-date=April 5, 2012|archive-date=February 6, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206000228/https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-business/europe/operation-lucerna-olive-oil-fraud/24815|url-status=live}}</ref>

Using tiny print to state the origin of blended oil is used as a legal loophole by manufacturers of adulterated and mixed olive oil.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nadeau |first=Barbie Latza |date=2015-11-14 |title=Has the Italian Mafia Sold You Fake Extra Virgin Olive Oil? |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/11/14/has-the-italian-mafia-sold-you-fake-extra-virgin-olive-oil.html |newspaper=The Daily Beast |access-date=November 17, 2015 |archive-date=November 18, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118130716/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/11/14/has-the-italian-mafia-sold-you-fake-extra-virgin-olive-oil.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Journalist Tom Mueller has investigated crime and adulteration in the olive oil business, publishing the article "Slippery Business" in ''New Yorker'' magazine,<ref name="Mueller"/> followed by the 2011 book ''[[Extra Virginity]]''. On 3 January 2016 [[Bill Whitaker (journalist)|Bill Whitaker]] presented a program on CBS News including interviews with Mueller and with Italian authorities.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Whitaker |first1=Bill |title=Agromafia |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/60-minutes-agromafia-food-fraud/ |work=CBS News |date=3 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/mafia-olive-oil-on-60-minutes/50203 |title=Mafia Control of Olive Oil the Topic of '60 Minutes' Report |newspaper=Olive Oil Times |date=3 January 2016 |access-date=28 January 2016 |archive-date=November 9, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109210137/https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/mafia-olive-oil-on-60-minutes/50203 |url-status=live }}. Summary of CBS video</ref> It was reported that in the previous month, 5,000 tons of adulterated olive oil had been sold in Italy, and that [[organised crime]] was heavily involved—the term "Agrimafia" was used. The point was made by Mueller that the profit margin on adulterated olive oil was three times that on the illegal narcotic drug [[cocaine]]. He said that over 50% of olive oil sold in Italy was adulterated, as was 75–80% of that sold in the US. Whitaker reported that three samples of "extra virgin olive oil" had been bought in a US supermarket and tested; two of the three samples did not meet the required standard, and one of them—from a top-selling US brand—was exceptionally poor.

In early February 2017, the [[Carabinieri]] police arrested 33 suspects in the Calabrian mafia's [[Piromalli 'ndrina]] ([['Ndrangheta]]), which was allegedly exporting fake extra virgin olive oil to the U.S.; the product was actually inexpensive olive pomace oil fraudulently labeled.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-business/italy-arrests-33-accused-olive-oil-fraud/55364| title = Italy Arrests 33 Accused of Olive Oil Fraud 16 February 2017| date = February 16, 2017| access-date = September 19, 2018| archive-date = September 20, 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180920045735/https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-business/italy-arrests-33-accused-olive-oil-fraud/55364| url-status = live}}</ref> Less than a year earlier, the American television program ''[[60 Minutes]]'' had warned that "the olive oil business has been corrupted by the Mafia" and that "Agromafia" was a 16 billion [[US dollar|dollar]] per year enterprise. A Carabinieri investigator interviewed on the program said that "olive oil fraud has gone on for the better part of four millennia" but today, it's particularly "easy for the bad guys to either introduce adulterated olive oils or mix in lower quality olive oils with extra-virgin olive oil".<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cbsnews.com/news/60-minutes-overtime-how-to-buy-olive-oil/| title = Don't fall victim to olive oil fraud 3 January 2016| website = [[CBS News]]| date = January 3, 2016| access-date = September 19, 2018| archive-date = September 20, 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180920045538/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/60-minutes-overtime-how-to-buy-olive-oil/| url-status = live}}</ref> Weeks later, a report by ''[[Forbes]]'' magazine stated that "it's reliably reported that 80% of the Italian olive oil on the [US] market is fraudulent" and that "a massive olive oil scandal is being uncovered in Southern Italy (Puglia, Umbria and Campania)".<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/ceciliarodriguez/2016/02/10/the-olive-oil-scam-if-80-is-fake-why-do-you-keep-buying-it/#63b197d3639d| title = The Olive Oil Scam: If 80% Is Fake, Why Do You Keep Buying It? 10 February 2016| website = [[Forbes]]| access-date = September 19, 2018| archive-date = September 20, 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180920051048/https://www.forbes.com/sites/ceciliarodriguez/2016/02/10/the-olive-oil-scam-if-80-is-fake-why-do-you-keep-buying-it/#63b197d3639d| url-status = live}}</ref>

==== Quality control and fraud ====
In July 2024, the European Union reported a significant increase in olive oil fraud and mislabeling cases. The European Commission's annual report on food fraud revealed that olive oil remained one of the most frequently adulterated food products, with incidents reaching a record high.<ref name="2024Goodier">{{Cite news |last=Goodier |first=Michael |date=2024-07-29 |title=Olive oil fraud and mislabelling cases hit record high in EU |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/jul/29/olive-oil-fraud-mislabelling-cases-record-high-eu |access-date=2024-12-12 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

==== Mislabeling and adulteration ====
The most common forms of olive oil fraud include:

# Mislabeling lower-grade oils as extra virgin olive oil
# Diluting olive oil with cheaper vegetable oils
# Falsely claiming EU origin for non-EU oils

These fraudulent practices not only deceive consumers but also undermine the reputation of legitimate producers, particularly those from traditional olive-growing regions in the Mediterranean.<ref name="2024Goodier"/>

==== EU response ====
To combat the rising fraud cases, the [[European Union]] has implemented several measures:

* Increased inspections and testing of olive oil shipments
* Enhanced traceability requirements for producers and distributors
* Stricter penalties for companies found guilty of fraud
* Improved cooperation between member states' food safety authorities

The EU has also launched a public awareness campaign to educate consumers about olive oil quality and how to identify authentic products.<ref name="2024Goodier"/>

==== Impact on the industry ====
The surge in fraud cases has led to:

* Higher production costs for honest producers due to increased compliance requirements
* Potential market share loss for authentic extra virgin olive oil as cheaper, adulterated products flood the market
* Growing consumer skepticism about olive oil quality claims

Industry experts emphasize the importance of supporting reputable producers and urge consumers to be more vigilant when purchasing olive oil, particularly when prices seem unusually low for claimed quality.<ref name="2024Goodier"/>

== Constituents ==
[[File:Fat structural formulae V3.svg|thumb|General chemical structure of food fats ([[triglyceride]]). R<sup>1</sup>, R<sup>2</sup>, and R<sup>3</sup> are [[alkyl group]]s (approx. 20%) or alkenyl groups (approx. 80%).]]

Olive oil is composed mainly of the mixed [[triglyceride]] esters of [[oleic acid]], [[linoleic acid]], [[palmitic acid]] and of other [[fatty acid]]s,<ref name=oos>{{cite book |last1=Boskou |first1=Dimitrios |last2=Blekas |first2=Georgios |last3=Tsimidou |first3=Maria |date=April 2006 |title=Olive Oil |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289706334 |chapter=4 Olive Oil Composition |page=42|publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-893997-88-2 |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref><ref name=Beltran2004>{{cite journal |last1=Beltrán |first1=Gabriel |last2=del Rio |first2=Carmen |last3=Sánchez |first3=Sebastián |last4=Martínez |first4=Leopoldo |title=Influence of Harvest Date and Crop Yield on the Fatty Acid Composition of Virgin Olive Oils from Cv. Picual |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |date=June 2004 |volume=52 |issue=11 |pages=3434–3440 |pmid=15161211|doi=10.1021/jf049894n |bibcode=2004JAFC...52.3434B }}</ref> along with traces of [[squalene]] (up to 0.7%) and [[sterol]]s (about 0.2% [[phytosterol]] and tocosterols). The composition varies by cultivar, region, altitude, time of harvest, and extraction process.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!|Fatty acid||Type || Percentage (m/m methyl esters)||ref.
|-
|[[Oleic acid]] || Monounsaturated || 55 to 83% || <ref name=oos/>
|-
|[[Linoleic acid]] || Polyunsaturated ([[omega-6]]) || 3.5 to 21% || <ref name=oos/><ref name=Beltran2004/>
|-
|[[Palmitic acid]] || Saturated || 7.5 to 20% || <ref name=oos/>
|-
|[[Stearic acid]] || Saturated || 0.5 to 5% || <ref name=oos/>
|-
|[[α-Linolenic acid]] || Polyunsaturated ([[omega-3]]) || 0 to 1.5% || <ref name=oos/>
|}

===Comparison to other vegetable oils ===
{{Vegetable_oils,_composition}}

=== Phenolic composition ===
Olive oil contains traces of [[polyphenols|phenolics]] (about 0.5%), such as [[ester]]s of [[tyrosol]], [[hydroxytyrosol]], [[oleocanthal]] and [[oleuropein]],<ref name="bendini"/><ref name="phenolics">{{cite journal|title=The phenolic compounds of olive oil: structure, biological activity and beneficial effects on human health|year=2005|doi=10.1079/NRR200495|last1=Tripoli|first1=Elisa|last2=Giammanco|first2=Marco|last3=Tabacchi|first3=Garden|last4=Di Majo|first4=Danila|last5=Giammanco|first5=Santo|last6=La Guardia|first6=Maurizio|journal=Nutrition Research Reviews|volume=18|issue=1|pages=98–112|pmid=19079898|s2cid=221216561|doi-access=free}}</ref> which give extra virgin olive oil its [[bitter (taste)|bitter]], pungent taste, and are also implicated in its aroma.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Genovese |first1=Alessandro |last2=Caporaso |first2=Nicola |last3=Villani |first3=Veronica |last4=Paduano |first4=Antonello |last5=Sacchi |first5=Raffaele |title=Olive oil phenolic compounds affect the release of aroma compounds |journal=Food Chemistry |date=August 2015 |volume=181 |pages=284–294 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.02.097 |pmid=25794752 }}</ref> Olive oil is a source of at least 30 phenolic compounds, among which are [[elenolic acid]], a marker for maturation of olives,<ref name="bendini"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lozano-Sánchez |first1=Jesús |last2=Castro-Puyana |first2=María |last3=Mendiola |first3=Jose |last4=Segura-Carretero |first4=Antonio |last5=Cifuentes |first5=Alejandro |last6=Ibáez |first6=Elena |title=Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Olive Oil Filter Cake by Advanced Extraction Techniques |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |date=15 September 2014 |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=16270–16283 |doi=10.3390/ijms150916270 |doi-access=free |pmid=25226536 |pmc=4200768 }}</ref> and alpha-[[tocopherol]], one of the eight members of the [[Vitamin E]] family.<ref name='Wagner et al, 2004'>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wagner KH, Kamal-Eldin A, Elmadfa I | s2cid = 24827255 | title = Gamma-tocopherol--an underestimated vitamin? | journal = Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | pages = 169–88 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15256801 | doi = 10.1159/000079555 | quote = In North America, the intake of γ-tocopherol has been estimated to exceed that of α-tocopherol by a factor of 2–4 ... due to the fact that soybean oil is the predominant vegetable oil in the American diet (76.4%) followed by corn oil and canola oil (both 7%) ... The supply of dietary fats ... is much more diverse in Europe ... The oils mainly consumed in Europe, i.e. sunflower, olive and canola oil, provide less γ-tocopherol but more α-tocopherol ... [T]he ratio of α-:γ-tocopherol is at least 1:2. Therefore, the average γ-tocopherol intake can be estimated as 4–6 mg/day, which is about 25–35% of the USA intake. In accordance with the lower estimated European intake of γ-tocopherol, the serum levels of γ-tocopherol in European populations are 4–20 times lower than that of α-tocopherol }}</ref> [[Oleuropein]], together with other closely related compounds such as [[10-hydroxyoleuropein]], [[ligstroside]] and [[10-hydroxyligstroside]], are [[tyrosol]] [[ester]]s of elenolic acid.

Other phenolic constituents include [[flavonoid]]s, [[lignan]]s and [[pinoresinol]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Owen |first1=R.W |last2=Giacosa |first2=A |last3=Hull |first3=W.E |last4=Haubner |first4=R |last5=Spiegelhalder |first5=B |last6=Bartsch |first6=H |title=The antioxidant/anticancer potential of phenolic compounds isolated from olive oil |journal=European Journal of Cancer |date=June 2000 |volume=36 |issue=10 |pages=1235–1247 |doi=10.1016/S0959-8049(00)00103-9 |pmid=10882862 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Owen |first1=Robert W |last2=Mier |first2=Walter |last3=Giacosa |first3=Attilio |last4=Hull |first4=William E |last5=Spiegelhalder |first5=Bertold |last6=Bartsch |first6=Helmut |title=Identification of Lignans as Major Components in the Phenolic Fraction of Olive Oil |journal=Clinical Chemistry |date=July 2000 |volume=46 |issue=7 |pages=976–988 |doi=10.1093/clinchem/46.7.976 |pmid=10894841 }}</ref>

== Nutrition ==
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Olive oil | kJ=3700 | carbs=0&nbsp;g | fat=100&nbsp;g | protein=0&nbsp;g | satfat=13.8&nbsp;g | monofat=73&nbsp;g | polyfat=10.5&nbsp;g | omega3fat=0.8&nbsp;g| omega6fat=9.8&nbsp;g| vitE_mg=14.4 | vitK_ug=60.2|water=0 g | source_USDA=1 | note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/171413/nutrients Full Link to USDA Database entry] }}
Olive oil is 100% [[fat]], containing no [[carbohydrate]]s, [[dietary fiber]], [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]] or water (table).

In a reference amount of {{convert|100|g}}, olive oil supplies 884 [[calorie|kcals]] of [[food energy]], and is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[vitamin E]] (96% DV) and [[vitamin K]] (57% DV) (table). 

One [[tablespoon]] (13.5&nbsp;g) of olive oil supplies {{convert|119|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=on}} of food energy and contains 13.5 g of fat, including 9.9 g of [[monounsaturated fat]] (mainly as [[oleic acid]]), 1.4 g of [[polyunsaturated fat]] (mainly as [[linoleic acid]]), and 1.9 g of [[saturated fat]] (mainly as [[palmitic acid]]).<ref>{{cite web|publisher=USDA FoodData Central|title=Nutrient composition for a tablespoon of olive oil; 13.5 g from the pick list for portion|date=1 April 2019|access-date=26 December 2023|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/171413/nutrients}}</ref>

== Potential health effects ==
[[File:Egyptian Olives.jpg|thumb|Egyptian olives]]
{{See also|Mediterranean diet}}
In the United States, the [[FDA]] allows producers of olive oil to place the following qualified [[health claim]] on [[private label|product labels]]:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/2004/ucm108368.htm|title=FDA Allows Qualified Health Claim to Decrease Risk of Coronary Heart Disease|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=November 2004|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|access-date=5 April 2013|archive-date=March 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310052307/https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2004/ucm108368.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/LabelingNutrition/ucm072963.htm|title=Letter Responding to Health Claim Petition dated August 28, 2003: Monounsaturated Fatty Acids from Olive Oil and Coronary Heart Disease (Docket No 2003Q-0559)|last=Brackett|first=R. E.|date=November 2004|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|access-date=April 5, 2013|archive-date=June 3, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603144538/http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/LabelingNutrition/ucm072963.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{Block quote|text=Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about 2 tbsp. (23 g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the monounsaturated fat in olive oil. To achieve this possible benefit, olive oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not increase the overall number of calories consumed in a day.|sign=|source=}}

In a review by the [[European Food Safety Authority]] (EFSA) in 2011, health claims on olive oil were approved for protection by its [[polyphenol]]s against [[oxidation]] of blood lipids,<ref name=EFSApolyphenols2011>{{cite journal|author=European Food Safety Authority |title=Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to polyphenols in olive |journal=EFSA Journal |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=2033 |date=2011 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2033|doi-access=free }}</ref> and for maintenance of normal blood [[LDL-cholesterol]] levels by replacing saturated fats in the diet with [[oleic acid]].<ref name=EFSAoleicacid2011>{{cite journal|author=European Food Safety Authority|title=Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to oleic acid intended to replace saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in foods or diets |journal=EFSA Journal |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=2043 |date=2011 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2043|doi-access=free }}</ref> (See also: Commission Regulation (EU) 432/2012 of 16 May 2012).<ref name=OfficialJournalEuropeanUnion2012>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32012R0432|title=Commission Regulation (EU) No 432/2012 of 16 May 2012 establishing a list of permitted health claims made on foods, other than those referring to the reduction of disease risk and to children's development and health. Text with EEA relevance|website=Official Journal of the European Union|access-date=August 31, 2016|archive-date=October 13, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013040816/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32012R0432|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite its approval, the EFSA has noted that a definitive [[cause-and-effect]] relationship has not been adequately established for consumption of olive oil and maintaining normal (fasting) blood concentrations of [[triglycerides]], normal blood [[HDL-cholesterol]] concentrations, and normal [[blood glucose]] concentrations.<ref name="EFSA">{{cite journal |author=Scientific Committee/Scientific Panel of the European Food Safety Authority |year=2011 |journal=EFSA Journal |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=2044 [19 pp] |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2044|title=Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to olive oil and maintenance of normal blood LDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID 1316, 1332), maintenance of normal (fasting) blood concentrations of triglycerides (ID 1316, 1332), maintenance of normal blood HDL cholesterol concentrations (ID 1316, 1332) and maintenance of normal blood glucose concentrations (ID 4244) under Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 |doi-access=free |hdl=2434/174506 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that increased consumption of olive oil was associated with reduced risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular events and [[stroke]], while monounsaturated fatty acids of mixed animal and plant origin showed no significant effects.<ref name="schw">{{cite journal |pmid=25274026 |pmc=4198773|year=2014|last1=Schwingshackl|first1=L|title=Monounsaturated fatty acids, olive oil and health status: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies |journal=Lipids in Health and Disease |volume=13 |pages=154 |last2=Hoffmann |first2=G. |issue=1 |doi=10.1186/1476-511X-13-154 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Another meta-analysis in 2018 found high-polyphenol olive oil intake was associated with improved measures of total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, [[malondialdehyde]], and oxidized LDL when compared to low-polyphenol olive oils, although it recommended longer studies, and more investigation of non-Mediterranean populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=George |first1=Elena S. |last2=Marshall |first2=Skye |last3=Mayr |first3=Hannah L |last4=Trakman |first4=Gina L. |last5=Tatucu-Babet |first5=Oana A. |last6=Lassemillante |first6=Annie-Claude M. |last7=Bramley |first7=Andrea |last8=Reddy |first8=Anjana J. |last9=Forsyth |first9=Adrienne |last10=Tierney |first10=Audrey C. |last11=Thomas |first11=Colleen J. |last12=Itsiopoulos |first12=Catherine |last13=Marx |first13=Wolfgang |title=The effect of high-polyphenol extra virgin olive oil on cardiovascular risk factors: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |date=25 September 2019 |volume=59 |issue=17 |pages=2772–2795 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2018.1470491 |pmid=29708409 |url=https://pure.bond.edu.au/ws/files/26952404/The_effect_of_high_polyphenol_extra_virgin_olive_oil_on_cardiovascular_risk_factors_a_syste.pdf }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Italy|Spain|Food}}
* [[Amurca]]
* [[List of ancient dishes and foods]]
* [[List of cuisines]]
* [[Dip (food)#List of common dips|List of dips]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{cookbook}}
{{commons category}}
* Caruso, Tiziano; Magnano di San Lio, Eugenio (eds.). ''La Sicilia dell'olio'', Giuseppe Maimone Editore, Catania, 2008, {{ISBN|978-88-7751-281-9}}
* Mueller, Tom. ''[[Extra Virginity]] – The Sublime and Scandalous World of Olive Oil'', Atlantic Books, London, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-84887-004-8}}.
* Pagnol, Jean. ''L'Olivier'', Aubanel, 1975. {{ISBN|2-7006-0064-9}}.
* Palumbo, Mary; Linda J. Harris (December 2011) [https://web.archive.org/web/20121018215246/http://olivecenter.ucdavis.edu/files/microbial%20safety%20120511.pdf "Microbiological Food Safety of Olive Oil: A Review of the Literature"] (PDF), [[University of California, Davis]]
* Preedy, V. R.; Watson, R. R. (eds.). ''Olives and Olive Oil in Health and Disease Prevention'', Academic Press, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-12-374420-3}}.
* Rosenblum, Mort. ''Olives: The Life and Lore of a Noble Fruit'', North Point Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-86547-503-2}}.
* [http://www.codexalimentarius.org/download/standards/88/CXS_033e.pdf CODEX STAN 33-1981 Standard for Olive Oils and Olive Pomace Oils]

{{fatsandoils}}
{{Olives}}
{{Salad dressings}}
{{Condiments}}
{{Mediterranean cuisine}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Olive oil| ]]
[[Category:Condiments]]
[[Category:Cooking oils]]
[[Category:Mediterranean cuisine]]
[[Category:Vegetable oils]]
[[Category:Cuisine of California]]