View source for Ojos del Salado

{{Short description|Highest volcano in the world}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Ojos del Salado
| photo = Ojos del Salado looming big on the horizon.jpg
| photo_caption = 
| elevation_m = 6893
| elevation_ref = 
| prominence_m = 
3688
| prominence_ref = <!--<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/andes1.html|title=Argentina and Chile North, Ultra-prominences|access-date=2024-09-15|author=De Ferranti J., Biggar J. and Maizlish A.|date=2006}}</ref>--><br><small>[[List of mountain peaks by prominence|Ranked 44th]]</small>
| parent_peak = [[Aconcagua]]
| isolation_km = 630.5
| isolation_parent = [[Aconcagua]]
| isolation_ref = <ref name="GoogleEarth">Direct virtual measurement with Google Earth, Line Ruler tool</ref>
| coordinates = {{coord|27.109|S|68.541|W|display=intitle,inline}}
| coordinates_ref = 
| listing = [[Volcanic Seven Summits]]<br/>[[Seven Second Summits]]<br/>[[List of elevation extremes by country|Country high point]]<br/>[[Ultra-prominent peak|Ultra]]
| location = [[Argentina]]–[[Chile]]
| range = [[Andes]]
| map = Chile
| map_caption = Location on the Argentina–Chile border
| label_position = left
| type = [[stratovolcano]]
| age = 
| last_eruption = 750 CE ± 250 years
| first_ascent = February 26, 1937, by [[Jan Alfred Szczepański]] and {{ill|Justyn Wojsznis|pl}}
| easiest_route = [[Scrambling|Scramble]]
| photo_alt = Photo: A broad, irregular mountain in an unvegetated landscape with sparse snowpatches
}}
'''Nevado Ojos del Salado''' is a [[Dormant volcano|dormant]] [[complex volcano]] in the [[Andes]] on the [[Argentina]]–[[Chile]] border. It is the highest [[volcano]] on Earth and the highest peak in Chile. The upper reaches of Ojos del Salado consist of several overlapping [[lava dome]]s, [[lava flows]] and [[volcanic crater]]s, with sparse ice cover. The complex extends over an area of {{convert|70|-|160|km2|mi2}} and its highest summit reaches an altitude of {{convert|6893|m}} above sea level. Numerous other volcanoes rise around Ojos del Salado.

Being close to the [[Arid Diagonal]] of South America, the mountain has extremely dry conditions, which prevent the formation of substantial [[glacier]]s and a permanent [[snow cover]]. Despite the arid climate, there is a permanent [[Volcanic crater lake|crater lake]] about {{convert|100|m|abbr=on}} in diameter at an elevation of {{convert|6480|m}}-{{convert|6500|m}} within the summit crater and east of the main summit. This is the [[Lake#Notable lakes on Earth|highest lake]] of any kind in the world. Owing to its altitude and the desiccated climate, the mountain lacks vegetation.

Ojos del Salado was volcanically active during the [[Pleistocene]]{{efn|The Pleistocene is the geological period between 2.58 million and 11,700 years ago.{{sfn|International Commission on Stratigraphy|2018}}}} and [[Holocene]],{{efn|The Holocene is the geological period between 11,700 years ago and today.{{sfn|International Commission on Stratigraphy|2018}}}} during which it mainly produced lava flows. Activity was in two phases and a depression or [[caldera]] formed in the course of its growth. The volcano was also impacted by eruptions of its neighbour to the west, [[Nevado Tres Cruces]]. The last eruption occurred around 750 [[Common Era|CE]]; steam emissions observed in November 1993 may have constituted another eruptive event.

An international highway between Argentina and Chile crosses north of the mountain. Ojos del Salado can be ascended from both countries; the first ascent was made in 1937 by [[Jan Alfred Szczepański]] and {{ill|Justyn Wojsznis|pl|Justyn Wojsznis}}, members of a [[1930s Polish Andean expeditions|Polish expedition in the Andes]]. During the middle of the 20th century there was a debate on whether Ojos del Salado or [[Aconcagua]] was the highest mountain in South America which was eventually resolved in favour of Aconcagua.

==Name==
The name {{lang|es|Ojos del Salado}} {{IPA|es|ˈo.xos d̪el saˈla.ð̞o|}} refers to a river, Río Salado{{efn|The river does not actually originate on Ojos del Salado;{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=76}} according to the [[Deutscher Alpenverein]] map from 2004, the Rio Salado originates next to [[Cerro Solo]].{{sfn|Deutscher Alpenverein|2004}}}} ("Salty River"), that a 1937 Polish expedition used to reach the mountain.{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74–75}} It is unclear whether the name was already used before by a Chile-Argentina boundary commission.{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74–75}} In geographical terms, Ojo is commonly used in Chile and Argentina to denote a spring or source of water; e.g. the nearby source of the Las Lozas river "Ojo de las Lozas".{{sfn|Deutscher Alpenverein|2004}}

The mountain is often referred to as {{lang|es|Cerro}} Ojos del Salado and {{lang|es|Nevado}} Ojos del Salado; the former is a common term for "mountain" in Chile and the latter means "snowy", referring to snow-covered mountains.{{sfn|Williams|Ferrigno|1988|p=1122}} Another theory posits that the name means "salty eyes" or "salty [[spring (hydrology)|springs]]", referring to mineral deposits on its flanks.{{sfn|Bobylyova|2016|p=125}} There are two summits, known as the eastern or Argentine and western or Chilean summit; both lie along the international boundary and get their names after the country from which they can be more easily reached.{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2019|pp=7–8}}

==Geography and geomorphology==
Ojos del Salado is part of the High Andes{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=60}} and rises from the southern end of the [[Puna de Atacama]],{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}} a [[high plateau]] next to the [[Atacama Desert]] with an average elevation of {{convert|4000|m}}.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=4}} The border between [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]] runs across the summit of the mountain in east-west direction.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=60}} The Argentine part is within [[Catamarca Province]]{{sfn|González|Würschmidt|2008|p=48}} and the Chilean in [[Copiapo Province]]{{sfn|Informacíon turística|2021}} of the [[Atacama Region]].{{sfn|Alvaro|Bertin|Orozco|2012|p=7}} The highway {{ill|Chile Route 31|es|Ruta 31-CH}} runs between the city of [[Copiapo]] west of the volcano and the [[San Francisco Pass|Paso San Francisco]]{{efn|Paso San Francisco one of the most important crossings of the Andes{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2019|p=6}} with over 8,100 people crossing in 2018{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2019|p=16}} when the road was paved.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|p=28}}}} to Argentina,{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=60}} lying about {{convert|20|km}} north of the volcano, making it more accessible than many other volcanoes there.{{sfn|OSE|2021}} The region is uninhabited and lacks water resources; many parts are only accessible through dirt roads.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=67}}

Ojos del Salado is a [[dormant volcano]] that rises to {{convert|6893|m}},{{sfn|Naranjo|Hevia|Arcos|Polanco|2019|p=40}}{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}}{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=4}} {{convert|6879|m}}{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}} or {{convert|6887|m}} elevation.{{sfn|OSE|2021}} It is the world's highest volcano{{efn|Relative to sea level; relative to base level [[Mauna Loa]] is considerably higher.{{sfn|Siebert|Simkin|Kimberly|2019|p=12}}}} and the second-highest summit of the Andes,{{sfn|Baker|Gonzalez-Ferrán|Rex|1987|p=85}} and the highest summit in Chile.{{sfn|Butelski|2020|p=1}} Ojos del Salado is not a single conical summit but a massif/[[complex volcano]]{{sfn|OSE|2021}}{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=63}} formed by overlapping smaller volcanoes,{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=167}} with over 20 craters.{{sfn|Naranjo|Hevia|Arcos|Polanco|2019|p=26}} Two edifices, less than {{convert|2.5|km}} wide, flank the {{convert|1.3|x|0.5|km||adj=mid|-wide}} [[summit crater]] on its eastern and western side.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=169}} [[Basalt]], [[gravel]], [[pumice]] and [[scoria]] crop out in its rim, which is lower on the northern side.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=90}} A second {{convert|300|-|400|m||adj=mid|-wide}} crater lies just west of the summit crater.{{sfn|Naranjo|Hevia|Arcos|Polanco|2019|p=26}} Reportedly, the summit is separated by a deep gap into two separate peaks.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=91}} Thick short [[dacitic]] lava flows make up the core {{convert|13|x|12|km}} area of the volcano but [[pyroclastic fall]] material covers much of the summit area.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}}

The massif rises about {{convert|2|km}} above the surrounding terrain and covers an oval area of about {{convert|70|km2}}{{sfn|OSE|2021}}–{{convert|160|km2}},{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=154}} consisting of [[lava dome]]s, [[lava flow]]s,{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=545}} [[pyroclastic cone]]s and [[volcanic crater]]s{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}} that rise about {{convert|2|km}} above the surrounding terrain.{{sfn|Siebert|Simkin|Kimberly|2019|p=12}} The massif appears to feature a buried [[caldera]],{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}} visible through a slope break from the western side,{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=434}} and/or a {{convert|2.5|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide}} depression.{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Photo Gallery}} The occurrence of a rift-like structure with numerous small craters has also been reported.{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=436}} Volcanic cones form a north-northeast trending alignment on the western flank.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|pp=168–169}} [[Cerro Solo]] and El Fraile are large lava domes on the flanks of Ojos del Salado,{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=545}} and produced [[pyroclastic flow]]s.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=546}}

Wind-driven erosion has produced [[megaripple]] sand fields on the northern flank. Above {{convert|6000|m}} elevation [[Scree|talus]]-covered slopes and lava flows form the bulk of the surface, while the desert plains begin below {{convert|5000|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=15}} The ground above {{convert|4000|-|5600|m}} elevation is expected to contain [[permafrost]],{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=3}} which is likely continuous at higher elevations{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|p=603}} and overlaid with a thin [[active layer]].{{sfn|Dobiński|2020|p=6}} [[Cryoturbation]]{{efn|Cryoturbation landforms form when [[frost]] triggers deformation of the soil.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=9}}}} landforms were not conspicuous according to Nagy ''et al.'' 2019,{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=9}} presumably because wind-driven phenomena overprint the effects of cryoturbation.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=14}} [[Mass wasting|Mass movement]]s have left traces on the mountain.{{sfn|Naranjo|Hevia|Arcos|Polanco|2019|p=7}}

===Lakes===
Ojos del Salado hosts the highest lake in the world{{sfn|Jacobsen|Dangles|2017|p=21}}{{sfn|Seimon|Halloy|Seimon|2007|p=341}}{{efn|There are waterbodies at {{convert|6600|m}} elevation;{{sfn|Halloy|1983|p=93}} if considered lakes they may be the highest lakes in the world.{{sfn|Jacobsen|Dangles|2017|p=21}}{{sfn|Seimon|Halloy|Seimon|2007|p=341}}}} in the form of the [[Volcanic crater lake|crater lake]]{{sfn|Aszalós|Szabó|Felföldi|Jurecska|2020|p=742}} in the summit crater.{{sfn|Vincent|2018|p=15}} Fed by permafrost and snowfields, it lies at {{convert|6480|-|6500|m}} elevation. It is surrounded by fumaroles and covers an area of {{convert|6000|m2}}. Waters in a creek flowing into this lake reach temperatures of {{convert|40.8|C}}.{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|pp=604–605}}{{sfn|Aszalós|Szabó|Felföldi|Jurecska|2020|p=742}}

There are two lakes at {{convert|5900|m}} elevation on the northeastern slope, {{circa}} {{convert|4|km}} away from the higher lake. Each has an area of {{convert|2500|m2}} and an estimated depth of {{convert|1|m}}.{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|pp=604–605}}{{sfn|Aszalós|Szabó|Felföldi|Jurecska|2020|p=742}} Ephemeral lakes{{efn|An early report of such lakes goes back to 1937.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=75}}}} occur at {{convert|5900|-|6000|m}} elevation,{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=3}} when meltwater from permafrost accumulates in closed depressions.{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|pp=603–604}} Such ponds may form in depressions at {{convert|6380|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Nagy|László|Zsolt|p=53}} Some of the lakes may be permanently frozen.{{sfn|Jacobsen|Dangles|2017|p=41}} Lakes might disappear with [[climate change]] owing to the breakdown of permafrost.{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|pp=603–604}}

===Surroundings===
The landscape is dominated by volcanoes,{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=61}} many of Pleistocene or Holocene age,{{sfn|Grosse|Orihashi|Guzmán|Sumino|2018|p=4}} and is the highest volcanic region in the world.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=539}} Young volcanoes have conical shapes and often feature summit craters.{{sfn|Rubiolo|Pereyra|Martínez|Seggiaro|2003|p=56}} Travellers have called the region a "moonscape".{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=66}} There are [[hot spring]]s in the region,{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=53}} such as the Termas Laguna Verde at the shores of [[Laguna Verde (lake of Chile)|Laguna Verde]], which are frequented by visitors.{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2019|p=9}}

[[File:Volcanic Landscapes, Central Andes labelled.jpg|thumb|350px|Volcanic Landscapes of the Central Andes. Shown are Nevado Ojos del Salado, [[Cerro El Cóndor]] and [[Peinado]], along the Argentina-Chile border. Astronaut photo from [[International Space Station]], 2010.|alt=Photo from space: There are numerous volcanoes in the otherwise uniformly desertish landscape]]

The volcano lies in the middle of an over {{convert|80|km|adj=mid|}} long east–west trending chain of volcanoes{{sfn|OSE|2021}} that form a [[drainage divide]] and includes the volcanoes [[Nevado Tres Cruces]], [[Incahuasi]]{{sfn|Gimenez|Acosta|Alvarez|Pesce|2019|p=471}} and [[Cerro Blanco (volcano)|Cerro Blanco]]. This chain of volcanoes appears to be part of the Ojos del Salado-San Buenaventura tectonic [[lineament]],{{sfn|Mingari|Collini|Folch|Báez|2017|p=6761}} which corresponds to a geographic (southern boundary of the Puna de Atacama){{sfn|Mingari|Collini|Folch|Báez|2017|p=6761}} and tectonic discontinuity in the region.{{sfn|Gimenez|Acosta|Alvarez|Pesce|2019|p=474}} The lineament may be a consequence of the subduction of the [[Copiapo Ridge]] at this latitude.{{sfn|Gimenez|Acosta|Alvarez|Pesce|2019|p=474}} An alternative view is that the subducting Copiapo Ridge is actually located north of the lineament; this would be more consistent with the theory that the subduction of such ridges gives rise to gaps in the volcanic chain.{{sfn|Le Roux|Achurra|Henríquez|Carreño|2016|p=46}}

==Ice and glaciers==
[[File:Ojos penitentes 2020-02.jpg|thumb|352x352px|[[Penitente (snow formation)|Penitente]] field at an altitude of approximately 6500 m on northern face of Ojos del Salado in February (summer) of 2020|alt=Tooth-like snow forms on a medium-steep slope of a mountain]]Except for [[firn]] and small [[glacier]]s in sheltered parts of the mountain, Ojos del Salado lacks substantial ice cover. This is due to the [[arid climate]] of the region, which causes the [[equilibrium line altitude]] of ice to rise above the top of the mountain{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=3}} and keeps most peaks in the area ice-free.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}} Only farther south at Tronquitos does more extensive glaciation begin.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=61}} Temporary ice and snow accumulations can be mistaken for glaciers,{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|pp=62–63}} and glacier areas shown on maps are often actually immobile firn fields.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=69}} The ice reaches thicknesses of only {{convert|10|-|15|m}} and areal extents of a few hundred metres. [[Meltwater]] feeds streams.{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=454}}

Climbing parties in 1956 reported two glaciers on the northwestern slope,{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=89}} a 1958 report indicated that an ice body at {{convert|6600|m}} elevation descends into two branches and is followed at lower elevation by another glacier also with two branches—but in neither case with any evidence of movement—{{sfn|Lliboutry|González|Simken|1958|p=298}} and in 2014 there was ice in the summit crater{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=70}} and substantial glaciers on the eastern and southern slopes, which reached elevations below {{convert|6000|m}}.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=69}} There have been increases in ice area between 1974 and 1983{{sfn|Halloy|1983|p=94}} but between 1986 and 2000, ice area decreased by 40%.{{sfn|Buchroithner|2010|p=35}} The melting of the ice is expected to produce an increased discharge at first, but eventually ice diminishes to the point that runoff will decline.{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=461}}

[[Penitente (snow formation)|Penitentes]] have been encountered by climbers as early as 1937,{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=75}} in 1949 there were reportedly {{convert|5|-|8|m}} high penitentes on Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Lliboutry|1954|p=334}} Penitentes are high ice spires{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=71}} which form when ice [[Sublimation (phase transition)|sublimates]] in the intense insolation.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=69}}

===Subsurface ice===
[[File:Sand-covered snow field on Ojos del Salado (4320990586).jpg|alt=Blue-ish ice emerges from underneath grey sand on a mountain slope|thumb|Ice buried beneath sand]]
Ice buried beneath sand{{sfn|Halloy|1983|p=98}} and encased in [[moraine]]s is more important than surface ice at Ojos del Salado. It is retreating but the insulating effect of the cover slows the retreat.{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=455}} [[Cryokarst]],{{sfn|Kereszturi|Aszalos|Zs|Igneczi|2022|p=10}} erosional [[gullies]] and so-called "infilled valleys"{{efn|Several metres wide valleys that are filled with erosion debris.{{sfn|Kereszturi|2020|p=726}}}} have been observed; they most likely form when buried ice and snow melt.{{sfn|Kereszturi|2020|p=736}} There may be [[rock glacier]]s as well.{{sfn|Yoshikawa|Casassa|Azócar|Iribarren Anacona|2025|p=5}} The combined effect of erosion by the meltwater and the disappearance of ice volume creates cavities that collapse and form the valleys, [[pseudokarst]] landforms{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=455}} and [[doline]]s.{{sfn|Veress|2016|p=465}}

===Past glaciation===
[[Lateral moraine]]s altered by wind erosion occur north of Ojos del Salado{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=14}} and some lava flows bear traces of glaciation.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}}{{sfn|Rubiolo|Pereyra|Martínez|Seggiaro|2003|p=44}} Research published in 2019 found [[cirque]]s and [[U-shaped valley]]s on Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Naranjo|Hevia|Arcos|Polanco|2019|pp=9–10}} However, there is no evidence of Pleistocene glacier advances in the region{{sfn|Núñez|Grosjean|1994|p=16}}{{sfn|Messerli|Grosjean|Graf|Schotterer|1992|p=265}}{{sfn|Messerli|Grosjean|Bonani|Bürgi|1993|p=124}} nor any indication of a Pleistocene [[snowline]],{{sfn|Hastenrath|1971|p=263}}{{sfn|Haselton|Hilley|Strecker|2002|p=221}} although cirques have been reported from Nevado Tres Cruces{{sfn|Haselton|Hilley|Strecker|2002|p=221}} and some sources propose the existence of glaciers 19,000 years ago.{{sfn|Kereszturi|Aszalos|Zs|Igneczi|2022|p=3}} The [[monsoon]] reached farther south during the Pleistocene but did not reach Ojos del Salado, allowing the development of glaciers only at more northern latitudes.{{sfn|Messerli|Grosjean|Graf|Schotterer|1992|p=265}} Westerly winds did not regularly influence the climate at the volcano, either.{{sfn|Messerli|Grosjean|Bonani|Bürgi|1993|pp=124,127}}

==Geology==
In South America, there are about 200 volcanoes with evidence of eruptions during the Pleistocene and Holocene{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=147}} along the western coast, where the [[Nazca Plate]] and [[Antarctic Plate]] [[subduct]]s beneath the [[South America Plate]] in the [[Peru-Chile Trench]]. Volcanic activity is localized in four major volcanic belts, the [[Northern Volcanic Zone|Northern]], [[Central Volcanic Zone|Central]] (CVZ), [[Southern Volcanic Zone|Southern]] and [[Austral Volcanic Zone]]s; these are separated by belts without volcanic activity{{sfn|Geological Society of America|1991|p=140}} and form part of the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]].{{sfn|Neukirchen|2022|pp=218-219}} Where volcanic activity occurs, the subduction process releases fluids from the downgoing [[Slab (geology)|slab]] which trigger the formation of melts in the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that eventually ascend to the surface and give rise to volcanism.{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=147}}{{efn|Zentilli 1974 considered the volcano linked to the so-called "[[Easter Island|Easter]] Hot Line" of volcanoes{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=425}} but they do not have a common magma.{{sfn|Baker|Gonzalez-Ferrán|Rex|1987|p=95}}}}

The CVZ spans Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina and contains about 1,100 recognized volcanoes, many of which are extremely old and are still recognizable owing to the low erosion rates in the region.{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=147}} Apart from [[stratovolcano]]es, the CVZ includes numerous calderas, isolated lava domes and lava flows, [[maar]]s and pyroclastic cones. Most of the volcanoes are remote and thus constitute a low hazard.{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=148}} Ojos del Salado is part of the CVZ and constitutes its southern boundary.{{efn|Other [[Pliocene]]-recent volcanoes such as [[Cerro Bonete]]{{sfn|Geological Society of America|1991|p=141}} and [[Incapillo]] occur south of Ojos del Salado{{sfn|Mahlburg Kay|Mpodozis|2002|p=49}} but volcanoes there are more isolated and farther inland than these north of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Bonatti|Harrison|Fisher|Honnorez|1977|p=2474}}}} South of the volcano{{sfn|Geological Society of America|1991|p=140}} volcanism ceased during the last six million years{{sfn|Mahlburg Kay|Mpodozis|2002|p=48}} and until 32° south, [[subduction]] takes place at a shallow angle and volcanism is absent in the "Pampean flat-slab". The shallow angle may be a consequence of the subduction of submarine topography, such as the Copiapo Ridge at the northern end of the Juan Fernández Ridge at the southern margin of the gap.{{sfn|Álvarez|Giménez|Folguera|Spagnotto|2014|p=2}}{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=147}}

===Local===
The basement in the region crops out in the Cordillera Claudio Gay area, and consists of [[sedimentary rock]]s of [[Devonian]]{{efn|The Devonian is the geological period between 419.2 ±3.2 and 358.9 ±0.4 million years ago.{{sfn|International Commission on Stratigraphy|2018}}}}-[[Carboniferous]]{{efn|The Carboniferous is the geological period between 358.9 ±0.4 and 298.9 ±0.15 million years ago.{{sfn|International Commission on Stratigraphy|2018}}}} age. The rocks are intruded by and covered by [[granite]]s and [[rhyolite]]s associated with [[Permian]] volcanic rocks and the [[Choiyoi Group]]. [[Oligocene]]{{efn|The Oligocene is the geological period between 33.9 and 23.03 million years ago.{{sfn|International Commission on Stratigraphy|2018}}}} to recent volcanic rocks and volcano-sedimentary formations cover this basement.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=539}} The topography at Ojos del Salado bears evidence of what may have been past magmatic uplift.{{sfn|Perkins|Finnegan|Henderson|Rittenour|2016|p=1078}} [[Seismic tomography]] has yielded evidence of a low [[seismic velocity]] anomaly underneath the volcano that may constitute the pathway through which water emanating from the downgoing slab rises through the mantle and gives rise to melting.{{sfn|Chen|Kufner|Yuan|Heit|2020|p=15}}

Volcanism in the region commenced 26 million years ago, when the [[Farallon Plate]] broke up and subduction speed increased. Initially between 26 and 11 million years ago activity was concentrated in the Maricunga region {{convert|60|km}} west of the Ojos del Salado region, where only small-volume volcanism took place and which constituted the [[back-arc]] to the Maricunga [[volcanic arc|arc]]. Between 8–5 million years ago activity declined in the Maricunga region and increased in the Ojos del Salado region, until Maricunga volcanism ceased 4 million years ago. This shift coincided with a gradual flattening of the subduction process since the [[Miocene]]{{efn|The Miocene is the geological period between 23.03 and 5.333 million years ago.{{sfn|International Commission on Stratigraphy|2018}}}} and was accompanied by change in [[Crust (geology)|crustal]] and mantle properties that are reflected in the [[isotope ratio]]s of erupted volcanic rocks.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|pp=539, 547}} During the [[Quaternary]], volcanism formed the edifices of Cerro Solo, El Fraile, Incahuasi, [[Cerro El Muerto|El Muerto]], El Muertito, [[Falso Azufre]], [[Nevado San Francisco]], Nevado Tres Cruces and Ojos del Salado, which together cover over half of the area.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=545}} Apart from the large volcanoes, many smaller [[mafic]] [[monogenetic volcano]]es developed in the area, especially east of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Grosse|Ochi Ramacciotti|Escalante Fochi|Guzmán|2020|p=2}} Pleistocene volcanism was limited to the Ojos del Salado area, where recent [[Fault (geology)|faulting]] offset volcanic rocks.{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=440}} The large dimensions of Ojos del Salado indicate that magmatism was focused here.{{sfn|Geological Society of America|1991|pp=151–152}}

===Composition===
Volcanic rocks erupted by Ojos del Salado form a [[calc-alkaline]]{{sfn|Baker|Gonzalez-Ferrán|Rex|1987|p=90}} [[potassium]]-rich suite of dacitic rocks,{{sfn|OSE|2021}} with occasional [[andesite]] and [[rhyodacite]].{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|pp=429–428}} Earlier in the geological history of the region more mafic magmas also erupted. The rocks contain [[phenocryst]]s like [[augite]], [[biotite]], [[hornblende]], [[hypersthene]], opaque minerals, [[plagioclase]], [[pyroxene]] and [[quartz]].{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}}{{sfn|OSE|2021}} Magma mixing phenomena produced [[olivine]] and [[pyroxene]] xenocrysts and [[amphibole]] reaction rims.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=546}}

==Eruption history==
Volcanic activity probably commenced 3.3–1.5 million years ago{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=545}} or during the late Pleistocene.{{sfn|OSE|2021}} The 3.7±0.2 million years old Las Lozas Andesite may have been a precursor of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=545}} The oldest rocks of Ojos del Salado are 3.5–3.4 million years old dacites in the lower parts of the volcano.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}} Argentine geological maps define a "Ojos del Salado basal complex", which consists of a number of Miocene volcanoes that have erupted andesite and [[dacite]], partially in [[glacial]] environments.{{sfn|Rubiolo|Pereyra|Martínez|Seggiaro|2003|p=36}}

The volcano developed in two stages, with the more recent one grown on top of the older.{{sfn|Naranjo|Hevia|Arcos|Polanco|2019|p=26}} A [[somma volcano]] structure may have formed during an eruption that generated the pumice deposits on the lower slopes of the volcano, and there are potential [[air fall]] deposits north of it. Ojos del Salado may{{sfn|OSE|2021}} or may not have produced pyroclastic flows; the neighbouring Nevado Tres Cruces {{circa}} 67,000 years ago produced extensive deposits on and around Ojos del Salado and in the valley between the two volcanoes; these were originally interpreted to have originated at Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Gardeweg|Clavero|Mpodozis|Pérez de A.|2000|p=293}}{{sfn|Alvaro|Bertin|Orozco|2012|p=23}}{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=154}} A pyroclastic flow erupted by Ojos del Salado descended the Cazadero valley and constitutes the "El Quemado Ignimbrite".{{sfn|Rubiolo|Pereyra|Martínez|Seggiaro|2003|p=45}} Cerro Solo, whose emplacement was probably accompanied by intense pyroclastic flow activity,{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=435}} and lava domes in the summit region are of Pleistocene age.{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Photo Gallery}} The long-term growth rate of Ojos del Salado amounts to {{convert|0.03|-|0.04|km3/ka|mi3/ka}}.{{sfn|Grosse|Orihashi|Guzmán|Sumino|2018|p=20}}

[[Radiometric dating]] has yielded ages of 1.53 ± 0.13,{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}} 1.2 ± 0.3 million and less than one million years ago for rocks in the northwestern part of Ojos del Salado,{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=542}} 1.08 ± 0.09 million years for flows underlying the summit,{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=169}} 1.08 ± 0.04 million years for the northern flank of Ojos del Salado, 700,000±50,000 for its western flank, 450,000±60,000 for El Muerto,{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|pp=429–428}} 340,000 ± 190,000 years for the summit rocks,{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=169}} and 230,000±40,000 years for El Fraile.{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|pp=429–428}} Lava flows and a lava dome on the northern flank have yielded ages of 100,000 ± 17,000 and 35,000 years, respectively.{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=154}}{{sfn|Gardeweg|Clavero|Mpodozis|Pérez de A.|2000|p=292}} The "El Quemado Ignimbrite" may be either 200,000 or less than 50,000 years old.{{sfn|Rubiolo|Pereyra|Martínez|Seggiaro|2003|p=46}} The youngest dates reported are 30,000 years ago.{{sfn|Kereszturi|Aszalos|Zs|Igneczi|2022|p=3}}

===Holocene and historical activity===
The volcano produced lava flows during the Holocene,{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}} which cover an area of {{convert|120|km2}}, as well as pumice deposits at Laguna Verde and elongated fractures in the summit region.{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Photo Gallery}} A [[rhyodacitic]] eruption{{sfn|OSE|2021}} was dated with [[tephrochronology]] to have occurred 750 ± 250 [[Common Era|CE]],{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Eruptive History}} and may have deposited tephra over the [[Bolson de Fiambala]] and in the Tafí and Villa Vil areas of northwestern Argentina.{{sfn|Báez|Bardelli|Sampietro-Vattuone|Peña Monné|2024|p=12}} Many volcanic rocks have a fresh appearance but there is no clear evidence of recent activity.{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=154}}

There are no confirmed historical eruptions{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}}{{efn|Historical eruptions may have been missed, however, due to the remote location of the volcano.{{sfn|Siebert|Simkin|Kimberly|2019|p=11}}}} and the volcano is presently inactive.{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=53}} In November 1993, observers witnessed ash and steam columns on two separate days{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Latest Activity Reports}} but no deformation of the volcano was observed by satellites during this occasion.{{sfn|Pritchard|Simons|2004|p=10}} An ash cloud observed on June 13, 2015, and which led to a warnings about volcanic ash to aircraft turned out to be wind-blown [[volcanic ash]] in the [[Fiambala]] valley.{{sfn|Mingari|Collini|Folch|Báez|2017|pp=6759–6760}} [[Seismic activity]] has been reported.{{sfn|Murray-Bergquist|Garcia Pina|Thorwart|Ulloa|2024}}

===Hazards===
There is no information on volcanic hazards at Ojos del Salado{{sfn|OSE|2021}} and volcanic hazards in the Central Volcanic Zone are poorly reconnoitred,{{sfn|Bertin|Baez|Caffe|Elissondo|2018|p=15}} but a 2018 presentation at the [[University of Auckland]] ranked it 14th of 38 Argentine volcanoes{{sfn|Bertin|Baez|Caffe|Elissondo|2018|p=4}} and the Chilean geological agency [[SERNAGEOMIN]] 75th out of 92, thus as a very low risk volcano.{{sfn|SERNAGEOMIN|2019}} The latter has published hazard maps for the Chilean part of the volcano.{{sfn|Alvaro|Bertin|Orozco|2012|loc=Mapa1, Mapa2}} Future eruptions would most likely produce lava domes, lava flows and minor [[explosive eruption|explosive]] activity,{{sfn|Alvaro|Bertin|Orozco|2012|p=23}} and the presence of ice on the mountain makes it a potential source for [[lahar]]s.{{sfn|Seynova|Chernomorets|Dokukin|Petrakov|2017|p=106}} Effects would most likely be limited to the direct surroundings of the volcano, such as highway {{ill|Chile Route 31|es|Ruta 31-CH}}.{{sfn|Alvaro|Bertin|Orozco|2012|p=23}}

===Fumarolic activity===
There are [[fumarole]]s that emit sulfurous fumes.{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=53}} Polish climbers in 1937 first observed this activity, {{convert|650|ft|m|order=flip}} below the summit{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=76}} and in the summit crater.{{sfn|Naranjo|Hevia|Arcos|Polanco|2019|p=26}} Fumarolic activity appears to be linked to a [[rift]] structure on the volcano.{{sfn|OSE|2021}} Climbers in 1957 reported that the fumaroles were noisy and the emissions intense enough that with unfavourable winds they could suffocate people.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=89}} The fumaroles can be observed from [[satellite]]s in the form of temperature anomalies which reach {{convert|4|K-change}} above background temperatures,{{sfn|Jay|Welch|Pritchard|Mares|2013|p=164}} but the steam plumes are poorly visible from the ground except from close distance{{sfn|Jay|Welch|Pritchard|Mares|2013|p=169}} or during episodes of increased fumarolic activity.{{sfn|Alam|Muñoz|2024|p=5}} [[Geyser]]s have been reported in the summit region.{{sfn|Halloy|1991|p=248}} [[Hot spring]]s occur at the shores of Laguna Verde{{sfn|Alam|Muñoz|2024|p=3}} which may be part of a [[hydrothermal]] circulation system of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Alam|Muñoz|2024|p=7}} According to a 2020 publication, the mountain was being evaluated for the generation of [[geothermal power]].{{sfn|Picighelli|2023|p=33}}

==Climate==
Detailed climate data do not exist for the area.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=66}} The Puna de Atacama region has an extreme climate with strong wind, high elevation, a dry climate{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=4}} and high [[insolation]];{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=62}} the area is in{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|p=25}} or just south of the [[Arid Diagonal]].{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=61}}

Temperatures at lower elevations can exceed {{convert|10|C}} but mean annual temperatures only reach {{convert|-10|C}}.{{sfn|Kereszturi|2018|p=1}} Mean winds at Laguna Verde reach maximum speeds of {{convert|8|-|10|m/s}} in winter, on the mountaintops they can exceed {{convert|10|m/s}} and can impede climbing attempts. Winds blow strongest in the afternoon.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=62}} The winds produce [[aeolian landform]]s such as aeolian [[sediment]]s,{{sfn|Rubiolo|Pereyra|Martínez|Seggiaro|2003|p=46}} [[dune]]s, gravel pavements, [[Abrasion (geology)|abraded]] rocks and megaripples at lower elevations,{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|pp=9–10}} and redeposit snow.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=62}}

Precipitation consists mostly of [[hail]] and snow.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=67}} It either amounts to less than {{convert|150|mm}} per year{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=453}} or reaches {{convert|300|-|500|mm}} per year. Compared to sites farther north, precipitation falls primarily during winter,{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=61}} although snowfall is common in summer.{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=453}} Precipitation probably peaks at {{convert|5500|m}} where the [[cloud base]] lies;{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=62}} above that elevation it decreases to about {{convert|200|mm}}.{{sfn|Naranjo|Hevia|Arcos|Polanco|2019|p=10}} Snow cover in the area is sporadic{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=7}} and quickly sublimates,{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|p=603}} which hinders its measurement;{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=453}} the average snow cover is less than {{convert|5|cm}} thick.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=10}}

==Vegetation and fauna==
[[File:Boulders on Ojos del Salado (4320255611).jpg|alt=Isolated boulders resting on a steep slope|thumb|Bouldery landscape of Ojos del Salado]]
Due to the dry climate, the region is a [[desert]] with little vegetation occurring above {{convert|4600|m}} elevation,{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|p=603}} and none above {{convert|4900|m}}.{{sfn|Storz|Quiroga-Carmona|Liphardt|Herrera|2024|p=729}} However, [[lichen]]s and [[moss]]es have been found at higher elevations{{sfn|Halloy|1991|p=252}} and green growths have been reported from the summit region.{{sfn|Halloy|1991|p=248}} {{As of|2007}}, there were no reports of plants in the waterbodies on Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Seimon|Halloy|Seimon|2007|p=341}} Salt, acid and cold-tolerant [[bacteria]] have been recovered from sediments in the lakes on Ojos del Salado, consistent with microorganism samples from similar dry volcanic environments.{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|p=612}}

A diverse flora and fauna has been described in the lower elevation regions south-southeast of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|González|Würschmidt|2008|p=59}} Birds such as [[duck]]s, [[flamingo]]s and [[geese]] and mammals such as [[guanaco]]s and [[vicuña]]s occur in the Santa Rosa-Maricunga-Negro Francisco region.{{sfn|Informacíon turística|2021}} [[Chinchilla]]s and vicuñas live in the valleys south of Ojos del Salado, and have drawn humans to the region.{{sfn|Roig|1955|p=325}} [[Phyllotes|Mice]] venture to elevations of {{convert|5250|m}},{{sfn|Storz|Quiroga-Carmona|Liphardt|Herrera|2024|pp=729,733}} and [[earwig]]s have been observed at {{convert|5960|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Halloy|1983|p=104}}

==Human history==
As Ojos del Salado is hidden behind{{sfn|Carter|1957b|p=241}} and nested among many peaks of similar elevation, for centuries travellers and mountaineers paid little attention to the mountain.{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74–75}} Its remoteness meant that for a long time, both its elevation and exact topography were unclear.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=66}} The positions and names of the mountains were frequently confused.{{sfn|Roig|1955|p=334}}{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74–75}}

The [[Inca Empire|Inca]] used the Paso San Francisco as a major crossing of the Andes{{sfn|Rundel|Kleier|2014|p=3}} but there is no evidence of them building any [[archeological site|structure]]s on Ojos del Salado{{efn|
The explorer [[Johan Reinhard]] was referenced in a 2002 publication to have found an [[Inca]] [[archeological site]] on Ojos del Salado{{sfn|Ratto|Plá|Orgaz|2002|p=276}} but the archaeologist [[Nicholas J. Saunders]] reported an absence of [[ruin]]s on the mountain in 1992{{sfn|Saunders|1992|p=170}} and Johan Reinhard likewise mentioned that there were no ruins on Ojos del Salado in that year.{{sfn|Reinhard|1992|p=170}}}}{{sfn|Reinhard|1992|p=170}} even though a number of such sites exist in the surrounding region.{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2019|p=6}} The [[Spanish people|Spanish]] [[conquistador]] [[Diego de Almagro]]{{sfn|Erdmann|1963|p=18}} crossed the Andes at Ojos del Salado but did not mention it.{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74–75}}{{efn|The large losses of animals and men during the crossing may have been the inspiration for the many death-themed mountain names in the region.{{sfn|Rundel|Kleier|2014|p=3}}}} Ojos del Salado is likewise absent from the 1861 plans of [[William Wheelwright]] for a railway across Paso San Francisco.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=71}} The explorer [[Walter Penck]] crossed the area in 1912/13 and 1913/14{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=53}} but did not identify the mountain.{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=54}}

===Ascents and debate on elevation===
In 1896, 1897 and 1903 the Chile-Argentina boundary commission identified a peak in the area and named it "Ojos del Salado";{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74–75}} according to a myth{{sfn|Echevarría|1999|p=167}} their "Ojos del Salado" was a much smaller mountain and the actual Ojos del Salado was their "Peak 'e'".{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74–75}} The [[Polish people|Polish]] climbers {{ill|Justyn Wojsznis|pl|Justyn Wojsznis}} and [[Jan Alfred Szczepański|Jan Szczepański]] from the [[1930s Polish Andean expeditions|Second Polish Andean Expedition]]{{sfn|Marek|2016|p=88}} reached the summit on February 26, 1937{{sfn|Carter|1957b|p=241}} and left a [[cairn]]{{efn|Later Austrian climbers found out that the cairn was not located on the exact summit of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Carter|1957b|p=241}}}}{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=88}} but most of the maps and report they drafted were lost during [[World War II]].{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=72}}

After the Polish expedition, the mountain remained unclimbed until 1955, although expeditions went to its lower slopes and sometimes confused other peaks for Ojos del Salado. In that year an expedition from [[Tucumán]]{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=76}} ascended a mountain south of Ojos del Salado, which they mistook for the volcano. They stated that the peak may be higher than Aconcagua, which media reported as if it were proven fact.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=77}} These measurements set off a debate whether Ojos del Salado was higher than [[Aconcagua]] and thus the highest summit of the [[Western Hemisphere]],{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=74}} and drew attention to the mountain. Three separate Chilean, Argentine and Austrian parties went to Ojos del Salado in 1956; the Chilean party measured an elevation of {{convert|7084|m}} with a [[barometer]], a value that was once again presented as proven by the press{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=77}} despite the unreliability of this technique.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=78}} The Chilean party also claimed seeing the Argentine [[pampa]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]] from the summit.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=90}} In 1957, the official elevation of Ojos del Salado was {{convert|6870|m}} according to Argentina and {{convert|6880|m}} according to Chile.{{sfn|Carter|1957b|p=240}}

The debate on the elevation and confusion about which mountain was Ojos del Salado and who climbed which peak prompted an expedition by the [[American Alpine Club]] in 1956.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=78}} The expedition was hindered by bad weather conditions{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=83}} and a gust of wind stretching a measurement line may have almost frustrated the goal to determine the summit elevation of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=85}} The same party later used [[geodetic]] methods to establish the elevation of Ojos del Salado as {{convert|6885.5|±|3|m}} and lower than{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=93,96}} the {{convert|6960|m}} high Aconcagua.{{sfn|Marti|2014|p=184}} In 1989, Francesco Santon of the [[University of Padua]] in Italy, with Argentine assistance, used [[GPS]]-based positioning to determine an elevation of {{convert|6900|±|5|m}}.{{sfn|Secor|Kukathas|Thomas|1999|p=23}}

==Mountaineering and tourism==
Ojos del Salado and the surrounding mountains draw fewer mountaineers than Aconcagua, with only several hundred climbers every year. Since the 1990s commercial tours have become important facilitators for ascents,{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=74}} and the number of climbers has increased in the 21st century. Ojos del Salado is one of the [[Second Seven Summits]] and [[Volcanic Seven Summits]] mountaineering challenges. It is easier to climb than an [[eight thousander]] owing to its lower elevation and the absence of rock faces and ice,{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|p=24}} but the high elevation,{{efn|The topography of the region with the mountain rising sharply from a high-altitude region makes [[acclimatization]] difficult, and medical resources to deal with [[acute mountain sickness]] are far away.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|p=29}}}} cold, dry and windy weather{{efn|Winds are a significant nuisance for mountaineers, damaging equipment, blinding people and causing dangerous [[wind chill]].{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|p=32}}}} and impassable terrain are common challenges for would-be climbers{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|p=37}} and only a third of all climbing attempts reach the summit.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|p=25}} The mountain can be ascended from both the Argentine and the Chilean side, but owing to the better logistics most ascents occur from the Chilean side.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=74}} The increasing mountaineering activities on Ojos del Salado have raised concerns about environmental impacts.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|p=28}}

Ascent from the Chilean side is easier as the first refuge can be reached by car, but the actual climb is easier from the Argentine side.{{sfn|Legienis|2014|p=141}} A dirt road departing from the {{ill|Chile Route 31|es|Ruta 31-CH}} highway to Paso San Francisco heads south to Ojos del Salado, past Refugio Murray to the [[Bivouac shelter|bivouac]] Refugio Universidad de Atacama/Jorge Rojas at {{convert|5200|m}} elevation,{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}} from there a path goes to Refugio Tejos at {{convert|5825|m}} elevation and eventually to the summit of Ojos del Salado through scree-covered slopes and a steep ridge/[[couloir]] at the end.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=75}}{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|p=24}} Ropes and supports are available.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|p=24}} Between 2004 and 2015, a Chilean company held a mountaineering [[Concession (contract)|concession]] for the Chilean side and maintained the infrastructure there; after the end of the concession maintenance resumed in 2018.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|pp=27–28}} From Argentina, the path runs from Cazadero Grande (Quemadito hut) along a large creek to its origin at Aguas Calientes at {{convert|4200|m}}. From there it continues first up dry valleys to Acqua di Vicuna at {{convert|4950|m}} elevation, to the El Arenal plateau at {{convert|5500|m}} elevation and eventually along various routes to Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Legienis|2014|p=142}} The mountain is also accessible by vehicle, up to {{convert|6650|m}}{{sfn|Nagy|László|Zsolt|p=51}} or {{convert|5900|m}} elevation, through a dirt road built after a [[helicopter]] accident in 1994.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács-Székely|Pereira|2023|pp=25–27}}

West of the volcano lies the [[Nevado Tres Cruces National Park]]{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=60}} and in 1991/1994 there were plans to make a national park on the Argentine side as well.{{sfn|Messerli|Grosjean|Vuille|1997|p=236}} {{As of|2020}}, the establishment of a "zone of touristic interest" encompassing Ojos del Salado was under discussion in Chile.{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2020}}

==Other uses==
[[Astronomers]] have surveyed the volcano for the possibility of creating an [[observatory]] there.{{sfn|OSE|2021}}{{efn|Brunier 1989 discussed astronomical observations on Ojos del Salado rather than directly making an observatory there.{{sfn|Brunier|1989|pp=366–369}}}} The [[landform]]s such as the gullies{{sfn|Kereszturi|2020|p=736}} and crater lakes and their conditions,{{sfn|Aszalós|Szabó|Felföldi|Jurecska|2020|p=752}} and climatic conditions around Ojos del Salado have also led researchers to investigate it as a potential analogue to environments on [[Mars]].{{sfn|Kereszturi|2018|p=1}} The volcano is one of several depicted on [[Chilean passport]]s.{{sfn|Acuña|Clunes|Riffo Valdebenito|Browning|2024|p=277}}

Numerous record-high altitude attempts with vehicles have been carried out at Ojos del Salado, including with [[car]]s,{{sfn|Guinness World Records|2007}} [[electric vehicle]]s,{{sfn|Guinness World Records|2015}} [[motorcycle]]s{{sfn|Guinness World Records|2020}} and [[utility vehicle]]s.{{sfn|Guinness World Records|2020b}} A modified car was driven to an elevation of {{convert|6688|m}} in 2015.{{sfn|Guinness World Records|2015}}

==See also==
* [[List of volcanoes in Argentina]]
* [[List of volcanoes in Chile]]
* [[Lists of volcanoes]]
* [[Llullaillaco]]
* [[Monte Pissis]]
* [[Tipas]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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{{refend}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last1=Biggar |first1=John |title=The Andes: A Guide for Climbers |date=2005 |publisher=Andes |isbn=978-0-9536087-2-0 |language=en |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Radehose |first1=Eckehard |title=Traumberge Amerikas: von Alaska bis Feuerland |date=2002 |publisher=Bergverlag Rother GmbH |isbn=978-3-7633-3006-5 |language=de |ref=none}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ojos del Salado}}
* {{cite thesis|ref=none|language=de|title=Erstellung der Alpenvereinskarte "Nevado Ojos del Salado"|last=Fleischer|first=K.|url=https://tu-dresden.de/bu/umwelt/geo/ifk/studium/abschlussarbeiten?fis_type=abschlussarbeit&fis_id=292|year=2004}}
* [http://www.andeshandbook.org/montanismo/cerro/8/Ojos_del_Salado Complete description of Ojos del Salado in Andeshandbook]
* [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap061202.html December 1, 2006, Star Trails at 19,000 Feet] – NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day
* [http://www.andes.org.uk/andes-information-files/6000m-peaks.asp Andes information]
* [http://www.andes-specialists.com/andean-mountains-5000/ Ojos del Salado Satellite Elevation Data]
* [http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=8569 Peak bagger]
* [http://www.summitpost.org/show/mountain_link.pl/mountain_id/126 Summit post]
* [http://www.peaklist.org/WWsurveys/SA/ojos.html Peak list]
* [https://www.4dvt.com/ojos-del-salado-chile-argentina.html Virtual Aerial Video] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505014023/https://www.4dvt.com/ojos-del-salado-chile-argentina.html |date=May 5, 2019 }}
* [https://chilemontana.com/blog/acclimatization-chilemontana-tips Acclimatization for altitude climbs in the Andes]
 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505014023/https://www.4dvt.com/ojos-del-salado-chile-argentina.html |date=May 5, 2019 }}

{{Mountains of Argentina}}
{{Andean volcanoes}}
{{Seven Second Summits}}
{{Volcanic Seven Summits}}{{Highest points of South America}}
{{Authority control}}<!--Note that Category:Stratovolcanoes of Chile is a subcat of Category:Mountains of Chile -->

[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Chile]]
[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Argentina]]
[[Category:Seven Second Summits]]
[[Category:Volcanic Seven Summits]]
[[Category:Active volcanoes]]
[[Category:Andean Volcanic Belt]]
[[Category:Volcanic crater lakes]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Atacama Region]]
[[Category:Mountains of Atacama Region]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Catamarca Province]]
[[Category:Mountains of Catamarca Province]]
[[Category:Atacama Desert]]
[[Category:Argentina–Chile border]]
[[Category:International mountains of South America]]
[[Category:Highest points of countries]]
[[Category:Six-thousanders of the Andes]]
[[Category:Pleistocene stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Holocene stratovolcanoes]]