View source for October 1999 Mexico floods

{{Short description|1999 flood in Mexico}}
{{Infobox flood
|name=October 1999 Mexico flood
|image name=Satellite image of Tropical Depression Eleven near eastern Mexico
|image location=Tropical Depression Eleven 4 Oct 2147z.png
|duration=September–October 1999
|total damages=$491.3&nbsp;million (1999&nbsp;[[United States dollar|USD]])<br />4.7&nbsp;billion pesos (1999&nbsp;[[Mexican peso|MXN]]){{#tag:ref|All damage totals are in 1999 [[United States dollar]]s (USD). In Mexico, totals are in USD first, then converted to 1999 [[Mexican pesos]] (MXN) using the [[Oanda Corporation]] website.<ref name="oanda">{{cite web|publisher=Oanda Corporation|year=2013|title=Historical Exchange Rates|access-date=2013-04-01|url=http://www.oanda.com/currency/historical-rates/|archive-date=2013-10-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004000103/http://www.oanda.com/currency/historical-rates/|url-status=dead}}</ref>|group="nb"}}
|total fatalities=636 total
|areas affected=[[Central America]], [[Mexico]]
}}
In October 1999, severe flooding affected portions of eastern Mexico and Central America. Rainfall in September preceded the primary event in Mexico, which moistened soils. On October&nbsp;4, [[1999 Atlantic hurricane season#Tropical Depression Eleven|Tropical Depression Eleven]] developed in the [[Gulf of Mexico]], which drew humidity from the gulf and the Pacific Ocean to produce torrential rainfall in mountainous regions of eastern Mexico, reaching {{convert|43.23|in|mm|abbr=on}} in [[Jalacingo, Veracruz]]. This was the [[Mexico tropical cyclone rainfall climatology|third-highest tropical cyclone-related rainfall total in Mexico]] from 1980–2006, and the event caused the highest rainfall related to tropical cyclones in [[Veracruz]], [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], and [[Puebla]]. In some locations, the daily rainfall represented over 10% of the annual precipitation total. The heaviest rainfall occurred in mountainous regions that were the mouths of several rivers. A broad [[trough (meteorology)|trough]] absorbed the depression on October&nbsp;6, and rainfall continued for the next few days. Additional rainfall occurred in [[Tabasco]] state on October&nbsp;18. The floods were estimated as a [[return period|1 in 67 year event]] in one location, although such floods are expected to affect eastern Mexico twice per century, the last time being 1944.

Throughout Mexico, the floods killed at least 379&nbsp;people, according to the federal government, and as many as 600 according to relief agencies; the [[Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters]] later estimated there were 636&nbsp;deaths, and damage in Mexico was estimated at $451.3&nbsp;million (4.3&nbsp;billion pesos). Nationwide, the floods damaged or destroyed 90,000&nbsp;houses, which left about 500,000&nbsp;people homeless. Flooding caused thousands of landslides, many in more populated areas than the flooding in 1944. The floods also caused 39&nbsp;rivers to overflow, and the combination of floods and landslides destroyed bridges, houses, widespread crop fields, schools, and electrical networks. Impact was worst in Puebla, where damage totaled $240&nbsp;million (2.1&nbsp;billion pesos) and many roads were washed out. Landslides in the state killed 107&nbsp;people in [[Teziutlán]]. Elsewhere in the country, the floods washed crocodiles into the streets of [[Villahermosa]], the capital of Tabasco, and in [[Oaxaca]], the rainfall occurred after an [[1999 Oaxaca earthquake|earthquake]] left thousands homeless. Flooding also extended into Central America in late September through early October, causing $40&nbsp;million (385&nbsp;million pesos) in crop damage and 70&nbsp;deaths.

After the floods receded, [[President of Mexico|Mexican President]] [[Ernesto Zedillo]] ordered the Department of National Defense to utilize all resources to assist the people affected by the floods. More than 94,000&nbsp;people stayed at 896&nbsp;shelters after being evacuated due to the floods. The federal government allocated $234&nbsp;million (2.34 billion pesos) in relief, which was smaller than the damage total. Widespread medical teams assisted tens of thousands of homes, and due to prevention measures, there were no outbreaks of diseases. Roads and electrical systems were gradually restored, and students returned to school after repairs were made. Residents throughout Mexico sent supplies to the [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|Mexican Red Cross]], including 500&nbsp;tons of food and water, and international agencies sent money and supplies to the flood victims.

==Meteorological history==
{{storm path|11-L 1999 track.png|left|caption=Storm path of the tropical depression}}
Beginning around September&nbsp;10, heavy rainfall occurred sporadically in southern Mexico and into Central America,<ref>{{cite report|publisher=Dartmouth Flood Observatory|title=Flood Hydroclimatological Analysis: 09/12/99-10/12/99|access-date=2013-03-16|url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/99079.html}}</ref> influenced by a broader storm system related to [[Hurricane Floyd]].<ref name="dr107"/> Toward the end of September, heavy rainfall occurred in the mountains of northeastern Mexico, which prompted officials to open flood gates.<ref name="rain">{{cite report|author=David M. Roth|date=2013-03-06|title=Tropical Depression #11 - September 30-October 9, 1999|publisher=Weather Prediction Center|access-date=2013-03-11|url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/td11of1999.html}}</ref> The rains occurred throughout Mexico for about two weeks before the worst of the precipitation began,<ref name="dr107">{{cite report|author=Cynthia Long|publisher=Disaster Relief|date=1999-10-07|title=Deadly floods deluge Central America, Mexico hardest hit with 139 dead or missing|access-date=2013-03-14|via=ReliefWeb|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/deadly-floods-deluge-central-america-mexico-hardest-hit-139-dead-or-missing-0}}</ref> and saturated soils before the heaviest rainfall in October.<ref name="coping"/>

On October&nbsp;4, Tropical Depression Eleven developed in the [[Bay of Campeche]] about {{convert|145|mi|km|abbr=on}} northeast of [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]], having originated from a [[tropical wave]]. Due to weak [[tropical cyclone#Steering winds|steering currents]], the depression moved erratically, initially to the south and later to the west-northwest. It failed to intensify due to a surface [[trough (meteorology)|trough]] over the central and eastern Gulf of Mexico,<ref name="tcr">{{cite report|author=Jack Beven|date=1999-12-01|title=Tropical Depression Eleven Preliminary Report|publisher=National Hurricane Center|access-date=2013-03-11|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1999eleven.html}}</ref> connected to a [[cold front]]. While the depression was drifting, it produced large areas of [[convection (meteorology)|convection]] over eastern Mexico,<ref>{{cite report|author=Miles Lawrence|date=1999-10-05|title=Tropical Depression Eleven Discussion Three|publisher=National Hurricane Center|access-date=2013-03-11|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/1999/dis/NAL1199.003.html}}</ref> aided by high humidity from the gulf and from the Pacific Ocean.<ref name="satori"/> On October&nbsp;6, the circulation was absorbed into the trough,<ref name="tcr"/> although rainfall continued to occur through October&nbsp;9.<ref name="rain"/> A week later, [[Hurricane Irene (1999)|Hurricane Irene]] affected southern Mexico with strong rains.<ref name="cws"/> Additional rainfall occurred on October&nbsp;18 in Tabasco, causing further flooding; the waters in the state began receding on October&nbsp;28.<ref name="dfo">{{cite report|publisher=Dartmouth Flood Observatory|title=Flood Hydroclimatological Analysis: 10/12/99-10/28/99|access-date=2013-03-16|url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/99082.html}}</ref> The wet conditions in eastern Mexico, occurring at the same time as hot, dry conditions elsewhere in the country, were possibly related to [[La Niña]] conditions.<ref>{{cite news|agency=Reuters|author=James Crombie|date=1999-10-28|title=La Niña Blamed For Weird Mexican Weather|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-29|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/la-ni%C3%B1a-blamed-weird-mexican-weather}}</ref>

Due to easterly [[wind shear]] and the convection along the storm's western periphery, the tropical depression dropped heavy rainfall in the [[Administrative divisions of Mexico|states]] of [[Puebla]], [[Tabasco]], [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], and [[Veracruz]], peaking at {{convert|43.23|in|mm|abbr=on}} in [[Jalacingo, Veracruz]].<ref name="rain"/> This was the highest rainfall total in Veracruz from 1981 to 2010; statewide record peaks were also reported in Puebla and Hidalgo.<ref>{{cite report|title=Maximum Rainfall Caused by Tropical Cyclones and Their Remnants per Mexican State (1981–2010)|date=2008-10-08|access-date=2013-03-11|url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/tcmexicostatemaxima.gif|format=GIF}}</ref> The depression was the third [[List of wettest tropical cyclones by country#Mexico|wettest tropical cyclone in Mexico]] from 1983 to 2006, after [[Hurricane Wilma]] in 2005 and [[Tropical Storm Frances (1998)|Tropical Storm Frances]] in 1998.<ref name="rain"/> The heaviest of the rainfall occurred along the [[Sierra Madre Oriental]], which is a mountain range in eastern Mexico and the source for several regionally important rivers. [[Tuxpan, Veracruz]] recorded 6.2&nbsp;in (157.7&nbsp;mm) in a 24‑hour period on October&nbsp;4, which was greater than the average October rainfall there and was about one-ninth of the annual total. A station in Hidalgo reported 4.02&nbsp;in (102&nbsp;mm) on October&nbsp;4, which was also greater than the average October rainfall and was about one-eighth of the annual total. The [[return period]] was estimated as high as a 1&nbsp;in 67&nbsp;year event at [[Xicotepec (municipality)|Xicotepec, Puebla]], and it was estimated that such floods in Mexico occur only twice per century;<ref name="coping"/> similar floods occurred in September 1944 in the same region, although the area was less populated then.<ref name="satori">{{cite journal|author=José Lugo-Hubp|author2=José Juan Zamorano-Orozco|author3=Lucia Capra|author4=Moshe Inbar|author5=Irasema Alcántara-Ayala|title=Los procesos de remoción en masa en la Sierra Norte de Puebla, octubre de 1999: Causa y efectos|journal=[[Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas]]|volume=22|number=2|year=2005|language=es|url=http://satori.geociencias.unam.mx/22-2/(6)Lugo.pdf|access-date=2013-04-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928004335/http://satori.geociencias.unam.mx/22-2/(6)Lugo.pdf|archive-date=2007-09-28|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Impact==

===Mexico===
[[File:Tropdepress11 5 10 99.JPG|right|thumb|Another satellite view of Tropical Depression Eleven near eastern Mexico]]
Across eastern Mexico, the heavy rainfall caused mudslides and floods,<ref name="afp107"/> which damaged or destroyed 90,000&nbsp;houses,<ref name="gom1018">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-18|title=Mexico: Overview of support given to flood victims|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-overview-support-given-flood-victims}}</ref> and damaged or destroyed about 3,088,000&nbsp;acres (1,250,000&nbsp;hectares) of crop fields;<ref name="oxfam29">{{cite report|publisher=[[Oxfam]]|via=ReliefWeb|date=1999-10-29|title=Oxfam Emergency Briefing: Mexico Floods|access-date=2013-03-29|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/oxfam-emergency-briefing-mexico-floods}}</ref> thousands of livestock were also killed.<ref name="afp1012"/> The floods affected 819 [[Municipalities of Mexico]] in 17&nbsp;[[Administrative divisions of Mexico|states]] and the [[Mexico City|federal district]],<ref name="car109"/> leaving about 500,000&nbsp;people homeless, of whom half were in Tabasco and Veracruz states.<ref name="gom1028b"/> Several ports were closed due to the floods.<ref name="bbc107">{{cite news|publisher=BBC|date=1999-10-07|title=Floods devastate Mexico|access-date=2013-03-29|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/467395.stm}}</ref> Although power lines were downed, most electrical systems were not damaged, and power was quickly restored within a week in most areas.<ref name="gom1013"/> A total of 39&nbsp;rivers overflowed,<ref name="coping">{{cite book|author=María Teresa Váquez Conde|author2=José Lugo|author3=Lucía Guadalupe Matías|title=Coping with Flash Floods|year=2001|chapter=Heavy Rainfall Effects in Mexico During Early October 1999|pages=289–296|editor1-first=Eve|editor1-last=Gruntfest|editor2-first=John|editor2-last=Handmer|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|location=The Netherlands|isbn=9780792368250|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pwsczTbbY9sC&pg=PA289}}</ref> which washed away bridges, roads, dams, and some entire houses,<ref name="dr107"/><ref name="reut105">{{cite report|publisher=Reuters|date=1999-10-05|title=Floods kill 64 in Mexico, disaster declared|author=Michael Christie|via=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-14|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/floods-kill-64-mexico-disaster-declared}}</ref> and there were thousands of landslides, mostly in unpopulated areas.<ref name="coping"/> Collectively, 28&nbsp;federal highways and 300&nbsp;rural roads were closed or damaged.<ref name="gom1018"/> The [[List of Mexican Federal Highways|federal highway network]] sustained damage in 1,237&nbsp;locations as a result of 1,164&nbsp;landslides or mudslides and 28&nbsp;damaged bridges.<ref name="gom1028"/> Damage was estimated at $451.3&nbsp;million (4.3&nbsp;billion pesos).<ref name="emdat">{{cite report|author=EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED|publisher=Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels (Belgium)|url=http://www.emdat.be/|title=International Disaster Database|access-date=2013-03-31}}</ref>

The death toll was 61 as of October&nbsp;6,<ref name="mex106"/> and a day later it reached about 250.<ref name="afp107">{{cite report|publisher=Agence France-Presse|date=1999-10-07|via=ReliefWeb|title=Storms kill about 250 in Mexico; more feared dead|access-date=2013-03-16|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/storms-kill-about-250-mexico-more-feared-dead}}</ref> The Mexican government reported 341 deaths on October&nbsp;13, excluding victims in a landslide in Acalama, Puebla,<ref name="gom1012"/> and the total reached 379 by October&nbsp;28.<ref name="gom1028b"/> However, non-government agencies reported 500&nbsp;deaths in Mexico by October&nbsp;9,<ref name="car109"/> and as many as 600 as of mid-November.<ref name="ec"/> The International Disaster Database, published by the [[Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters]], reported 636&nbsp;deaths from the floods.<ref name="emdat"/> The high death toll, in comparison to similar floods in 1944, was due to more landslides and flooding in more populated areas.<ref name="satori"/> About 500,000&nbsp;people were injured.<ref name="car109"/>

In [[Tulancingo]], Hidalgo, a nearby river flooded 6,750&nbsp;houses and buildings, reaching 3&nbsp;ft (1&nbsp;m) in some places and affecting about half of the town. Elsewhere in Hidalgo, the rains collapsed a mine in [[San Salvador, Hidalgo|San Salvador]], burying seven people.<ref name="reut105"/> A total of 8,342&nbsp;people had to evacuate to 75&nbsp;shelters.<ref name="car109"/> The combination of washouts and landslides damaged 168&nbsp;rural roads<ref name="gom1012"/> and 36&nbsp;state highways, causing $3.85&nbsp;million (38&nbsp;million pesos) in damage. Fourteen people died statewide.<ref name="car109"/> In the state of Tabasco, rivers reached their highest stage in about 40&nbsp;years,<ref name="reut105"/> affecting about 75% of the state by October&nbsp;8.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|via=ReliefWeb|title=Mexico - Floods OCHA Situation Report No. 2|date=1999-10-08|access-date=2013-03-17|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-floods-ocha-situation-report-no-2}}</ref> About {{convert|5|ft|m|abbr=on}} of flooding was reported in some places,<ref name="dr107"/> which washed crocodiles into streets in the capital city, [[Villahermosa]].<ref name="bbc107"/> Statewide, over 58,000&nbsp;people had to evacuate due to flooding, including portions of Villahermosa,<ref name="reut105"/> where 90,955&nbsp;people were injured.<ref name="car109"/> In the city, 1,600&nbsp;prisoners had to be transported after a jail was flooded.<ref name="r108"/> Nine people died in the state.<ref name="car109"/> Additional floods caused further flooding later in October.<ref name="gom1028"/>

Flooding was considered worst in Puebla,<ref name="dr107"/> and were the worst floods in about 400&nbsp;years, according to newspaper reports.<ref name="dr1012"/> A total of 21,342&nbsp;people evacuated their houses to 116&nbsp;shelters,<ref name="car109"/> mostly in the state's northern portion.<ref name="dr107"/> The floods affected 16,511&nbsp;houses and 199&nbsp;schools.<ref name="satori"/> In [[Teziutlán]], with a population of about 50,000,<ref name="coping"/> it is estimated the city received nearly half of its annual rainfall in about three days.<ref name="gom1011"/> Nine entire communities became isolated due to the floods,<ref name="car109"/> and the small village of Patla sustained heavy damage after the [[Necaxa River]] changed its course closer to the town.<ref name="satori"/> Widespread landslides occurred, including over 80 in Teziutlán alone; one mudslide there destroyed 80&nbsp;houses.<ref name="dr107"/> Some of the landslides occurred along rivers and produced new lakes, but 85% of these broke within the first year. Population growth, primarily in Teziutlán and Zaragoza, occurred in landslide-prone areas along mountains. Along [[Sierra Norte de Puebla]], deforestation contributed to additional landslides.<ref name="coping"/> A landslide covered the Zacatepec River near Zempoala, creating a natural dam and a small lake.<ref name="world1013"/> Mudslides buried at least 16&nbsp;people at a school in [[Pantepec, Puebla|Pantepec]],<ref>{{cite news|author=Dan Trotta|agency=Reuters|date=1999-10-07|title=Mexican mudslide buries up to 70 in remote town|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-16|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexican-mudslide-buries-70-remote-town}}</ref> and a deforested hill caused a landslide in the [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous]] village of Acalama, which covered up to 170&nbsp;people.<ref name="dr1012"/> Most had fled to a church that was also covered, and it is estimated that only 30&nbsp;people survived in the village.<ref name="world1013">{{cite news|newspaper=Hurryjet Daily News|date=1999-10-13|title=Mexican village buried by mudslide|agency=Associated Press|access-date=2013-03-22|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=mexican-village-buried-by-mudslide-1999-10-13}}</ref> Statewide, 263&nbsp;people were killed,<ref name="satori"/> including 107 in Teziutlán who were buried by mudslides, becoming the worst disaster in the history of the town.<ref name="tirzo">{{cite news|author=Iván Tirzo|title=La Aurora: a 10 años del trágico deslave|date=2009-10-05|newspaper=El Occidental|access-date=2013-03-31|language=es|url=http://www.oem.com.mx/eloccidental/notas/n1350920.htm}}</ref> In the village of [[Tetela de Ocampo]], 31&nbsp;people died.<ref name="dr107"/> In Puebla, 30,000&nbsp;people were injured,<ref name="car109"/> and [[Municipalities of Puebla|81 municipalities]] sustained damage, with statewide damage estimated at about $240&nbsp;million (2.1&nbsp;billion pesos).<ref name="satori"/>

In Veracruz, 124&nbsp;people were killed in the event,<ref name="gom1028b"/> including three in a rescue helicopter crash.<ref name="bbc107"/> About 23,500&nbsp;people statewide had to evacuate to emergency shelters in 452&nbsp;communities.<ref name="r108"/> The governor declared the state as a disaster zone after 13&nbsp;rivers exceeded their banks, and two entire villages were washed away. A total of 75,135&nbsp;people were injured in Veracruz, about one third of whom became homeless due to the floods. In rural areas, 77,123&nbsp;people lost power.<ref name="car109"/> Statewide, 11&nbsp;bridges were damaged, and 22&nbsp;portions along the [[Mexican Federal Highway 180|Poza Rica-Veracruz highway]] was damaged.<ref name="zed"/> In [[Zaragoza]], the floods destroyed 91% of the year's crops.<ref name="oxfam29"/>

There were six deaths in Chiapas during the flood event.<ref name="r108">{{cite report|author=Julio Martinez|date=1999-10-08|title=Rescue Efforts Intensify As Mexican Rains Subside|via=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-17|publisher=Reuters|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/rescue-efforts-intensify-mexican-rains-subside}}</ref> In the state, four dams reached near record water levels.<ref name="car109">{{cite report|publisher=[[Caritas (charity)|Caritas]]|date=1999-10-09|title=Report on the damages rains and earthquake of 30 September in Oaxaca State|via=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-18|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/report-damages-rains-and-earthquake-30-september-oaxaca-state}}</ref> In Oaxaca, the rains left thousands homeless and disrupted work to clean up after an [[1999 Oaxaca earthquake|earthquake]] a week prior.<ref name="dr107"/> The floods displaced 800&nbsp;families, and six people died in the state.<ref name="car109"/> The floods spread as far west as Jalisco, where 3&nbsp;roads were destroyed and 12&nbsp;municipalities were affected. In nearby Michoacán, 5,000&nbsp;people were injured.<ref name="car109"/>

===Central America===
Portions of Central America also experienced flooding related to the rains, causing landslides and washing away bridges and roads.<ref name="dr107"/> Over 100,000&nbsp;people in the region had to leave their homes, and there were 70&nbsp;deaths in Central America.<ref name="scf"/> In Guatemala, 12&nbsp;people died related to the flooding, including two due to cholera from stagnant waters. Officials declared a red alert in Honduras, which mobilized the army for potential relief work and caused Red Cross shelters to open;<ref name="dr107"/> the alert was dropped after rainfall eased on October&nbsp;8.<ref name="scf"/> About 6,500&nbsp;people evacuated in Honduras after four rivers flooded, which damaged or destroyed several houses. About 6,000 people had to evacuate in [[San Pedro Sula|Sula Valley]] in the northern portion of the country, after the government released water from the [[El Cajón Dam (Honduras)|El Cajón Dam]].<ref name="dr107"/> Damage was estimated at $1.5&nbsp;million (14&nbsp;million pesos), and there were 34&nbsp;deaths.<ref name="emdat"/> Due to people having to evacuate, several schools were closed. The country was severely affected by [[Hurricane Mitch]] only a year prior, and bridges that were rebuilt after the hurricane were again destroyed.<ref name="scf"/>

A red alert was also issued in El Salvador, and 3,000&nbsp;people were evacuated; eight people drowned in the country. The [[Río Negro (Central America)|Río Negro]] in Nicaragua washed away a bridge, and two bridges were destroyed along the [[Pan-American Highway]]. A state of emergency was issued in the country.<ref name="dr107"/> Damage was estimated at $10&nbsp;million (96&nbsp;million pesos),<ref name="bbc107"/> and there were 11&nbsp;deaths.<ref name="emdat"/> Further south in Costa Rica, the floods damaged 31&nbsp;bridges and caused 1,600&nbsp;people to evacuate.<ref name="dr107"/> Across Central America, the rainfall caused about $40&nbsp;million (385&nbsp;million pesos) in crop damage.<ref name="scf"/>

==Aftermath==
[[Image:Tropical Depression Eleven 1999 rainfall.gif|thumb|right|Rainfall totals in Mexico from Tropical Depression Eleven]]
[[President of Mexico|Mexican President]] [[Ernesto Zedillo]] ordered the Department of National Defense to utilize all resources to assist the people affected by the floods, including federal workers being deployed to disaster areas.<ref name="mex106"/> Zedillo noted that despite efforts to mitigate against natural disasters, "we cannot expect to control river water levels produced by rains that have surpassed all historical precedents."<ref name="mex106"/> He personally visited flooded areas of Veracruz,<ref name="zed"/> Puebla,<ref name="gom1011">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|title=Mexico: "We are still standing and will carry on our work"|date=1999-10-11|access-date=2013-03-19|publisher=ReliefWeb|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-we-are-still-standing-and-will-carry-our-work}}</ref> Tabasco,<ref name="gom1015"/> and Oaxaca,<ref name="gom1028"/> having canceled a trip to Europe to focus on the disaster.<ref name="gom109"/> The president ordered nearly all agencies of government to work together to quickly return conditions back to normal,<ref name="zed"/> utilizing 12,000&nbsp;soldiers.<ref name="gom1012"/> Ahead of [[2000 Mexican general election|a presidential election in 2000]], Zedillo also requested for politicians to avoid seeking gain in politicizing the tragedy.<ref name="gom1011"/>

By October&nbsp;22, over 72,000&nbsp;people were housed in 560&nbsp;shelters nationwide.<ref name="gom1022"/> Additional evacuations occurred after further floods impacted Tabasco weeks after the initial deluge, and by October&nbsp;25, 94,203&nbsp;people were staying in 896&nbsp;shelters.<ref name="gom1025">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-25|title=Mexico: Reports on the current situation in Tabasco and the other states affected by the rains|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-reports-current-situation-tabasco-and-other-states-affected-rains}}</ref> The Mexican Department of Health declared a sanitary alert in six states,<ref name="mex106">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-06|title=Mexico: President Zedillo ordered emergency aid to be sent to areas affected by heavy flooding|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-12|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-president-zedillo-ordered-emergency-aid-be-sent-areas-affected-heavy-flooding}}</ref> and 354&nbsp;medical teams operated in 894&nbsp;communities to assist 50,000&nbsp;homes. The [[Secretaría de Gobernación]] declared Tabasco, Veracruz, Hidalgo and Puebla as disaster areas, which allocated federal funding for relief.<ref name="gom1012">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-12|title=Mexico: Progress Report on measures to offset the emergency caused by the rains|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-22|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-progress-report-measures-offset-emergency-caused-rains}}</ref> The National Fund for Natural Disasters allocated $234&nbsp;million (2.34&nbsp;billion pesos) in emergency relief,<ref name="afp1012"/> including $41.5&nbsp;million (400&nbsp;million pesos) in Oaxaca where the earthquake previously struck;<ref name="gom1028">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-28|title=Mexico: President Zedillo supervised housing, highway and aid programs for victims in Oaxaca|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-28|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-president-zedillo-supervised-housing-highway-and-aid-programs-victims-oaxaca}}</ref> this was smaller than the flood's damage total.<ref name="afp1012">{{cite report|date=1999-10-12|author=Patrick Moser|title=Villagers search for food after losing all to Mexico's killer floods|publisher=Agence France-Presse|via=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-22|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/villagers-search-food-after-losing-all-mexicos-killer-floods}}</ref> The repair cost in Puebla alone was estimated at $200&nbsp;million (1.83&nbsp;billion pesos), which was largely completed within two years and dealt with repairing roads and protecting cities from landslide and flood mitigation.<ref name="coping"/><ref name="satori"/>

Search and rescue teams operated across eastern Mexico, and initially they worked amid rainfall.<ref name="afp107"/> The continuing rains and cut off communications disrupted relief efforts,<ref name="gom1011"/> as did the topography of the affected areas.<ref name="dr1012">{{cite report|author=Doug Rekenthaler Jr.|author2=Cynthia Long|date=1999-10-12|title=Death Toll in Mexico Nears 400, More Heavy Rain Expected|publisher=DisasterRelief.org|via=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-22|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/death-toll-mexico-nears-400-more-heavy-rain-expected}}</ref> In Puebla, the federal government donated 219&nbsp;mules and 81&nbsp;horses to assist in traveling to isolated areas.<ref name="pr1022">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-22|title=Through hard work and great efforts, services are being restored in isolated communities|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/through-hard-work-and-great-efforts-services-are-being-restored-isolated-communities}}</ref> People used shovels and bare hands to remove mud and concrete in areas where they could not utilize machines.<ref name="afp107"/> In Tulancingo, Hidalgo, people used rowboats to rescue stranded residents trapped by the flooding.<ref name="dr107"/> Search and rescue missions ended on October&nbsp;15,<ref name="gom1015"/> after 7,112&nbsp;people were rescued from what the government described as "high-risk situations."<ref name="gom1018"/> To control the flooding, workers released water from dams and reservoirs.<ref name="mex106"/> In Hidalgo, released water from a dam flooded two rivers and forced thousands of additional evacuations.<ref name="dr107"/> In Tenango in Puebla, a dam developed a foot-long crack, which sparked evacuations and prompted workers to fill it with dirt and rocks.<ref name="dr1012"/> Stagnant waters raised fears for an outbreak of [[dengue fever]];<ref name="reut1011"/> however, no flood-related epidemics occurred, and the waters were disinfected to prevent disease spread.<ref name="gom1013">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-13|title=Report on the advances made to offset the emergency caused by the rains|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-22|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/report-advances-made-offset-emergency-caused-rains}}</ref> By October&nbsp;22, there were only 21&nbsp;cases of dengue and 4&nbsp;cases of malaria, both fewer than normal.<ref name="gom1022">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-22|title=Mexico: Reports on the measures implemented by the Federal Government to aid the communities affected by rain|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-reports-measures-implemented-federal-government-aid-communities-affected-rain}}</ref> On October&nbsp;23, the [[Peñitas Dam]] was opened to maintain its integrity, causing downstream flooding.<ref name="dfo"/> It was closed after water flow rates decreased.<ref name="gom1028b"/> After the floods, some areas in Mexico faced water shortages.<ref name="afp107"/> As a result, the National Water Commission initially distributed about 300,000&nbsp;litres of drinking water each day,<ref name="gom1013"/> and later increased it to 487,000&nbsp;litres per day,<ref name="gom1015"/> reaching 4&nbsp;million litres of distributed water by October&nbsp;19. Water service was gradually repaired, and by October&nbsp;19, 70 of the 90&nbsp;damaged water systems in Veracruz were restored.<ref name="gom1019">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-19|title=Report on aid given to the population, and on infrastructure rehabilitation carried out by the Federal Government in the states affected by flooding|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/report-aid-given-population-and-infrastructure-rehabilitation-carried-out-federal}}</ref> Equipment used for flood efforts were removed from duty after the floods receded.<ref name="gom1028"/>

Workers distributed about 4,100&nbsp;tons of food and 200,000&nbsp;litres of milk to the affected victims,<ref name="gom1018"/> by both land and air.<ref name="ifrc1"/> In Veracruz, only 9&nbsp;helicopters were utilized to distribute food and water to isolated areas.<ref name="reut1012"/> About 948&nbsp;tons of medicine was also distributed.<ref name="gom1020"/> Helicopters assisted in transporting people to shelters.<ref name="ifrc1">{{cite report|title=Mexico: Floods Information Bulletin No. 1|publisher=International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|access-date=2013-03-17|via=ReliefWeb|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-floods-information-bulletin-no-1-0}}</ref> In Veracruz alone, 34&nbsp;people were rescued by boat and 1,131 by aircraft.<ref name="zed"/> In Puebla and Veracruz, 9,551&nbsp;troops were stationed to assist in relief work, utilizing 48&nbsp;helicopters, 4&nbsp;[[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|Hercules planes]], and 10&nbsp;boats.<ref name="gom109">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-09|title=Mexico: Meeting at Los Pinos to evaluate the relief efforts for the states affected by the rains|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-19|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-meeting-los-pinos-evaluate-relief-efforts-states-affected-rains}}</ref> Between Veracruz and Hidalgo, the Department of Social Development distributed about 18,500&nbsp;mattresses and other relief items.<ref name="gom1012"/> Workers quickly made repairs to highways, and by October&nbsp;19, all of the 28&nbsp;damaged federal highways were provisionally reopened;<ref name="gom1020">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-20|title=Mexico: Reports on the progress of aid and reconstruction work and regarding the restoration of services in communities affected by the rains|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-reports-progress-aid-and-reconstruction-work-and-regarding-restoration-services}}</ref> some of the reopened highways had to undergo additional construction work.<ref name="gom1028"/> The military worked to reopen other roads.<ref name="pr1022"/> In Veracruz, the Director of the Federal Electricity Commission noted that repairs to electrical systems were difficult in the immediate aftermath of the floods. Planes flew generators into [[Gutiérrez Zamora, Veracruz]], mainly for hospitals,<ref name="zed">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-09|title=President Zedillo ordered the coordinated efforts of Government agencies to bring medicine and provisions to flood victims in Veracruz|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-18|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/president-zedillo-ordered-coordinated-efforts-government-agencies-bring-medicine-and}}</ref> and by October&nbsp;20, 90% of the affected areas had their power restored.<ref name="gom1020"/> President Zedillo announced on October&nbsp;11 that the government would begin building new houses,<ref name="gom1011"/> part of the Emergency Housing Program initiative. In Puebla, the initial stages of the program would involve rebuilding 1,200&nbsp;houses and moving 500&nbsp;houses to safer lands.<ref name="gom1012"/> The Mexican government estimated that the housing program would help 37,000&nbsp;families.<ref name="gom1015">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-15|title=Mexico: Considerable progress has been made with aid to flood victims|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-considerable-progress-has-been-made-aid-flood-victims}}</ref> Mexico's [[Secretariat of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, Fisheries and Food|agricultural ministry]] provided assistance for farmers to replant lost crops.<ref name="gom1012"/> Through the Temporary Employment Program, the federal government temporarily hired about 1&nbsp;million people who lost their homes or farms. Students gradually returned to school after repairs were made,<ref name="gom1018"/> and by October&nbsp;28, over 800,000&nbsp;students who were affected were able to return to school,<ref name="gom1028"/> including all of Oaxaca and Hidalgo.<ref name="gom1028b">{{cite report|author=Government of Mexico|date=1999-10-28|title=Mexico: Reports on the measures implemented by the Federal Government to aid communities affected by rain|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-28|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-reports-measures-implemented-federal-government-aid-communities-affected-rain-2}}</ref> The area in Teziutlán, Puebla affected by the mudslide was never rebuilt, due to being labeled a high-risk area.<ref name="tirzo"/>

Residents in some portions of the country became angry due to lack of assistance. In the town of Lazaro Cardenas in Tabasco, residents opened ditches to alleviate flooding on their streets, which flooding thousands of vehicles along a section of highway near the state's capital, Villahermosa.<ref name="reut1011">{{cite news|agency=Reuters|author=Julio Martinez|date=1999-10-11|title=Mexico flood survivors bury dead, plead for help|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-19|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-flood-survivors-bury-dead-plead-help}}</ref> In the capital city, which remained submerged by floodwaters for a week, residents protested the sandbagging efforts after waters were redirected to some neighborhoods. Due to the protests, police officers beat and arrested 100&nbsp;people.<ref name="dr1012"/> The Federal Consumer Protection Agency issued warnings to businesses accused of [[price gouging]] for water and other basic products.<ref name="gom1012"/> Isolated villages experienced food shortages due to cut off roads.<ref>{{cite news|author=Patrick Moser|date=1999-10-14|title=Massive relief effort falls short of needs in disaster-stricken Mexico|agency=Agence France-Presse|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/massive-relief-effort-falls-short-needs-disaster-stricken-mexico|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref>

Despite growing protests and the increasing death toll, President Zedillo did not initially request for international aid, believing that the country had the necessary resources,<ref name="dr1012"/> although by October&nbsp;15 he changed his position.<ref name="cws">{{cite report|publisher=Church World Service|date=1999-10-15|title=CWS Emergency Appeal Update: Mexico Flooding/Earthquake|access-date=2013-03-23|via=ReliefWeb|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/cws-emergency-appeal-update-mexico-floodingearthquake}}</ref> The office of [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] [[Kofi Annan]] issued a statement of condolences to those affected by the tragedy.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=United Nations Secretary General|title=Secretary-General, saddened by destruction in Mexico, offers condolences, UN support|date=1999-10-11|via=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-19|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/secretary-general-saddened-destruction-mexico-offers-condolences-un-support}}</ref> The [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) donated $100,000 on October&nbsp;13.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=United States Agency for International Development|via=ReliefWeb|date=1999-10-13|title=USAID announces assistance to Mexico flooding|access-date=2013-03-22|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/usaid-announces-assistance-mexico-flooding}}</ref> The [[European Commission]] approved €1&nbsp;million (1999&nbsp;[[euro]]s) in aid to be distributed through the German and Spanish Red Cross agencies.<ref name="ec">{{cite report|publisher=European Commission|title=Mexico: Commission aid worth euro 1 million|date=1999-11-11|access-date=2013-03-29|via=ReliefWeb|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-commission-aid-worth-euro-1-million}}</ref> The [[Church World Service]] launched an appeal on October&nbsp;8 to raise funds,<ref>{{cite report|publisher=Church World Service|date=1999-10-08|title=Emergency Appeal: Mexico Flooding/Earthquake|access-date=2013-03-17|via=ReliefWeb|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/emergency-appeal-mexico-floodingearthquake}}</ref> and provided $47,000 worth of blankets and bedding.<ref name="cws2">{{cite report|publisher=Church World Service|date=1999-10-25|title=CWS responding to needs in Mexico|via=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/cws-responding-needs-mexico}}</ref> The [[Catholic Relief Services]] pledged $100,000 for flood victims in Mexico.<ref>{{cite report|author=Kerry Hodges|publisher=Catholic Relief Services|date=1999-10-08|title=CRS provides emergency assistance to flood victims in Mexico|access-date=2013-03-17|via=ReliefWeb|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/crs-provides-emergency-assistance-flood-victims-mexico}}</ref> Thousands of residents in Mexico donated 500&nbsp;tons of food, along with water, clothes, and medicine to the Mexican Red Cross.<ref name="reut1012"/> After additional flooding in Tabasco, the Mexican Red Cross sent 254&nbsp;metric tonnes of food, water, medicine, and clothing to the state.<ref name="ifrc2">{{cite report|date=1999-10-28|title=Mexico: Floods Information Bulletin No. 2|access-date=2013-03-28|publisher=ReliefWeb|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexico-floods-information-bulletin-no-2}}</ref> The [[American Red Cross]] donated about $100,000 to its Mexican counterpart.<ref name="reut1012">{{cite news|author=Adriana Barrera|title=Mexicans flock to donate aid for flood victims|publisher=ReliefWeb|agency=Reuters|date=1999-10-12|access-date=2013-03-22|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/mexicans-flock-donate-aid-flood-victims}}</ref> [[Direct Relief]] sent two loads of medicine and blankets to Oaxaca.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=Direct Relief International|date=1999-10-15|title=Floods in Mexico|via=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/floods-mexico}}</ref> [[Adventist Development and Relief Agency]] provided food for about 25,000&nbsp;people.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=InterAction|date=1999-10-18|title=InterAction Members' Response to Victims of Floods in Mexico 18 Oct 1999|via=ReliefWeb|access-date=2013-03-23|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/mexico/interaction-members-response-victims-floods-mexico-18-oct-1999}}</ref>

Outside of Mexico, Honduras's government provided food and shelter for its citizens, but was unable to properly address health-related needs. As a result, the [[Save the Children]] Fund provided $83,000 worth of medicine and latrines to 40&nbsp;municipalities in Honduras.<ref name="scf">{{cite report|publisher=Save the Children|title=SCF: Central America floods|date=1999-10-12|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/honduras/scf-central-america-floods|access-date=2013-03-22}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of floods]]
* [[Timeline of the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season]]

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal|last1=Norris|first1=Fran H.|last2=Baker|first2=Charlene K.|last3=Murphy|first3=Arthur D.|last4=Kaniasty|first4=Krzysztof|year=2005|title=Social support mobilization and deterioration after Mexico's 1999 flood: Effects of context, gender, and time|journal=American Journal of Community Psychology|volume=36|issue=1–2|pages=15–28|doi=10.1007/s10464-005-6230-9|pmid=16134042|s2cid=10889621|url=https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/A_Murphy_Social_2005.pdf|access-date=July 23, 2020|via=Society for Community Research and Action}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{good article}}
{{1999 Atlantic hurricane season buttons}}

[[Category:Natural disasters in Mexico|1999 Mexico]]
[[Category:1990s floods in North America]]
[[Category:1999 floods]]
[[Category:1999 natural disasters]]
[[Category:1999 Atlantic hurricane season]]
[[Category:Atlantic tropical depressions|1999 Mexico floods]]
[[Category:1999 in Mexico]]
[[Category:1999 in Central America]]