View source for Oceania

{{Short description|Geographical region in the Pacific Ocean}}
{{other uses}}
{{Redirect|South West Pacific|the 1943 Australian film|South West Pacific (film){{!}}''South West Pacific'' (film)|the World War II military command|South West Pacific Area}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Over-quotation|date=August 2024}}
{{CS1 config|mode=cs1}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Use Australian English|date=February 2016}}

{{Infobox continent
|title = Oceania
|image = Oceania (centered orthographic projection).svg
|image_size = 210px
|image_caption = An orthographic projection of Oceania
|area = {{convert|9,000,000|km2|abbr=on}} ([[Continent#Area and population|7th]])
|population = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{UN_Population|Oceania}} ({{UN_Population|Year}}, [[list of continents and continental subregions by population|6th]]){{UN_Population|ref}}
|density = {{convert|4.94|/km2|abbr=on}}
|GDP_nominal = $1.630 trillion (2018, [[List of continents by GDP#Continents by GDP (nominal)|6th]])
|GDP_per_capita = $63,842 (2024, [[List of continents by GDP#Continents by GDP per capita (nominal)|2nd]])
|demonym = Oceanian
|religions = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;
|{{Tree list}}
* 62.1% [[Christianity]]
** 32.7% [[Protestantism]]
** 24.1% [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
** 4.8% other [[Christians|Christian]]
{{Tree list/end}}
|36.4% [[Irreligion|no religion]]
|1.3% other<ref>{{cite web |url=https://crgsoft.com/oceania-population-characteristics-economy-and-religions/ |title=Oceania: Population, Characteristics, Economy And Religions |date=17 January 2022 |publisher=CRGSoft |access-date=3 October 2022 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003060402/https://crgsoft.com/oceania-population-characteristics-economy-and-religions/ }}</ref>
}}
|countries = {{Collapsible list
 | title = [[Member states of the United Nations|UN members]] ([[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania#United Nations member states|14]])
 | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal
 | {{flag|Australia}}
 | {{flag|Fiji}}
 | {{flag|Kiribati}}
 | {{flag|Marshall Islands}}
 | {{flag|Micronesia}}
 | {{flag|Nauru}}
 | {{flag|New Zealand}}
 | {{flag|Palau}}
 | {{nowrap|{{flag|Papua New Guinea}}}}
 | {{flag|Samoa}}
 | {{flag|Solomon Islands}}
 | {{flag|Tonga}}
 | {{flag|Tuvalu}}
 | {{flag|Vanuatu}}
 | {{flag|Indonesia}} (via Western New Guinea provinces)
 | {{flag|United States}} (via Hawaiʻi)
 }}
 {{Collapsible list
 | title = [[Associated state|Associated]] ([[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania#Associated states|2]])
 | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
 | {{nowrap|{{flag|Cook Islands}}}}
 | {{flag|Niue}}
 }}
|list_countries = 
|dependencies = {{Collapsible list
 | title = '''[[Dependent territory|External]]''' ([[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania#Non-sovereign territories|23]])
 | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
 | '''{{flag|Australia}} (5)'''
 | {{Bulleted list
    | {{flag|Ashmore and Cartier Islands}}
    | {{flag|Christmas Island}}
    | {{flag|Cocos (Keeling) Islands}}
    | {{flag|Coral Sea Islands}}
    | {{flag|Norfolk Island}}
   }}
| '''{{flag|Fiji}} (1)'''
 | {{Bulleted list
    | {{flag|Rotuma}}
    }}
 | '''{{flag|France}} (3)'''
 | {{Bulleted list
    | {{flag|French Polynesia}}
    | {{flag|New Caledonia|local}}
    | {{flag|Wallis and Futuna|local}}
   }}
 | '''{{flag|New Zealand}} (1)'''
 | {{Bulleted list
    | {{flag|Tokelau}}
   }}
| '''{{flag|Papua New Guinea}} (1)'''
 | {{Bulleted list
    | {{flag|Bougainville}}
   }} 
| '''{{flag|United Kingdom}} (1)'''
 | {{Bulleted list
    | {{flag|Pitcairn Islands}}
   }}
 | '''{{flag|United States}} (11)'''
 | {{Bulleted list
    | {{flag|American Samoa}}
    | {{flag|Baker Island}}
    | {{flag|Guam}}
    | {{flag|Howland Island}}
    | {{flag|Jarvis Island}}
    | {{flag|Johnston Atoll}}
    | {{flag|Kingman Reef}}
    | {{flag|Midway Atoll|local}}
    | {{flag|Northern Mariana Islands}}
    | {{flag|Palmyra Atoll}}
    | {{flag|Wake Island|local}}
   }}
 }}
<br />{{Collapsible list
 | title = '''[[List of administrative divisions by country|Internal]]''' ([[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania#Non-sovereign territories|10]])
 | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
 | '''{{flag|Chile}} (1)'''
 | {{Bulleted list
   |{{flag|Easter Island}}
   }}
 | '''{{flag|Indonesia}} (7)'''
  {{Bulleted list
    | {{flag|Maluku}} ([[Aru Islands Regency|Aru Islands]])
    | {{flag|Central Papua}}
    | {{flag|Highland Papua}}
    | {{flag|Papua}}
    | {{flag|South Papua}}
    | {{flag|Southwest Papua}}
    | {{flag|West Papua}}
   }}
| '''{{flag|Japan}} (1)'''
  {{Bulleted list
    | [[File:Flag of Ogasawara, Tokyo.svg|Ogasawara|30px]] [[Ogasawara Islands|Ogasawara]]
}}
 | '''{{flag|United States}} (1)'''
 | {{Bulleted list
   |{{flag|Hawaii}}
   }}
 }}
|languages = {{Collapsible list
 | title = [[Official language|Official]] ([[list of official languages by country and territory|30]])
 | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
 | [[Bislama]]
 | [[Carolinian language|Carolinian]]
 | [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]
 | [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
 | [[Cook Islands Māori]]
 | [[English language|English]]
 | [[Fiji Hindi]]
 | [[Fijian language|Fijian]]
 | [[French language|French]]
 | [[Gilbertese language|Gilbertese]]
 | [[Hawaiian language|Hawai{{okina}}ian]]
 | [[Hiri Motu language|Hiri Motu]]
 | [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
 | [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
 | [[Māori language|Māori]]
 | [[Marshallese language|Marshallese]]
 | [[Nauruan language|Nauruan]]
 | [[New Zealand Sign Language]]
 | [[Niuean language|Niuean]]
 | [[Norfuk]]
 | [[Palauan language|Palauan]]
 | [[Pitkern]]
 | [[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]]
 | [[Rotuman language|Rotuman]]
 | [[Samoan language|Samoan]]
 | [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
 | [[Tok Pisin]]
 | [[Tokelauan language|Tokelauan]]
 | [[Tongan language|Tongan]]
 | [[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]
 }}
|unrecognized = 
|time = [[UTC+09:00|UTC+9]] ([[Western New Guinea|Papua]], [[Palau]]) to [[UTC−06:00|UTC–6]] ([[Easter Island]])<br />(west to east)
|cities = <!-- PLEASE LIMIT THE CITIES LISTED HERE TO THE TEN MOST POPULOUS METROPOLISES LISTED ON THE [[List of metropolitan areas in Oceania by population]]. THANKS! -->
{{Collapsible list
 | title = [[List of metropolitan areas in Oceania by population|10 largest cities in Oceania]]
 | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
 |
# {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Sydney]]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Melbourne]]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Brisbane]]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Perth]]
# {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Auckland]]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Adelaide]]
# {{flagicon|United States}} [[Honolulu]]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]]–[[Tweed Heads, New South Wales|Tweed Heads]]
# {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Christchurch]]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]]–[[Maitland, New South Wales|Maitland]]
 }}
|m49 = <code>009</code> – Oceania<br /><code>001</code> – [[World]]
}}

'''Oceania''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|oʊ|.|s|i|.|ˈ|ɑː|.|n|i|.|ə|,_|ˌ|oʊ|.|ʃ|i|.|-|,_|-|ˈ|eɪ|.|n|-}} {{respell|OH|s(h)ee|AH|nee|ə|,_-|AY|-}}, {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Oceania.ogg|US|ˌ|oʊ|.|ʃ|i|.|ˈ|æ|.|n|i|.|ə|,_|-|ˈ|ɑː|.|n|-}} {{respell|OH|shee|A(H)N|ee|ə}})<ref name="pronun" /> is a [[Region|geographical region]] including [[Australasia]], [[Melanesia]], [[Micronesia]], and [[Polynesia]].<ref name="aging" /><ref name="worldatlas">{{cite web |title=The Four Sub-regions Of Oceania |date=26 December 2017 |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-sub-regions-of-oceania.html |publisher=WorldAtlas |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124222422/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-sub-regions-of-oceania.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Outside of the [[English-speaking world]], Oceania is generally considered a [[continent]], while [[mainland Australia]] is regarded as its continental [[landmass]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Montejo |first=Erika |date=2023-12-26 |title=¿Cuándo se formó Oceanía, el continente más pequeño del planeta? |url=https://www.ngenespanol.com/el-mundo/cuando-se-formo-oceania/ |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=National Geographic en Español |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Larousse |first=Éditions |title=Océanie - LAROUSSE |url=https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/autre-region/Oc%C3%A9anie/126906 |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=larousse.fr |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Oceania - Treccani |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/oceania/,%20https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/oceania/ |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=Treccani |language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=CEON |title=Atlas Geográfico Escolar - IBGE |url=https://atlasescolar.ibge.gov.br/continentes-e-regioes-do-mundo/2970-oceania.html |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=Atlas Geográfico Escolar - IBGE |language=pt-br}}</ref> Spanning the [[Eastern Hemisphere|Eastern]] and [[Western Hemisphere|Western]] hemispheres, at the centre of the [[land and water hemispheres|water hemisphere]], Oceania is estimated to have a land area of about {{convert|9,000,000|km2|sqmi}} and a population of around 46.3 million as of 2024. Oceania is the smallest continent in land area and the [[list of continents and continental subregions by population|second-least populated]] after [[Antarctica]]. It is home to Earth’s third-largest remaining area of tropical rainforest, which covers much of the island of New Guinea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Middleton |first=Jo |last2=Cassell |first2=Jackie A. |last3=Colthart |first3=Gavin |last4=Dem |first4=Francesca |last5=Fairhead |first5=James |last6=Head |first6=Michael G. |last7=Inacio |first7=Joao |last8=Jimbudo |first8=Mavis |last9=Laman |first9=Moses |last10=Novotny |first10=Vojtech |last11=Peck |first11=Mika |last12=Philip |first12=Jonah |last13=Pomat |first13=William |last14=Sui |first14=Shen |last15=West-Oram |first15=Peter |date=2020-11-01 |title=Rationale, experience and ethical considerations underpinning integrated actions to further global goals for health and land biodiversity in Papua New Guinea |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-020-00805-x |journal=Sustainability Science |language=en |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=1653–1664 |doi=10.1007/s11625-020-00805-x |issn=1862-4057}}</ref>

Oceania has a diverse mix of economies from the [[Developed country|highly developed]] and globally competitive [[Market economy|financial markets]] of [[Australia]], [[French Polynesia]], [[Hawaii]], [[New Caledonia]], and [[New Zealand]], which rank high in [[quality of life]] and [[Human Development Index]],<ref name="worlda" /><ref name="herita" /> to the much [[Least developed countries|less developed economies]] of [[Kiribati]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Tuvalu]], [[Vanuatu]], and [[Western New Guinea]].<ref name="imforg" /> The largest and most populous [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania|country in Oceania]] is Australia, and the largest city is [[Sydney]].<ref name="dfatgov" /> [[Puncak Jaya]] in [[Indonesia]] is the highest peak in Oceania at {{convert|4884|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="modern283" />

The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived more than 60,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web |date=8 February 2019 |title=Aboriginal Australians |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/2019/02/aboriginal-australians |website=National Geographic |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=24 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824131919/https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/2019/02/aboriginal-australians |url-status=live }}</ref> Oceania was [[Exploration of the Pacific|first explored by Europeans]] from the 16th century onward. Portuguese explorers, between 1512 and 1526, reached the [[Tanimbar Islands]], some of the [[Caroline Islands]], and west [[New Guinea]]. Spanish and Dutch explorers followed, then British and French. On his first voyage in the 18th century, [[James Cook]], who later arrived at the highly developed [[Hawaiian Islands]], went to [[Tahiti]] and followed the [[eastern states of Australia|east coast of Australia]] for the first time.<ref name="foundi" /> The [[Europeans in Oceania|arrival of European settlers]] in subsequent centuries resulted in a significant alteration in the social and political landscape of Oceania. The [[Military history of Oceania#World War II|Pacific theatre]] saw major action during the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second World War]]s.

The [[Indigenous Australian art#Stone art|rock art]] of [[Aboriginal Australians]] is the longest continuously practiced artistic tradition in the world.<ref name="oceanart" /> Most Oceanian countries are [[Parliamentary democracy|parliamentary democracies]], with [[tourism]] serving as a large source of income for the [[list of islands in the Pacific Ocean|Pacific island nations]].<ref name="newpol162" />

==Definition==
===Characteristics===
[[File:Oceania UN Geoscheme - Map with Zones.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Oceania with its sovereign states and dependent territories within the subregions [[Australasia]], [[Melanesia]], [[Micronesia]], and [[Polynesia]]]]

Definitions of Oceania vary.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lidstone |first1=John |last2=Stoltman |first2=Joseph P. |last3=DeChano |first3=Lisa M. |title=International Perspectives on Natural Disasters: Occurrence, Mitigation, and Consequences |date=2004 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |page=193 |isbn=978-1-4020-2851-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=94q9GgFtjYoC&dq=%22and+Melanesia,+meaning%22&pg=PA193 |quote=Anthropologists have defined Oceania as that region of the Pacific Ocean that encompasses three distinct geographical areas—Polynesia, meaning 'many islands'; Micronesia, meaning 'small islands'; and Melanesia, meaning 'black islands'. Other definitions of Oceania are used by geographers, economists, and oceanographers. The definition of the region generally depends on the context that one assigns to it in research or writing. |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064235/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/International_Perspectives_on_Natural_Di/94q9GgFtjYoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22and+Melanesia%2C+meaning%22&pg=PA193&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="asianpacific">{{Cite book |last=Crocombe |first=R. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&dq=%22included+in+cultural+definitions+of+oceania%22&pg=PR13 |title=Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West|date=2007 |publisher=University of the South Pacific. Institute of Pacific Studies |isbn=978-982-02-0388-4 |page=13 |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209001401/https://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&dq=%22included+in+cultural+definitions+of+oceania%22&pg=PR13 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="worldatlas" /> The broadest definition encompasses the islands between mainland [[Asia]] and the [[Americas]].<ref name="aging">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/med/9780198701590.003.0008 |chapter=Population ageing in Oceania |title=Oxford Textbook of Geriatric Medicine |year=2017 |last1=Flicker |first1=Leon |last2=Kerse |first2=Ngaire |pages=55–62 |isbn=978-0-19-870159-0 |quote=The region of Oceania describes a collection of islands scattered throughout the Pacific Ocean between Asia and the Americas. The region is vast and largely covered by the ocean. There are four subregions of this region, including Australasia (Australia and New Zealand), Melanesia (Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and [[Western New Guinea]]), Micronesia (the Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Palau etc.), and Polynesia (American Samoa, the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue, Samoa, Tokelau, Tonga, and Tuvalu etc.).}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Oceania {{pipe}} Definition, Population, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Oceania-region-Pacific-Ocean |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2008-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531185210/https://www.britannica.com/place/Oceania-region-Pacific-Ocean |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="harv">{{Cite book |last=Bequaert |first=Joseph C. |url=http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pubs-online/pdf/op16-11.pdf |title=The Hippoboscidae of Oceania |date=1941 |publisher=Harvard Medical School |quote=In the present taxonomic study of the Hippoboscidae, Oceania covers, rather arbitrarily, the many archipelagos and isolated islands scattered throughout the Pacific Ocean, from the Marianas and Caroline Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia to the Hawaiian islands and the Galapagos. |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124010141/http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pubs-online/pdf/op16-11.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The island nation of [[Australia]] is the only piece of land in the area which is large enough to typically be considered a continent.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Margaret |first=Cowan E. |url={{Google books|JIGZhTRPSe4C|page=9|plainurl=yes}} |title=An Analysis of the Process Used to Develop a Publication of International Case Studies on Environmental Education |date=1983 |page=9 |quote=Australia, as a separate continent, is geographically a part of Oceania }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511619007.005 |chapter=Oceania: Pohnpei and the Eastern Carolines |title=The Archaeology of Islands |year=2007 |pages=90–113 |isbn=978-0-521-85374-3 |quote=The thousands of islands of Oceania, excluding the island-continent of Australia and the very large island of New Guinea, are regarded by many as the theatre for island archaeology par excellence. }}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=A Master of Science thesis and an archaeology book are poor quality sources to support the text about Australia usually being regarded as a continent|date=January 2023}} The culture of the people who lived on these islands was often distinct from that of Asia and [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]] America.<ref name="edu au">{{cite book |last1=Firth |first1=Stewart |last2=Naidu |first2=Vijay |title=Understanding Oceania: Celebrating the University of the South Pacific and its collaboration with The Australian National University |date=2019 |publisher=ANU Press |page=354 |isbn=978-1-76046-289-5 |url={{Google books|cHmfDwAAQBAJ|page=354|plainurl=yes}} }}</ref> Before [[Ethnic groups in Europe|Europeans]] arrived in the area, the sea shielded Australia and south central Pacific islands from cultural influences that spread through large continental landmasses and adjacent islands.<ref name="edu au" /><ref name="cam uk">{{cite web |date=21 September 2016 |title=Unprecedented study of Aboriginal Australians points to one shared Out of Africa migration for modern humans |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/unprecedented-study-of-aboriginal-australians-points-to-one-shared-out-of-africa-migration-for |website=University of Cambridge |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615162942/https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/unprecedented-study-of-aboriginal-australians-points-to-one-shared-out-of-africa-migration-for |url-status=live }}</ref> The islands of the [[Malay Archipelago]], north of Australia, mainly lie on the [[continental shelf]] of Asia, and their inhabitants had more exposure to mainland Asian culture as a result of this closer proximity.<ref name="edu au"/>

[[File:Mappe-Monde sur la Projection de Mercator Carte Encyprotype.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mercator projection|Mercator]] Planisphere by A.-H. Brué (1816), showing {{lang|fr|Océanie}}, the {{lang|fr|Grand Océan}} and {{lang|fr|Polynésie}} including all the islands of the Pacific Ocean]]

The geographer [[Conrad Malte-Brun]] coined the [[French language|French]] expression {{lang|fr|Terres océaniques}} ('Oceanic lands') {{circa|1804}}.<ref name="OED" /> In 1814 another French cartographer, Adrien-Hubert Brué, coined from this expression the shorter {{lang|fr|Océanie}},<ref>Grataloup, Christian, ''Continents et océans&thinsp;: le pavage européen du globe'', Monde(s), 2013, volume nr 3, pages 240.</ref> which derives from the [[Latin]] word {{wikt-lang|la|oceanus}}, and this from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word {{wikt-lang|grc|ὠκεανός}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|ōkeanós}}), 'ocean'. The term ''Oceania'' is used because, unlike the other continental groupings, it is the ocean that links the parts of the region together.<ref>Tcherkézoff, Serge, ''Polynésie / Mélanésie''. L'invention française des «&thinsp;races&thinsp;» et des régions de l'Océanie, Au vent des îles, Tahiti, 2009. {{ISBN|978-2-915654-52-3}}.</ref> John Eperjesi's 2005 book ''The Imperialist Imaginary'' says that Since the mid-19th century, [[Western world|Western]] cartographers have used the term ''Oceania'' to organize and classify the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eperjesi |first1=John |title=The Imperialist Imaginary: Visions of Asia and the Pacific in American Culture |date=2004 |publisher=Dartmouth College Press |isbn=978-1-58465-435-3 }}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref>

[[File:1852 Bocage Map of Australia and Polynesia - Geographicus - Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg|thumb|1852 map by Jean-Denis Barbié du Bocage. Includes regions of [[Polynesia]], [[Micronesia]], [[Melanesia]] and [[Malesia]]]]

In the 19th century, many geographers divided Oceania into mostly racially based subdivisions: ''Australasia'', ''[[Malesia]]'' (encompassing the [[Malay Archipelago]]), ''Melanesia'', ''Micronesia'', and ''Polynesia''. The 2011 book ''Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific'', by Richard W. Casteel and Jean-Claude Passeron, states that Oceania has traditionally been considered a continent in anthropological studies, similar to Africa, Asia, and the Americas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=W. Casteel |first1=Richard |last2=Passeron |first2=Jean-Claude |title=Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific |date=2011 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-087990-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RUryHhPBT3EC&dq=%22ALEUTS%22+%22OCEANIA%22&pg=PR5 |access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> [[John Bartholomew|Bartholomew]] described Oceania as one of six major world divisions, including Australia and Pacific islands.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bartholomew |first1=John |title=Zell's Descriptive Hand Atlas of the World |date=1873 |publisher=T.E. Zell |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gmSp46xxpJQC&dq=%22oceania%22+%22yokohama%22+%22australia%22&pg=PA3 |access-date=20 August 2022}}</ref> American author [[Samuel Griswold Goodrich]] wrote in his 1854 book ''History of All Nations'' that, some 19th-century geographers classified the Pacific islands as a third continent called Oceania, alongside the New and Old Worlds. In this book, the other two continents were categorized as being the New World (the Americas) and the [[Old World]] ([[Afro-Eurasia]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goodrich |first1=Samuel Griswold |title=History of All Nations |date=1854 |publisher=Miller, Orton and Mulligan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=heJPYUnr70kC&dq=%22aleutian+islands%22+%22oceania%22&pg=PA52 |access-date=20 December 2022}}</ref> In his 1879 book ''Australasia'', British naturalist [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] commented that, geographers commonly used ''Oceania'' to refer to the Pacific islands, with Australia as its central landmass.<ref name="austral">{{cite book |last1=Wallace |first1=Alfred Russel |title=Australasia |date=1879 |publisher=The University of Michigan |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e2kcAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22oceania+is+the+word+often%22&pg=PA2 |access-date=12 March 2022 |quote=Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon [...] This boundless watery domain, which extends northwards of Behring Straits and southward to the Antarctic barrier of ice, is studded with many island groups, which are, however, very irregularly distributed over its surface. The more northerly section, lying between Japan and California and between the Aleutian and Hawaiian Archipelagos, is relieved by nothing but a few solitary reefs and rocks at enormously distant intervals. |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Australasia/e2kcAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22oceania+is+the+word+often%22&pg=PA2&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> He did not explicitly label Oceania a continent in the book, but did note that it was one of the six major divisions of the world.<ref name="austral"/> ''The Oxford Handbook of World History'' (2011) describes the Oceania is often treated as a secondary topic in world history, appearing at the end of global narratives as a marginal region.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of World History |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199235810.001.0001 |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-923581-0 |editor-last1=Bentley |editor-first1=Jerry H }}</ref> 

<div>In most non-[[English language|English]]-speaking countries, Oceania is treated as a continent in the sense that it is "one of the parts of the world", and Australia is only seen as an island nation. In other non-English-speaking countries Australia and [[Eurasia]] are thought of as continents, while Asia, Europe, and Oceania are regarded as "parts of the world".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brotschul |first1=Amy |title=Continents in French |url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/continents-in-french.html |website=Study.com |access-date=4 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Divisões dos continentes |url=https://atlasescolar.ibge.gov.br/images/atlas/mapas_mundo/mundo_034_divisao_continentes.pdf |access-date=12 January 2021 |publisher=IBGE |archive-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813231055/https://atlasescolar.ibge.gov.br/images/atlas/mapas_mundo/mundo_034_divisao_continentes.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Nevertheless, various writers from [[English language|English]]-speaking countries have described Oceania as a continent over the years.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/znsj7yc BBC Bitesize: The continent of Oceania]</ref><ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Visual_Guide_to_Understanding_Planet/Yxhp1LqpE2gC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=the+continent+of+Oceania&pg=PA120&printsec=frontcover The Visual Guide to Understanding Planet Earth - Planet Earth By QA international Collectif QA international Collectif, 2007, P.120]</ref><ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Current_Review_of_Economic_and_Social_Pr/5qKD-DeVixMC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Among+the+six+continents,+Oceania+(comprising+Australia,+New+Zealand&pg=RA17-PA13&printsec=frontcover Current Review of Economic and Social Problems in the United Nations, 1950, P.13]</ref><ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/IELTS_Writing_Task_1_Academic_and_Genera/tgDsCgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Continent+of+Oceania&pg=PT19&printsec=frontcover IELTS Writing Task 1 – Academic and General By Nathan Dixon, 2015]</ref><ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/What/-kSBeFkUUHwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=the+continent+of+Oceania&pg=PA29&printsec=frontcover What? By Erin McHugh, 2005, P.29]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EGyleDQzs0kC&dq=continent+oceania&pg=PA532|title=Daily Consular and Trade Reports|date=6 May 1928|publisher=Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Manufactures|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HskKAAAAYAAJ&dq=continent+of+oceania+1920&pg=PA46|title=Mineral Resources of the United States|first=United States Bureau of|last=Mines|date=6 May 1922|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|via=Google Books}}</ref> Prior to the 1950s, before the popularization of the theory of [[plate tectonics]], [[Antarctica]], Australia, and [[Greenland]] were sometimes described as island continents, but none were usually taught as one of the world's continents in the English-speaking countries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Southwell |first1=Thomas |title=Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society: Volume 4 |date=1889 |publisher=Norfolk Naturalists' Trust and Norfolk & Norwich Naturalists' Society. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P0NMAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22greenland%22+%22island+continent%22&pg=PA164 |access-date=16 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society: Volume 36 |date=1932 |publisher=Royal Aeronautical Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sJPyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22continent+of+greenland%22 |access-date=16 November 2022}}</ref><ref name=lewis32b>{{harvp|Lewis & Wigen, The Myth of Continents|1997|p=32}}: "...the 1950s... was also the period when... Oceania as a "great division" was replaced by Australia as a continent along with a series of isolated and continentally attached islands. [Footnote 78: When Southeast Asia was conceptualised as a world region during World War II..., Indonesia and the Philippines were perforce added to Asia, which reduced the extent of Oceania, leading to a reconceptualization of Australia as a continent in its own right. This manoeuvre is apparent in postwar atlases]"</ref>. In his 1961 book ''The United States and the Southwest Pacific'', American author [[C. Hartley Grattan|Clinton Hartley Grattan]] commented that, by 1961, the term ''Oceania'' to describe Australia, [[New Zealand]], and the Pacific Islands was considered somewhat outdated.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grattan |first1=Clinton Hartley |title=The United States and the Southwest Pacific |year=2014 |orig-year=1961 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-49244-8 }}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref> Australia is a founding member of the [[Pacific Islands Forum]] in 1971, and at times has been interpreted as the largest Pacific island.<ref name="'O'Malley SMH 21 Sep 2014">{{cite news |last1=O'Malley |first1=Nick |title=Australia is a Pacific island – it has a responsibility |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/australia-is-a-pacific-island--it-has-a-responsibility-20140921-10jwdw.html |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=21 September 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afr.com/world/asia/rudd-on-avoiding-war-and-australia-s-big-policy-failure-in-the-pacific-20220329-p5a945|title=Rudd on avoiding war and Australia's big policy failure in the Pacific|date=31 March 2022|website=Australian Financial Review|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.afr.com/world/asia/rudd-on-avoiding-war-and-australia-s-big-policy-failure-in-the-pacific-20220329-p5a945|url-status=live}}</ref> Some geographers group the [[Australian Plate|Australian tectonic plate]] with others in the Pacific to form a geological continent.<ref>{{harvp|Lewis & Wigen, The Myth of Continents|1997 |page=40 |ps=: "The joining of Australia with various Pacific islands to form the quasi continent of Oceania ... "}}</ref> ''[[National Geographic]]'' defines Oceania as a continent based on its connection to the Pacific Ocean rather than landmass.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/oceania-physical-geography/|title=Australia and Oceania: Physical Geography|first=National Geographic|last=Society|date=4 January 2012|website=National Geographic Society|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=23 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523144947/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/oceania-physical-geography/|url-status=live}}</ref> Others have labelled it as the "liquid continent".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Werry |first1=Margaret |title=Sea-change: Performing a fluid continent: 2nd Oceanic Performance Biennial: Rarotonga, Cook Islands, 8–11 July 2015 |journal=Performance Research |date=3 March 2016 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=90–95 |doi=10.1080/13528165.2016.1173926 |s2cid=148622133 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rubow |first1=Cecilie |last2=Bird |first2=Cliff |title=Eco-theological Responses to Climate Change in Oceania |journal=Worldviews |date=2016 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=150–168 |doi=10.1163/15685357-02002003 |jstor=26552256 |url=https://curis.ku.dk/portal/da/publications/ecotheological-responses-to-climate-change-in-oceania(b5e47709-5d0b-41ff-be39-3544eb29a4ff).html |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/oceania/martin-clunes-ultimate-guide-pacific-islands/ |title=Martin Clunes' ultimate guide to the Pacific islands |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date=8 January 2022 |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064859/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/oceania/martin-clunes-ultimate-guide-pacific-islands/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Pacific Ocean itself has been labelled as a "continent of islands", and contains approximately 25,000, which is more than all the other major oceans combined.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eh-resources.org/pacific-islands-bibliography/|title=Environmental history of the Pacific Islands: a Bibliography {{pipe}}|website=Eh-resources.org|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2021-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419224008/https://www.eh-resources.org/pacific-islands-bibliography/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldvision.com.au/docs/default-source/publications/australia-and-the-pacific/the-pacific--transition-and-uncertainty.pdf?sfvrsn=d26fec3c_4 |title=POLICY BRIEF: The Pacific: Transition & Uncertainty |publisher=World Vision |date=March 2008 |access-date=1 June 2022 |archive-date=17 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317104928/https://www.worldvision.com.au/docs/default-source/publications/australia-and-the-pacific/the-pacific--transition-and-uncertainty.pdf?sfvrsn=d26fec3c_4 |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 1991 article, American archeologist Toni L. Carrell wrote, The vast size and distances within the [[Pacific Rim|Pacific Basin]] make it challenging to view it as a single geographical unit.<ref name="nps">{{cite web |url=http://npshistory.com/series/archeology/scrc/36/report.pdf |title=Micronesia: Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment |publisher=National Park Service |date=1991 |access-date=1 November 2022}}</ref>

Oceania's subregions of [[Australasia]], [[Melanesia]], [[Micronesia]], and [[Polynesia]] cover two major plates; the Australian Plate (also known as the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]) and the [[Pacific Plate]], in addition to two minor plates; the [[Nazca Plate]] and the [[Philippine Sea Plate]].<ref name="birds"/><ref name="plates"/> The Australian Plate includes Australia, [[Fiji]], [[New Caledonia]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Vanuatu]], and parts of New Zealand.<ref name="birds">{{cite book |last1=Steadman |first1=David W. |title=Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds |date=2006 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |page=7 |isbn=978-0-226-77142-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vBZXJQ3HDg0C&dq=%22tropical+%22easter+island%22+%22indo+australian+plate%22&pg=PA7 |access-date=4 February 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Extinction_and_Biogeography_of_Tropical/vBZXJQ3HDg0C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22tropical+%22easter+island%22+%22indo+australian+plate%22&pg=PA7&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="plates"/> The Pacific Plate covers the [[Solomon Islands (archipelago)|Solomon Islands]] and parts of New Zealand, as well as Micronesia (excluding the westernmost islands near the Philippine Sea Plate) and Polynesia (excluding Easter Island).<ref name="birds"/><ref name="plates"/> The Nazca Plate, which includes Easter Island, neighbours the [[South American Plate]], and is still considered to be a separate tectonic plate, despite only containing a handful of islands.<ref name="birds"/><ref name="plates">{{cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Kumar |first2=Lalit |last3=Eliot |first3=Ian |last4=McLean |first4=Roger F. |title=Classifying Pacific islands |journal=Geoscience Letters |date=December 2016 |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=7 |doi=10.1186/s40562-016-0041-8 |bibcode=2016GSL.....3....7N |s2cid=53970527 |doi-access=free }}</ref></div>
[[File:Map of Near and Remote Oceania and location of Efate Island, Vanuatu.tif|thumb|upright=1.3|Map displaying parts of [[Near Oceania]] and [[Remote Oceania]] with a focus on [[Efate]]]]

The new terms [[Near Oceania]] and [[Remote Oceania]] were proposed in 1973 by anthropologists [[Roger Curtis Green|Roger Green]] and [[Andrew Pawley]]. By their definition, Near Oceania consists of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon Islands, except the [[Santa Cruz Islands]].<ref>Green & Pawley, 1973, "Dating the Dispersal of the Oceanic Languages"</ref> They are designed to dispel the outdated categories of [[Melanesia]], [[Micronesia]], and [[Polynesia]]; many scholars now replace those categories with Green's terms since the early 1990s, but the old categories are still used in science, popular culture and general usage.<ref>"Although based on a superficial understanding of the Pacific islanders, Dumont d'Urville's tripartite classification stuck. Indeed, these categories—Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians—became so deeply entrenched in Western anthropological thought that it is difficult even now to break out of the mould in which they entrap us ([[Nicholas Thomas (anthropologist)|Thomas]], 1989). Such labels provide handy geographical referents, yet they mislead us greatly if we take them to be meaningful segments of cultural history. Only Polynesia has stood the tests of time and increased knowledge, as a category with historical significance" —[[Patrick Vinton Kirch]], ''On the Road of the Winds: An Archeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact'', Berkeley, University of California Press, 2000: 5.</ref>

===Boundaries===
{{Further|topic=Oceania borders|Boundaries between the continents of Earth|List of transcontinental countries}}

Islands at the geographic extremes of Oceania are generally considered to be the [[Bonin Islands]], a politically integral part of [[Japan]]; [[Hawaii]], a state of the [[United States]]; [[Clipperton Island]], a possession of [[France]]; [[Easter Island|Rapa Nui (Easter Island)]], belonging to [[Chile]]; and [[Macquarie Island]], belonging to Australia.<ref name="class">{{cite web |last1=Udvardy |first1=Miklos D.F. |title=A Classification of the Biogeographical Provinces of the World |url=https://fnad.org/Documentos/A%20Classification%20of%20the%20Biogeographical%20Provinces%20of%20the%20World%20Miklos%20D.F.%20Udvardy.pdf |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=7 March 2022 |archive-date=18 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218131430/http://www.fnad.org/Documentos/A%20Classification%20of%20the%20Biogeographical%20Provinces%20of%20the%20World%20Miklos%20D.F.%20Udvardy.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist attractions in Easter Island & Robinson Crusoe |publisher=GoChile |url=https://www.gochile.cl/en/destinations-easter-island-robinson-crusoe.htm |access-date=2 February 2022 |quote=Despite being geographically located in Oceania, Juan Fernández Archipelago belongs to the insular Chilean territory, just like Easter Island. |archive-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202002755/https://www.gochile.cl/en/destinations-easter-island-robinson-crusoe.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ausgov">{{Cite book |last1=Thomson |first1=Lex |url=https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/mn201_trees_for_life_-_final_artwork_-_15052018_web_upload_version.pdf |title=Trees for life in Oceania: Conservation and utilisation of genetic diversity |last2=Doran |first2=John |last3=Clarke |first3=Bronwyn |date=2018 |publisher=Australian Center for International Agricultural Research |location=Canberra, Australia |page=16 |quote=In a number of cases, human exploitation of certain high-value tree species, including sandalwoods and other highly prized timbers, has led to their extinction—such as the sandalwood species ''Santalum fernandezianum'', in Juan Fernández Islands; and others to the brink of extinction, such ''S. boninensis'' in Ogasawara Islands, Japan; or is an ongoing threatening factor in the examples of ''S. yasi'' in Fiji and Tonga, ''Gyrinops spp''. in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and ''Intsia bijuga'' throughout the Pacific Islands. |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124215245/https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/mn201_trees_for_life_-_final_artwork_-_15052018_web_upload_version.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kladnik |first=Drago |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=69V7DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22geographically+part+of+oceania%22&pg=PA47 |title=Terraced Landscapes |date=2017 |publisher=Založba ZRC |page=47 |isbn=978-961-05-0019-3 |quote=In North America, agricultural terraces are exclusive to Mexico and the United States – which Hawaii, in the Pacific, is also part of, but is otherwise geographically part of Oceania. |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Terraced_Landscapes/69V7DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22geographically+part+of+oceania%22&pg=PA47&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="realm">{{cite book |last1=Todd |first1=Ian |title=Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama |date=1974 |publisher=Angus & Robertson |page=190 |isbn=978-0-207-12761-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gcEJAQAAIAAJ&q=%22French+language+cultures%22+1974+pacific |access-date=2 February 2022 |quote=[we] can further define the word ''culture'' to mean ''language''. Thus, we have the French language part of Oceania, the Spanish part, and the Japanese part. The Japanese culture groups of Oceania are the Bonin Islands, the Marcus Islands, and the Volcano Islands. These three clusters, lying south and south-east of Japan, are inhabited either by Japanese or by people who have now completely fused with the Japanese race. Therefore, they will not be taken into account in the proposed comparison of the policies of non-Oceanic cultures towards Oceanic peoples. On the eastern side of the Pacific are several Spanish-language culture groups of islands. Two of them, the Galapagos and Easter Island, have been dealt with as separate chapters in this volume. Only one of the dozen or so Spanish culture island groups of Oceania has an Oceanic population — the Polynesians of Easter Island. The rest are either uninhabited or have a Spanish - Latin - American population consisting of people who migrated from the mainland. Therefore, the comparisons that follow refer almost exclusively to the English and French language cultures. |archive-date=18 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618161036/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Island_Realm/gcEJAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22French+language+cultures%22+1974+pacific&dq=%22French+language+cultures%22+1974+pacific&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Horn |first=Walter |url=http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pubs-online/pdf/op12-6.pdf |title=Check list of the Cicindelidae of Oceania. |date=1936 |publisher=Bishop Museum |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=9 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309041008/http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pubs-online/pdf/op12-6.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="countriesoftheworld">{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Robert |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-0DAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22oceania%22+%22juan%22+%22galapagos%22&pg=PA2 |title=The Countries of the World: Volume 4 |date=1876 |publisher=Oxford University |chapter=Oceania: General Characteristics |access-date=1 February 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_countries_of_the_world/3-0DAAAAQAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22oceania%22+%22juan%22+%22galapagos%22&pg=PA2&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>

====United Nations interpretation====
{{Main|United Nations geoscheme for Oceania}}

[[File:Oceania UN Geoscheme Regions.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Oceania and its four subregions]]

The [[United Nations]] (UN) has used its own geopolitical definition of Oceania since its foundation in 1947, which utilizes four of the five subregions from the 19th century: Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. This definition consists of discrete political entities and so excludes the Bonin Islands, Hawaii, Clipperton Island, and the Juan Fernández Islands, along with Easter Island, which was annexed by Chile in 1888.<ref name="stats">{{cite web |title=Countries or areas / geographical regions |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/ |access-date=25 April 2019 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=30 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830170949/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is used in statistical reports, by the [[International Olympic Committee]], and by many atlases.<ref name="Lewis 1997 32" /> The UN categorizes Oceania, and by extension the Pacific area, as one of the major continental divisions of the world, along with Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Their definition includes [[American Samoa]], Australia and their [[States and territories of Australia|external territories]], the [[Cook Islands]], [[Federated States of Micronesia]], [[French Polynesia]], Fiji, [[Guam]], [[Kiribati]], the Marshall Islands, [[Nauru]], New Caledonia, New Zealand, [[Niue]], the [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Palau]], Papua New Guinea, [[Pitcairn Islands]], [[Samoa]], the Solomon Islands, [[Tokelau]], [[Tonga]], [[Tuvalu]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Wallis and Futuna]], and the [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]] ([[Baker Island]], [[Howland Island]], [[Jarvis Island]], [[Midway Atoll]], [[Palmyra Atoll]], and [[Wake Island]]).<ref name="stats"/> The original UN definition of Oceania from 1947 included these same countries and semi-independent territories, which were mostly still [[Colony|colonies]] at that point.<ref>{{cite book |title=Status of the 1950 Census Program in the United States: A Preliminary Report |date=1951 |publisher=United States. Bureau of the Census |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3v502REqhUC&dq=United+Nations+%22oceania%22&pg=PA58 |access-date=24 November 2022}}</ref> Hawaii had not yet become a U.S. state in 1947, and as such was part of the original UN definition of Oceania. The island states of Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, [[Singapore]], and Taiwan, all located within the bounds of the Pacific or associated marginal seas, are excluded from the UN definition. The states of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Malaysia]], located in both mainland Asia and marginal seas of the Pacific, are also excluded, as are [[Brunei]], [[East Timor]], and [[Western New Guinea|Indonesian New Guinea/Western New Guinea]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/tl/tl-nr-04-en.pdf|title=Timor-Leste's Fourth National Report to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity|work=Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste|access-date=12 March 2023|date=October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Westaway |first1=J. |last2=Quintao |first2=V. |last3=de Jesus Marcal |first3=S. |title=Preliminary checklist of the naturalised and pest plants of Timor-Leste |journal=Blumea - Biodiversity, Evolution and Biogeography of Plants |date=30 November 2018 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=157–166 |doi=10.3767/blumea.2018.63.02.13 |s2cid=89935772 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018Blume..63..157W }}</ref> [[The World Factbook|The CIA World Factbook]] also categorizes Oceania as one of the major continental divisions of the world, but the name "Australia and Oceania" is used. Their definition does not include all of Australia's external territories, but is otherwise the same as the UN's definition, and is also used for statistical purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/australia-and-oceania/|title=Australia and Oceania |work=The World Factbook|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064857/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/australia-and-oceania/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Pacific Islands Forum expanded during the early 2010s, and areas that were already included in the UN definition of Oceania, such as French Polynesia, gained membership.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/02/how-the-pacific-islands-forum-fell-apart/|title=How the Pacific Islands Forum Fell Apart|website=thediplomat.com}}</ref>

====Early interpretations====
[[File:Meyers b12 s0582a.jpg|thumb|upright=1.85|A German map of Oceania from 1884, showing the region to encompass Australia and all islands between Asia and [[Latin America]]]]

French writer [[Gustave d'Eichthal]] remarked in 1844 that Oceania's boundaries extended across the entire Pacific Ocean.<ref name="eic">{{cite book |last1=Mortimer |first1=John |title=Polytechnic Review and Magazine of Science, Literature and the Fine Arts: Volume 1 |date=1844 |publisher=The University of Michigan |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LU5AQAAMAAJ&dq=%22BOUNDARIES+OF+OCEANIA%22&pg=PA42 |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Polytechnic_Review_and_Magazine_of_Scien/5LU5AQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22BOUNDARIES+OF+OCEANIA%22&pg=PA42&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Conrad Malte-Brun]] in 1824 defined Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the islands of Polynesia (which then included all the Pacific islands) and the Malay Archipelago.<ref>Which includes the present-day countries of Brunei, East Timor, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Malte-Brun |first1=Conrad |title=Universal Geography: Containing the description of part of Asia, of Oceanica, &c. with additional matter, not in the European edition |date=1827 |publisher=Princeton University |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXA9AAAAYAAJ |access-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> [[Joseph Emerson Worcester|Worcester]] described Oceania as a collection of numerous Pacific islands, categorizing it as one of the world's five major divisions. He also viewed Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the Malay Archipelago and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Worcester |first1=Joseph Emerson |title=Elements of Geography, Modern and Ancient with a Modern and an Ancient Atlas |date=1840 |publisher=Lewis and Sampson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmFiAAAAcAAJ |access-date=13 December 2022}}</ref> In 1887, the [[Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland]] referred to Australia as the area's westernmost land,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: Volume 19 |date=1887 |publisher=Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society |page=370 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03qFAAAAIAAJ |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064237/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society_of/03qFAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> while in 1870, British Reverend [[Alexander Murdoch Mackay|Alexander Mackay]] identified the [[Bonin Islands]] as its northernmost point, and [[Macquarie Island]] as its southernmost point.<ref name="mac">{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=Alexander |title=Manual of modern geography, mathematical, physical, and political: Volume 2 |date=1970 |publisher=Oxford University |page=602 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHEDAAAAQAAJ&dq=macquarie+islands+bonin+islands+oceania&pg=PA602 |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064237/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Manual_of_modern_geography_mathematical/HHEDAAAAQAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=macquarie+islands+bonin+islands+oceania&pg=PA602&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> The Bonin Islands at that time were a possession of Britain; Macquarie Island, to the south of [[Tasmania]], is a subantarctic island in the Pacific. It was politically associated with Australia and Tasmania by 1870.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/M/Macquarie%20Island.htm |title=Macquarie Island |work=Utas.edu.au |date= |access-date=2022-09-25}}</ref>

[[Alfred Russel Wallace]] believed in 1879 that Oceania extended to the [[Aleutian Islands]], which are among the northernmost islands of the Pacific.<ref name="austral"/> The islands, now politically associated with [[Alaska]], have historically had [[Aleut|inhabitants]] that were related to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous Americans]], in addition to having non-tropical biogeography similar to that of Alaska and [[Siberia]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.arlis.org/docs/vol1/A/1246860.pdf |title=FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA |author1=Olaus J. Murie |author2=Victor B. Scheffer |publisher=Fish and Wildlife service |location= |year=1939 |access-date=3 October 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pandian |first1=Jacob |last2=Parman |first2=Susan |title=The Making of Anthropology: The Semiotics of Self and Other in the Western Tradition |date=2004 |publisher=Vedams |page=206 |isbn=978-81-7936-014-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RgO8nLql2KwC&dq=%22some+exclude%22+%22ryukyu%22&pg=PA206 |access-date=31 March 2022 |quote=Some exclude from 'Oceania' the nontropical islands such as Ryukyu, the Aleutian islands, and Japan, and the islands such as Formosa, Indonesia, and the Philippines that are closely linked with mainland Asia |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064238/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_Making_of_Anthropology/RgO8nLql2KwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22some+exclude%22+%22ryukyu%22&pg=PA206&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> Wallace insisted while the surface area of this wide definition was greater than that of Asia and [[Europe]] combined, the land area was only a little greater than that of Europe.<ref name="austral"/> American geographer Sophia S. Cornell claimed that the Aleutian Islands were not part of Oceania in 1857.<ref name="corn">{{cite book |last1=Cornell |first1=Sophia S. |title=Cornell's Primary Geography: Forming Part First of a Systematic Series of School Geographies |year=1857 |publisher=Harvard University |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Z9hizT9tiAC&dq=%22included+in+oceania%22&pg=RA2-PA95 |access-date=31 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064858/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/CORNELL_S_PRIMARY_GEOGRAPHY/1Z9hizT9tiAC?%22.hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22included+in+oceania%22&pg=RA2-PA95&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> She stated that Oceania was divided up into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Zealand, and the Melanesian islands), [[Malesia]] (which included all present-day countries within the Malay Archipelago, not the modern country of [[Malaysia]]) and Polynesia (which included both the Polynesian and Micronesian islands in her definition).<ref name="corn"/> Aside from mainland Australia, areas that she identified as of high importance were Borneo, Hawaii, Indonesia's [[Java]] and [[Sumatra]], New Guinea, New Zealand, the Philippines, French Polynesia's [[Society Islands]], Tasmania, and Tonga.<ref name="corn"/>

American geographer [[Jesse Olney]]'s 1845 book ''A Practical System of Modern Geography'' defined Oceania as consisting of the many islands of the Pacific located southeast of Asia. Olney divided up Oceania into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Guinea, and New Zealand), Malesia and Polynesia (which included the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia in his definition).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olney |first1=Jesse |title=A Practical System of Modern Geography |date=1845 |publisher=Pratt, Woodford & cr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JE9SAQAAMAAJ |access-date=22 November 2022}}</ref> Publication ''Missionary Review of the World'' claimed in 1895 that Oceania was divided into five groups: Australasia, Malesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. It did not consider Hawaii to be part of Polynesia, due to its geographic isolation, commenting that Oceania also included, "isolated groups and islands, such as the Hawaiian and [[Galápagos Islands|Galápagos]]."<ref name="missionary">{{cite book |title=Missionary Review of the World: Volume 18 |date=1895 |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls |page=533 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRVy7TO2nTsC |access-date=31 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064354/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Missionary_Review_of_the_World/ZRVy7TO2nTsC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1876, French geographer [[Élisée Reclus]] described Australia's plant life as highly distinctive and noted that Hawaii and the Galápagos had significant numbers of unique, endemic plant species.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Reclus |first1=Élisée |title=The Earth and Its Inhabitants: Australasia |date=1876 |publisher=Oxford University |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DzEBAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22hawaiian+archipelago+also+constitutes%22&pg=PA32-IA6 |access-date=9 January 2023}}</ref> [[Rand McNally|Rand McNally & Company]], an American publisher of maps and atlases, defined Oceania as including Australia and the Pacific islands while classifying the Malay Archipelago as part of Asia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Rand, McNally & Co.'s Universal Atlas of the World |date=1892 |publisher=Rand McNally and Company |page=171 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lixEAQAAMAAJ&q=%22the+110th%22+%22universal+atlas%22 |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064354/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/RAND_MCNALLY_CO_S_UNIVERSAL_ATLAS_OF_THE/lixEAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22the+110th%22+%22universal+atlas%22&dq=%22the+110th%22+%22universal+atlas%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> British linguist [[Robert Needham Cust]] argued in 1887 that the Malay Archipelago should be excluded since it had participated in Asian civilization.<ref name="ess">{{cite book |last1=Cust |first1=Robert Needham |title=Linguistic and Oriental Essays: 1847-1887 |date=1887 |publisher=Trübner & Company |page=518 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZ4KtNU2-PMC |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064357/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Linguistic_and_Oriental_Essays_1847_1887/vZ4KtNU2-PMC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cust considered Oceania's four subregions to be Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.<ref name="ess"/> New Zealand was categorized by him as being in Polynesia; and the only country in his definition of Australasia was Australia.<ref name="ess"/> His definition of Polynesia included both Easter Island and Hawaii, which had not yet been annexed by either Chile or the United States.<ref name="ess"/>

The ''[[Journal of the Royal Statistical Society]]'' stated in 1892 that Australia was a large island within Oceania rather than a small continent. It additionally commented:

<blockquote>It is certainly not necessary to consider the [[Hawaiian archipelago|Hawaiian Islands]] and [[Australia]] as being in the same part of the world; it is, however, permissible to unite in one group all the islands which are scattered over the great ocean. It should be remarked that if we take the Malay Archipelago away from Oceania, as do generally the German geographers, the insular world contained in the great ocean is cut in two, and the least populated of the five parts of the world is diminished to increase the number of inhabitants of the most densely populated continent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Royal Statistical Society (Great Britain) |title=Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Volume 55 |date=1892 |publisher=Royal Statistical Society. |page=309 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hujWAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22OCEANIA%22%27&pg=PA309 |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064359/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Journal_of_the_Royal_Statistical_Society/hujWAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22OCEANIA%22%27&pg=PA309&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

Regarding Australia and the Pacific, ''Chambers's New Handy Volume American Encyclopædia'' observed in 1885 that, the term "Oceania" has been used interchangeably with "Australasia," though often excluding the Malay Archipelago, which some writers referred to as "[[Malesia]]".<ref name="chambers"/> It added there was controversy over the exact limits of Oceania, saying that, the encyclopaedia mentioned the lack of agreement among geographers about the exact boundaries of Oceania.<ref name="chambers">{{cite book |title=Chambers's New Handy Volume American Encyclopædia: Volume 9 |date=1885 |publisher=The University of Virginia |page=657 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2NRAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22easter+island%22+%22oceania%22+%22galapagos%22&pg=PA657 |access-date=13 March 2022 |quote=the whole region has sometimes been called Oceania, and sometimes Australasia—generally, however, in modern times, to the exclusion of the islands in the Indian archipelago, to which certain writers have given the name of Malaysia [...] we have the three geographical divisions of Malesia, Australasia and Polynesia, the last mentioned of which embraces all the groups and single islands not included under the other two. Accepting this arrangement, still, the limits between Australasia and Polynesia have not been very accurately defined; indeed, scarcely any two geographers appear to be quite agreed upon the subject; neither shall we pretend to decide in the matter. The following list, however, comprises all the principal groups and single islands not previously named as coming under the division of Australasia: 1. North of the equator—The Ladrone or Marian islands, the Pelew Islands, the Caroline Islands, the Radack and Ralick chains, the Sandwich islands, Gilbert's or Kingstnill's archipelago, and the Galapagos. 2. South of the equator—The Ellice group, the Phoenix and Union groups, the Fiji Islands, the Friendly Islands, the Navigator's islands, Cook's or Harvey islands, the Society islands, the Dangerous archipelago, the Marquesas Islands, Pitcairn Island, and Easter Island. |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064400/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Chambers_s_New_Handy_Volume_American_Enc/J2NRAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22easter+island%22+%22oceania%22+%22galapagos%22&pg=PA657&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> British physician and ethnologist [[James Cowles Prichard]] stated that the Aleutian and [[Kuril Islands]], along with the coasts of Asia and America, marked the northern boundary of Oceania. However, Prichard argued that these islands were generally not considered part of Oceania because their inhabitants were not connected to the indigenous peoples of the more remote Pacific islands. He added that Hawaii was the most northerly area to be inhabited by races associated with Oceania.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prichard |first1=James Cowles |title=Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Researches into the history of the Oceanic and of the American nations |date=1847 |publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign }}</ref>

The 1926 book ''Modern World History, 1776&ndash- 1926'', by Alexander Clarence Flick, considered Oceania to include all islands in the Pacific, and associated the term with the Malay Archipelago, the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, the Aleutian Islands, Japan's [[Ryukyu Islands]], Taiwan, and the Kuril Islands.<ref name="flick">{{cite book |last1=Flick |first1=Alexander Clarence |title=Modern World History, 1776-1926: A Survey of the Origins and Development of Contemporary Civilization |date=1926 |publisher=A.A. Knopf |page=492 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PhGHAAAAMAAJ&q=Modern%20World%20History,%201776-1926A%20Survey%20of%20the%20Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20Contemporary%20Civilization |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064936/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Modern_World_History_1776_1926/PhGHAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=Modern+World+History%2C+1776-1926A+Survey+of+the+Origins+and+Development+of+Contemporary+Civilization |url-status=live }}</ref> He further included in his definition [[Sakhalin]], an island which is geologically part of the [[Japanese archipelago|Japanese Archipelago]], but that has been administered by Russia since [[World War II]]. Hong Kong, partly located in another marginal sea of the Pacific (the [[South China Sea]]), was also included in his definition. Australia and New Zealand were grouped by Flick as Australasia and categorized as being in the same area of the world as the islands of Oceania. Flick described the demographic composition of Oceania, stating that the majority of the population consisted of "brown and yellow races," while whites were primarily "owners and rulers."<ref name="flick"/> Hutton Webster's 1919 book ''Medieval and Modern History ''also defined Oceania broadly, stating that it encompassed all islands in the Pacific. Webster broke Oceania up into two subdivisions: the continental group, which included Australia, the Japanese archipelago, the Malay Archipelago, and Taiwan, and the oceanic group, which included New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Webster |first1=Hutton |title=World History: Volume 1 |date=1921 |publisher=D. C. Heath |page=563 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cboXAAAAIAAJ&q=the+term+Oceania,+or+Oceania,+in+its+widest+sense+applies+to+all+the+Pacific+Islands. |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref>

Charles Marion Tyler's 1885 book ''The Island World of the Pacific Ocean'' considered Oceania to ethnographically encompass Australia, New Zealand, the Malay Archipelago, and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. However, Tyler included other Pacific islands in his book as well, such as the Aleutian Islands, the Bonin Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, [[California]]'s [[Channel Islands (California)|Channel Islands]] and [[Farallon Islands]], [[Canada]]'s [[Vancouver Island]] and [[Haida Gwaii|Queen Charlotte Islands]] (now known as Haida Gwaii), Chile's [[Chiloé Island]], Ecuador's Galápagos Islands, Mexico's [[Guadalupe Island]], [[Revillagigedo Islands]], [[Islas San Benito|San Benito Islands]] and [[Islas Marías|Tres Marías Islands]], and Peru's [[Chincha Islands]].<ref name="tyler">{{cite book |last1=Charles Marion |first1=Tyler |title=The Island World of the Pacific Ocean |date=1885 |publisher=Howard & Pariser |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8D5CAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22vancouver+island%22+%22pacific+islands%22+%22australia%22&pg=PR6 |access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref> Islands in marginal seas of the Pacific were also covered in the book, including Alaska's [[Pribilof Islands]] and China's [[Hainan]]. Tyler additionally profiled the [[Anson Archipelago]], which during the 19th century was a designation for a widely scattered group of purported islands in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean between Japan and Hawaii. The Anson archipelago included [[phantom island]]s such as [[Ganges Island]] and [[Los Jardines]] which were proven to not exist, as well as real islands such as Marcus Island and Wake Island.<ref>{{cite book | last = Stommel | first = Henry | title = Lost Islands: The Story of Islands That Have Vanished from Nautical Charts | publisher = University of British Columbia Press | location = Vancouver | year = 1984 | isbn = 0-7748-0210-3 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/lostislands00henr/page/ xvii, 105ff] | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lostislands00henr/page/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FzhjAAAAMAAJ|title=Maritime Geography and Statistics ...|first=James Hingston|last=Tuckey|date=13 November 1815|publisher=Black, Parry & Company|via=Google Books}}</ref> Tyler described Australia as "the [[leviathan]] of the island groups of the world".<ref name="tyler"/> In his 1857 book ''A Treatise on Physical Geography'', Francis B. Fogg defined Oceania, or "the Maritime World," as being divided into three major subregions: Australasia, Malesia, and Polynesia. Fogg defined Polynesia as covering the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, as well as the Ryukyu Islands. He listed additional significant islands in the Pacific beyond those in the standard subregions of Oceania.<ref>{{cite book |last1=B. Fogg |first1=Francis |title=A Treatise on Physical Geography ... |date=1857 |publisher=Ivison & Phinney |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQgAAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22hainan%22+%22galapagos%22+%22aleutian%22&pg=PA3 |access-date=22 January 2023}}</ref> Scottish academic [[John Merry Ross]] in 1879 considered Polynesia to cover the entire South and Central Pacific area, not just islands ethnographically within Polynesia. He wrote in ''The Globe Encyclopedia of Universal Information'' that, in its broadest sense, Polynesia could include islands spanning from Sumatra to the Galápagos, along with Australia.<ref name="suma">{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=John Merry |title=The Globe Encyclopedia of Universal Information: Volume 6 |year=1879 |publisher=The University of Michigan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rBaRjHkYy1cC&dq=%22literally%22+%22galapagos%22+%22sumatra%22&pg=PA166 |access-date=5 February 2023}}</ref> Ross acknowledged that Oceania had historically been applied to this vast region but noted that, by his time, the Malay Archipelago was often excluded.<ref name="suma"/>

====Historical and contemporary interpretations====
In a 1972 article for the ''[[Music Educators Journal]]'' titled ''Musics of Oceania'', author Raymond F. Kennedy wrote:

<blockquote>Many meanings have been given to the word Oceania. The most inclusive–but not always the most useful–embraces about 25,000 land areas between Asia and the Americas. A more popular and practical definition excludes Indonesia, East Malaysia (Borneo), the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan, and other islands closely related to the Asian mainland, as well as the Aleutians and the small island groups situated near the Americas. Thus, Oceania most commonly refers to the land areas of the South and Central Pacific.<ref name="journal">{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=Raymond F. |title=Musics of Oceania |journal=Music Educators Journal |date=October 1972 |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=59–64 |doi=10.2307/3394143 |jstor=3394143 |s2cid=191492515 }}</ref></blockquote>

Kennedy defined Oceania as including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.<ref name="journal"/> The [[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Publishing Office]]'s ''Area Handbook for Oceania'' from 1971 states that Australia and New Zealand are the principal large sovereignties of the area. It further states:

<blockquote>In its broadest definition, Oceania embraces all islands and island groups of the Pacific Ocean that lie between Asia and the two American continents. In popular usage, however, the designation has a more restricted application. The islands of the North Pacific, such as the Aleutians and the Kuriles, are usually excluded. In addition, the series of sovereign island nations fringing Asia (Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, East Malaysia, the Republic of Indonesia) is not ordinarily considered to be part of the area.<ref name="handbook">{{cite book |last1=Henderson |first1=John William |title=Area Handbook for Oceania |date=1971 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page=39 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NuOIqt-UQowC&dq=%22oceania%22+%22all+islands%22&pg=PA39 }}</ref></blockquote>

In 1948, American military journal ''Armed Forces Talk'' broke the islands of the Pacific up into five major subdivisions: Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, and the non-tropical Islands. The Indonesian subdivision consisted of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, while the non-tropical islands were categorized as being North Pacific islands, such as Alaska's [[Kodiak Archipelago|Kodiak archipelago]], the Aleutian Islands, Japan, the Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin. Japan's Bonin and Ryukyu Islands are also considered to be [[Subtropics|subtropical islands]], with the main Japanese archipelago being non-tropical.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1479-8298.2007.00250.x|title=Diversity of drosophilid flies on Kume-jima, a subtropical island: comparison with diversity on Iriomote-jima|first1=Masanori|last1=Kondo|first2=Masahito T.|last2=Kimura|date=13 March 2008|journal=Entomological Science|volume=11|issue=1|pages=7–15|doi=10.1111/j.1479-8298.2007.00250.x|s2cid=83888348 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The journal associated the term Oceania with the Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian subdivisions, but not with the Indonesian or non-tropical subdivisions.<ref>{{cite book |title=Armed Forces Talk |date=1948 |publisher=War Department |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUQV0sJpJPIC |access-date=7 September 2022}}</ref> The ''Pacific Islands Handbook'' (1945), by Robert William Robson, stated that, "Pacific Islands generally are regarded as Pacific islands lying within the tropics. There are a considerable number of Pacific Islands outside the tropics. Most of them have little economic or political importance." He noted the political significance of the Aleutian Islands, which were invaded by the Japanese military in World War II, and categorized New Zealand's [[Antipodes Islands]], [[Auckland Islands]], [[Bounty Islands]], [[Campbell Islands]], [[Chatham Island]] and [[Kermadec Islands]] as being non-tropical islands of the South Pacific, along with Australia's [[Lord Howe Island]] and Norfolk Island. The Kermadec Islands, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island are also considered to be subtropical islands. Other non-tropical areas below the [[equator]], such as Chiloé Island, Macquarie Island, Tasmania, and the southern portions of mainland Australia and New Zealand, were not included in this category.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Robson |first1=Robert William |title=The Pacific Islands Handbook North American Ed. 1944 |date=1946 |publisher=Macmillan |page=357 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mmuAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Pacific+Islands+generally+are+regarded+as+Pacific+islands+lying+within+the+Tropics%22 |access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref>

According to the 1998 book ''Encyclopedia of Earth and Physical Sciences'', Oceania refers to Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, and more than 10,000 islands scattered across the Pacific Ocean. It notes that, "the term [has] also come under scrutiny by many geographers. Some experts insist that Oceania encompasses even the cold Aleutian Islands and the islands of Japan. Disagreement also exists over whether or not Indonesia, the Philippines, and Taiwan should be included in Oceania."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marshall Cavendish Corporation |title=Encyclopedia of Earth and Physical Sciences: Nuclear physics-Plate tectonics |date=1998 |publisher=Pennsylvania State University |page=876 |isbn=978-0-7614-0551-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=px7YAAAAMAAJ&q=%22japan%22+%22aleutian%22+%22oceania%22 |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064459/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Earth_and_Physical_Scien/px7YAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22japan%22+%22aleutian%22+%22oceania%22&dq=%22japan%22+%22aleutian%22+%22oceania%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> The Japanese Archipelago, the Malay Archipelago and Taiwan and other islands near China are often deemed as a geological extension of Asia, since they do not have [[Oceanic islands|oceanic geology]], instead being detached fragments of the Eurasian continent that were once [[Physical geography|physiographically]] connected.<ref>{{cite web |author= |url=https://www.dost.gov.ph/knowledge-resources/news/38-2009-news/365-philippines-islands-to-reunite-with-mainland-asia.html |title=Philippines islands to reunite with mainland Asia |website=Dost.gov.ph |date=28 August 2009 |access-date=14 July 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502045840/https://www.dost.gov.ph/knowledge-resources/news/38-2009-news/365-philippines-islands-to-reunite-with-mainland-asia.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="chen">{{cite book |last1=Chenevière |first1=Alain |last2=Sabater |first2=Roger |title=Pacific: The Boundless Ocean |date=1995 |publisher=Konecky & Konecky |page=14 |isbn=978-1-56852-239-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=So2r2OogWtoC&q=%22form+part+of+it+since+they+are+attached+both%22 |access-date=24 April 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064502/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Pacific/So2r2OogWtoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22form+part+of+it+since+they+are+attached+both%22&dq=%22form+part+of+it+since+they+are+attached+both%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Osozawa |first1=Soichi |last2=Shinjo |first2=Ryuichi |last3=Armid |first3=Alroem |last4=Watanabe |first4=Yasushi |last5=Horiguchi |first5=Toshiaki |last6=Wakabayashi |first6=John |title=Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the 1.55 Ma synchronous isolation of the Ryukyu Islands, Japan, and Taiwan and inflow of the Kuroshio warm current |journal=International Geology Review |date=September 2012 |volume=54 |issue=12 |pages=1369–1388 |doi=10.1080/00206814.2011.639954 |bibcode=2012IGRv...54.1369O |s2cid=129309233 }}</ref> Certain Japanese islands off the main archipelago are not geologically associated with Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.science.gov/topicpages/r/ryukyu+islands+japan.html|title=ryukyu islands japan: Topics by Science.gov|website=Science.gov|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-04-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408172011/https://www.science.gov/topicpages/r/ryukyu+islands+japan.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ohba |first1=Michio |last2=Tsuchiyama |first2=Akira |last3=Shisa |first3=Noriko |last4=Nakashima |first4=Kei |last5=Lee |first5=Dong-Hyun |last6=Ohgushi |first6=Akira |last7=Wasano |first7=Naoya |title=Naturally occurring Bacillus thuringiensis in oceanic islands of Japan, Daito-shoto and Ogasawara-shoto. |journal=Applied Entomology and Zoology |date=2002 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=477–480 |doi=10.1303/aez.2002.477 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2002AppEZ..37..477O }}</ref> The book ''The World and Its Peoples: Australia, New Zealand, Oceania'' (1966) asserts that, "Japan, Taiwan, the Aleutian Islands, Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia [and] the Pacific archipelagos bordering upon the [[East Asia|Far East Asian]] mainland are excluded from Oceania", and that "all the islands lying between Australia and the Americas, including Australia, are part of Oceania."<ref name="nz">{{cite book |title=The World and Its Peoples: Australia, New Zealand, Oceania |date=1966 |publisher=Greystone Press |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4MhBAAAAIAAJ&q=%22excluded+from+oceania%22 |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064537/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_World_and_Its_Peoples_Australia_New/4MhBAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22excluded+from+oceania%22&dq=%22excluded+from+oceania%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> Furthermore, the book adds that Hawaii is still within Oceania, despite being politically integrated into the U.S., and that the Pacific Ocean "gives unity to the whole" since "all these varied lands emerge from or border upon the Pacific."<ref name="nz"/>

The 1876 book ''The Countries of the World'', by British scientist and explorer [[Robert Brown (botanist, born 1842)|Robert Brown]], labelled the Malay Archipelago as Northwestern Oceania, but Brown still noted that these islands belonged more to the Asian continent. They are now often referred to as [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], with Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore being founding members of the [[ASEAN]] regional organization for [[Southeast Asia]] in 1967 (Brunei and East Timor did not exist as independent nations at that point).<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chong |first1=Teck Choy |title=Brunei Darussalam Independence 1984: The Memorable Year 1984, a New Nation was Born |date=2015 |publisher=Sci-Tech Technologies |isbn=978-99917-960-0-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-KnUjwEACAAJ |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref> Brown also categorized Japan and Taiwan as being in the same part of the world as the islands of Oceania, and excluded them from ''The Countries of the World: Volume 5'', which covered mainland Asia and Hong Kong.<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/> However, Brown did not explicitly associate Japan or Taiwan with the term Oceania.<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/> He divided Oceania into two subregions: Eastern Oceania, which included the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, and Southwestern Oceania, which included Australia and New Zealand.<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/> The Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands, and the Revillagigedo Islands were identified as the easternmost areas of Oceania in the book. Brown wrote, "they lie nearest the American continent of all oceanic islands, and though rarely associated with Polynesia, and never appearing to have been inhabited by any aboriginal races, are, in many ways, remarkable and interesting."<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/> Brown went on to add, "the small islands lying off the continent, like the [[Queen Charlotte Islands|Queen Charlotte's]] in the North Pacific, the [[Farallon Islands|Farallones]] off California, and the [[Chincha Islands|Chinchas]] off Peru are—to all intents and purposes, only detached bits of the adjoining shores. But in the case of the Galápagos, at least, this is different."<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/> The Juan Fernández Islands and the neighbouring [[Desventuradas Islands]] are today seen as the easternmost extension of the Indo-West Pacific biogeographic region. The islands lie on the Nazca Plate with Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands, and have a significant south-central Pacific component to their marine fauna.<ref name="marine">{{cite journal|title=Marine Biodiversity in Juan Fernández and Desventuradas Islands, Chile: Global Endemism Hotspots |publisher=Journals.plos.org |date=6 January 2016 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0145059 |doi-access=free |last1=Friedlander |first1=Alan M. |last2=Ballesteros |first2=Enric |last3=Caselle |first3=Jennifer E. |last4=Gaymer |first4=Carlos F. |last5=Palma |first5=Alvaro T. |last6=Petit |first6=Ignacio |last7=Varas |first7=Eduardo |last8=Muñoz Wilson |first8=Alex |last9=Sala |first9=Enric |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=1 |article-number=e0145059 |pmid=26734732 |pmc=4703205 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1145059F }}</ref><ref name="east">{{cite journal |last1=Pequeño |first1=Germán |title=Shore Fishes of Easter Island, John E. Randall & Alfredo Cea Egaña |journal=Gayana |date=2011 |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=201–202 |id={{ProQuest|920291064}} |doi=10.4067/S0717-65382011000200011 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="class"/> According to scientific journal ''[[PLOS One]]'', the [[Humboldt Current]] helps create a biogeographic barrier between the marine fauna of these islands and South America.<ref name="marine"/> Chile's government have occasionally considered them to be within Oceania along with Easter Island.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Georgia |title=Rapa Nui Journal: Volumes 7-10 |date=1993 |publisher=University of Texas |page=72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXvjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22juan+fernandez%22+%22oceania%22+%22rapa+nui%22 |access-date=19 March 2022 |quote=[...] Chile Division of Cultural Affairs and Information (DIRACI) [stated] that Chile's area included "180 km2 (69.48 miles) of Oceania—Easter Island, Juan Fernandez Archipelago (Robinson Crusoe Island) and other islands off the Chilean coast. The ''Pacific Islands Handbook'' (1989) and ''Encyclopedia of World Cultures'' (1991) did not realize that they had overestimated Rapa Nui because of this. |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064541/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Rapa_Nui_Journal/ZXvjAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22juan+fernandez%22+%22oceania%22+%22rapa+nui%22&dq=%22juan+fernandez%22+%22oceania%22+%22rapa+nui%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> Chile's government also categorizes Easter Island, the Desventuradas Islands, and the Juan Fernández Islands as being part of a region titled [[Insular Chile]]. They further include in this region Salas y Gómez, a small uninhabited island to the east of Easter Island. ''PLOS One'' describes Insular Chile as having "cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific."<ref name="marine"/>

[[File:Members of Pacific Island Forum.svg|thumb|upright=1.55|A map of member states for the [[Pacific Islands Forum]], the member states are depicted in blue. The PIF is a governing organization for the Pacific, and all of its members are seen as being politically within Oceania. Territories ethnographically associated with Oceania, but not politically associated with Oceania, such as Easter Island, Hawaii, and Western New Guinea, have considered gaining representation in the PIF. The Pacific island nations of Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Taiwan are dialogue partners, but none have full membership. East Timor, located in the marginal seas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, also has observer status.]]
[[File:Map of the Territorial Waters of the Pacific Ocean.png|thumb|upright=1.55|An [[exclusive economic zone]] map of the Pacific which includes areas not politically associated with Oceania, that may be considered geographically or geologically within Oceania]]

In her 1997 book ''Australia and Oceania'', Australian historian [[Kate Darian-Smith]] defined the area as covering Australia, New Zealand, and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. She excluded Hawaii from her definition, but not Easter Island.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Kate Darian |title=Australia and Oceania |date=1997 |publisher=Raintree Steck-Vaughn |isbn=978-0-8172-4778-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O2VnZUM8DzEC&q=%22AUSTRALIA+AND+OCEANIA%22+1997+EASTER |access-date=6 January 2023}}</ref> The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] stated in a 1986 report that they include Easter Island in their definition of Oceania "based on its Polynesian and biogeographic affinities even though it is politically apart", further noting that other oceanic islands administered by Latin American countries had been included in definitions of Oceania.<ref>{{cite book |title=Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania |date=1986 |isbn=978-2-88032-509-1 |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/30152 |quote=Easter Island on the east has been included based on its Polynesian and biogeographic affinities, even though it is politically apart. The other islands of the eastern Pacific (Galapagos, Juan Fernandez, etc.) have sometimes been included in Oceania. |last1=Dahl |first1=Arthur Lyon |publisher=The Union }}</ref> In 1987, ''The Journal of Australasian Cave Research'' described Oceania as being "the region from [[Irian Jaya]] (Western New Guinea, a province of New Guinea) in the west to Galápagos Islands (Equador) and Easter Island (Chile) in the east."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Oceania Bibliography |journal=Helictite: Journal of Australasian Cave Research |date=1987 |volume=25 |issue=1 |url=https://helictite.caves.org.au/pdf4/25.01.Issue.Print.pdf |access-date=16 March 2022 |quote=This paper covers the region from Irian Jaya (Western New Guinea, a province of New Guinea) in the west to Galapagos Islands (Equador) and Easter Island (Chile) in the east. |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322012745/https://helictite.caves.org.au/pdf4/25.01.Issue.Print.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 1980 report on [[Sexually transmitted infection|venereal diseases]] in the South Pacific, the ''British Journal of Venereal Diseases'' categorized the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being in an eastern region of the South Pacific, along with areas such as Pitcairn Islands and French Polynesia, but noted that the Galápagos Islands were not a member of the [[Pacific Community|South Pacific Commission]], like other islands in the South Pacific.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://sti.bmj.com/content/sextrans/56/4/204.full.pdf |title=Venereal diseases in the islands of the South Pacific |last1=Willcox |first1=R. R. |journal=British Journal of Venereal Diseases |volume=56 |issue= 4|year=1980 |pages=204–209 |doi=10.1136/sti.56.4.204 |pmid=7427693 |pmc=1045778 |access-date=3 September 2022 }}</ref> The South Pacific Commission is a developmental organization formed in 1947 and is currently known as the Pacific Community; its members include Australia and other Pacific Islands Forum members. In a 1947 article on the formation of the South Pacific Commission for the ''Pacific Affairs'' journal, author Roy E. James stated the organization's scope encompassed all non-self-governing islands below the equator to the east of Papua New Guinea (which itself was included in the scope and then known as [[Dutch New Guinea]]). Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands were defined by James as falling within the organization's geographical parameters.<ref>James, R.E., 1947. The South Pacific Commission. ''Pacific Affairs'', pp.193-198.</ref> The 2007 book ''Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West'', by New Zealand Pacific scholar [[Ron Crocombe]], defined the term "Pacific Islands" as being islands in the South Pacific Commission, and stated that such a definition "does not include Galápagos and other [oceanic] islands off the Pacific coast of the Americas; these were uninhabited when Europeans arrived, then integrated with a South American country and have almost no contact with other Pacific Islands." He adds, "Easter Island still participates in some Pacific Island affairs because its people are Polynesian."<ref name="asianpacific"/>

[[Thomas Sebeok]]'s two volume 1971 book ''Linguistics in Oceania'' defines Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands, [[Costa Rica]]'s [[Cocos Island]] and [[Colombia]]'s [[Malpelo Island]] (all oceanic)<ref name="zug"/> as making up a [[Spanish language]] segment of Oceania.<ref name="ling"/> Cocos Island and Malpelo Island are the only landmasses located on the [[Cocos Plate]], which is to the north of the Nazca Plate. The book observed that a native Polynesian language was still understood on Easter Island, unlike on the other islands, which were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans and were mostly being used as prisons for convicts.<ref name="ling"/> Additionally, the book includes Taiwan and the entire Malay Archipelago as part of Oceania.<ref name="lingtai">{{cite book |last1=Bowen |first1=James Dean |title=Linguistics in Oceania, 2 |date=1971 |publisher=The University of Michigan |page= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lYouAAAAMAAJ&q=taiwan+Linguistics+in+Oceania+(2+v. |access-date=2 February 2022 |chapter=Japanese in Taiwan |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064537/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Current_Trends_in_Linguistics_Linguistic/lYouAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=taiwan+Linguistics+in+Oceania+%282+v.&dq=taiwan+Linguistics+in+Oceania+%282+v.&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> While not oceanic in nature, Taiwan and Malay Archipelago countries like Indonesia and the Philippines share [[Austronesians|Austronesia]]n ethnolinguistic origins with Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, hence their inclusion in the book.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p69411/pdf/book.pdf |title=The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives |editor1=Peter Bellwood |editor2=James J. Fox |editor3=Darrell Tryon |publisher=Australian National University |location=Canberra |year=2006 |access-date=1 June 2022 |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524202017/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p69411/pdf/book.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="lingtai"/> Hainan, which neighbours Taiwan, also has Austronesian ethnolinguistic origins, although it was not included in the book.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=2374892 | year=2008 | last1=Li | first1=D. | last2=Li | first2=H. | last3=Ou | first3=C. | last4=Lu | first4=Y. | last5=Sun | first5=Y. | last6=Yang | first6=B. | last7=Qin | first7=Z. | last8=Zhou | first8=Z. | last9=Li | first9=S. | last10=Jin | first10=L. | title=Paternal Genetic Structure of Hainan Aborigines Isolated at the Entrance to East Asia | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=3 | issue=5 | article-number=e2168 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002168 | pmid=18478090 | bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2168L | doi-access=free }}</ref> The book defined Oceania's major subregions as being Australia, Indonesia (which included all areas associated with the Malay Archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. In 2010, Australian historian Bronwen Douglas claimed in ''The Journal of Pacific History'' that "a strong case could be made for extending Oceania to at least Taiwan, the homeland of the Austronesian language family whose speakers colonized significant parts of the region about 6,000 years ago."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Douglas |first1=Bronwen |title='Terra Australis' to Oceania: Racial Geography in the "Fifth Part of the World" |journal=The Journal of Pacific History |date=2010 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=179–210 |doi=10.1080/00223344.2010.501696 |jstor=25764398 |pmid=20836257 |hdl=1885/52012 |s2cid=205438654 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> For political reasons, Taiwan was a member of the [[Oceania Football Confederation]] during the 1970s and 1980s, rather than the [[Asian Football Confederation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.goal.com/en-au/news/chinese-taipei-india-intercontinental-cup-know-your-rivals/bugueu6dtcwd1u6nbyi6wmj90/match/4c8k8i08ssh8dc5lclsl4sxuy|title=Indian National Football Team: Know Your Rivals - Chinese Taipei|website=Goal.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Fossen |first1=Anthony |title=The Struggle for Recognition: Diplomatic Competition Between China and Taiwan in Oceania |journal=Journal of Chinese Political Science |date=August 2007 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/s11366-007-9008-0 |hdl=10072/18133 |s2cid=154652706 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Ian Todd's 1974 book ''Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama'' also defines oceanic Latin American islands as making up a Spanish language segment of Oceania, and includes the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, Guadalupe Island, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands, and Salas y Gómez. Cocos Island and Malpelo Island were not explicitly referenced in the book, despite being areas that would fall within this range. All other islands associated with Latin American countries were excluded, as they are continental in nature, unlike Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands (both situated on the Pacific Plate) and the oceanic islands situated on the Cocos Plate and Nazca Plate. Todd defined the oceanic Bonin Islands as making up a [[Japanese language]] segment of Oceania, and excluded the main Japanese archipelago.<ref name="realm"/> Todd further included the Aleutian Islands in his definition of Oceania. The island chain borders both the Pacific Plate and the [[North American Plate]], and is geologically a partially submerged volcanic extension of the [[Aleutian Range]] on the Alaskan mainland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hurtigruten.com/en-us/expeditions/stories/tectonics-of-the-east-pacific/|title=Tectonics of the East Pacific {{pipe}} Hurtigruten Expeditions|website=hurtigruten.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.apiai.org/departments/cultural-heritage-department/culture-history/history/|title=History {{pipe}}|website=Aleutian Pribilof Islands Association}}</ref><ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Aleutian Islands|volume=1|pages=543–544}}</ref> He did not include the volcanic Kuril Islands and Ryukyu Islands, which similarly border both the Eurasian Plate and the Pacific Plate,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prasad |first1=Birendra |title=BPSC General Studies Preliminary Guide 2022 |date=2021 |publisher=Prabhat Prakashan |isbn=978-93-5488-021-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VFFREAAAQBAJ&dq=volcanic+islands+ryuku+kuril&pg=RA1-PA12 |access-date=19 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.soundseismic.com/earthquake-resources/kuril-islands-earthquake-of-8-5-magnitude|title=1963 Kuril Islands earthquake of 8.5 magnitude &#124; Sound Seismic|website=soundseismic.com}}</ref> nor did he include the neighbouring Kodiak archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean, which is firmly situated on the North American Plate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dggs.alaska.gov/popular-geology/earthquakes-tsunamis.html|title=Popular Geology - Earthquakes & Tsunamis|website=dggs.alaska.gov}}</ref> ''The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies'' stated in 1996 that Oceania was defined as Australia and an ensemble of various Pacific Islands, "particularly those in the central and south Pacific [but] never those in the extreme north, for example the Aleutian chain."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies: Volumes 6-8 |date=1996 |publisher=Center for Pacific Asia Studies, University of Stockholm |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qP8uAQAAIAAJ&q=%22extreme+north%22+%22oceania%22+1996+%22aleutian%22 |access-date=31 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064537/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_Stockholm_Journal_of_East_Asian_Stud/qP8uAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22extreme+north%22+%22oceania%22+1996+%22aleutian%22&dq=%22extreme+north%22+%22oceania%22+1996+%22aleutian%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> In the ''Pacific Ocean Handbook'' (1945), author Eliot Grinnell Mears claimed, "it is customary to exclude the Aleutians of the North Pacific, the American coastal islands and the [[Netherlands East Indies]]", and that he included Australia and New Zealand in Oceania for "scientific reasons; Australia's fauna is largely continental in character, New Zealand's are clearly insular; and neither [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth realm]] has close ties with Asia."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mears |first1=Eliot Grinnell |title=Pacific Ocean Handbook |date=1945 |publisher=J. L. Delkin |page=45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ku04AAAAIAAJ&q=%22customary%22+%22exclude%22+%22north+pacific%22+%22aleutians%22 |access-date=27 July 2022}}</ref> In his 2002 book ''Oceania: An Introduction to the Cultures and Identities of Pacific Islanders'', Andrew Strathern excluded [[Okinawa Island|Okinawa]] and the rest of the Ryukyu Islands from his definition of Oceania, but noted that the islands and their [[Ryukyuan people|indigenous inhabitants]] "show many parallels with Pacific island societies."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Strathern |first1=Andrew |title=Oceania: An Introduction to the Cultures and Identities of Pacific Islanders |year=2002 |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |page=5 |isbn=978-0-89089-444-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_AMAQAAMAAJ&q=okinawa+%22Pacific+island+societies.%22 |access-date=29 November 2022}}</ref>

In the 2006 book ''Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds'', American paleontologist [[David Steadman]] wrote, "no place on earth is as perplexing as the 25,000 islands that make Oceania." Steadman viewed Oceania as encompassing Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia (including Easter Island and Hawaii). He excluded from his definition the larger islands of New Guinea and New Zealand, and argued that Cocos Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands, and other oceanic islands near the Americas were not part of Oceania, due to their biogeographical affinities with that area and lack of prehistoric indigenous populations.<ref name="birds"/> In his 2018 book ''Regionalism in South Pacific'', Chinese author Yu Changsen wrote that some "stress a narrow vision of the Pacific as those Pacific Islands excluding Australia and even sometimes New Zealand", adding that the term Oceania "promotes a broader concept that has room for Australia and New Zealand."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Changsen |first1=Yu |title=Regionalism in South Pacific |date=2018 |publisher=[[Social Sciences Literature Press]] |isbn=978-7-5201-3311-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmVmEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22room+for+australia%22+%22pacific%22+%22oceania%22&pg=PT8 |access-date=6 December 2022}}</ref>

American marine geologist Anthony A. P. Koppers wrote in the 2009 book ''Encyclopedia of Islands'' that, "as a whole, the islands of the Pacific Region are referred to as Oceania, the tenth continent on earth. Inherent to their remoteness and because of the wide variety of island types, the Pacific Islands have developed unique social, biological, and geological characteristics." Koppers considered Oceania to encompass the entire 25,000 islands of the Pacific Ocean. In this book, he included the Aleutian Islands, the Galápagos Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Kuril Islands and continental islands off the coast of the Americas such as the Channel Islands, the Farallon Islands and Vancouver Island;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clague |first1=David |last2=Gillespie |first2=Rosemary |title=Encyclopedia of Islands |date=2009 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25649-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C |access-date=5 December 2022}}</ref> all of these islands lie in or close to the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]], as is the case with New Guinea and New Zealand, which were also included. In the 2013 book ''The Environments of the Poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific'', Paul Bullen critiqued the definition of Oceania in ''Encyclopedia of Islands'', and wrote that since Koppers included areas such as Vancouver Island, it is "not clear what the referents of 'Pacific Region', 'Oceania' or 'Pacific Islands' are." Bullen added, "Asia, Europe, and the Maritime Continent are not literal geographic continents. The '[[Asia–Pacific]] region' would comprise two quasi-continents. 'The Pacific' would not refer to the Pacific Ocean and everything in it, e.g., the Philippines."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bullen |first1=Paul |title=The Environments of the Poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific |date=19 November 2013 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-981-4517-99-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ev3AwAAQBAJ&dq=%22vancouver+island%22+%22oceania%22+%22pacific+region%22&pg=PA134 |access-date=5 December 2022}}</ref> ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names'' (2017), by John Everett-Heath, states that Oceania is "a collective name for more than 10,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean" and that "it is generally accepted that Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the islands north of Japan (the Kurils and Aleutians) are excluded."<ref name="ev">{{cite book |last1=Everett-Heath |first1=John |title=The Concise Dictionary of World Place Names |date=2017 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-255646-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgJCDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22generally+accepted%22+oceania+excluded+japan&pg=PT1171 |access-date=8 July 2022 |quote=It is generally accepted that Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the islands north of Japan (the Kurils and Aleutians) are excluded}}</ref> In his 1993 book ''A New Oceania: Rediscovering Our Sea of Islands'', New Guinea-born [[Fijians|Fijian]] scholar [[Epeli Hauʻofa]] wrote that, "Pacific Ocean islands from Japan, through the Philippines and Indonesia, which are adjacent to the Asian mainland, do not have oceanic cultures, and are therefore not part of Oceania."<ref name="edu au" />

''The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania'' (2018) defined Oceania as only covering Austronesian-speaking islands in Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, with this definition including New Guinea and New Zealand. Other Austronesian areas, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, were not included due to their closer cultural proximity to mainland Asia. Australia was also not included, as it was settled several thousand of years before the arrival of Austronesian-speaking peoples in Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. The book stated, "this definition of Oceania might seem too restrictive: Why not include Australia, for example, or even too broad, for what does [[New Guinea Highlands|Highland New Guinea]] have to do with Hawaiʻi?", further noting that, "a few other islands in the Pacific such as those of Japan or the Channel Islands off the southern California coast are not typically considered Oceania as the indigenous populations of these places do not share a common ancestry with Oceanic groups, except for a time far before humans sailed Pacific waters."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cochrane |first1=Ethan E. |last2=Hunt |first2=Terry L. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-992507-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZRODwAAQBAJ&dq=%22islands+in+the+pacific+such+as+those+of+japan%22&pg=PA1 |access-date=21 January 2023}}</ref> It has been theorized that the indigenous [[Jōmon people]] of the Japanese archipelago are related to Austronesians, along with the indigenous inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands. Some also theorize that [[Indigenous Australian]]s are related to the [[Ainu people]], who are the original inhabitants of Japan's [[Hokkaido]], the Kuril Islands and the southern part of Sakhalin.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moller Eric |url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/ainu-spirit-northern-people |title=Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People |publisher=Cultural Survival |date= 18 July 2022|access-date=2022-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9783110807554.195 |chapter=Dentition of the Ainu and the Australian Aborigines |title=Orofacial Growth and Development |year=1977 |last1=Hanihara |first1=Kazuro |pages=195–200 |isbn=978-90-279-7889-9 }}</ref> In their 2019 book ''Women and Violence: Global Lives in Focus'', Kathleen Nadeau and Sangita Rayamajhi wrote:

<blockquote> The Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and most of Indonesia are not usually considered to be part of the region of Oceania as it is understood today. These regions are usually considered to be part of Maritime Southeast Asia. These regions, as well as the large East Asian islands of Taiwan, Hainan, and the Japanese archipelago, have varying degrees of cultural connections.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nadeau |first1=Kathleen |last2=Rayamajhi |first2=Sangita |title=Women and Violence: Global Lives in Focus |date=2023 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-6224-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KXe5DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22hainan%22+%22varying+degrees+of+cultural%22&pg=PA231 |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref></blockquote>

In ''Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide'' (2013), [[George Robert Zug|George R. Zug]] claimed that "a standard definition of Oceania includes Australia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and New Zealand, and the oceanic islands of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia." He went on to write that his preferred definition of Oceania emphasizes islands with oceanic geology, stating that oceanic islands are, "islands with no past connections to a continental landmass" and that, "these boundaries encompass the Hawaiian and Bonin Islands in the north and Easter Island in the south, and the [[Palau]] Islands in the west to the Galápagos Islands in the east."<ref name="zug">{{cite book |last1=Zug |first1=George R. |author-link=George Robert Zug |title=Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide |date=2013 |location=Berkeley, Calif. |publisher=University of California Press |page= |isbn=978-0520274969}} 320 pp.</ref> Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and New Caledonia (which is geologically associated with New Zealand) were all excluded, as these areas are descendants of the ancient [[Pangaea]] supercontinent, along with landmasses such as the Americas and [[Afro-Eurasia]]. Volcanic islands which are geologically associated with continental landmasses, such as the Aleutian Islands, Japan's [[Izu Islands]], the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands, and most of the Solomon Islands, were also excluded from his definition. Unlike the United Nations, the World Factbook defines the still-uninhabited Clipperton Island as being a discrete political entity, and they categorize it as part of North America, presumably due to its relative proximity (situated 1,200 kilometres off Mexico on the Pacific Plate). Clipperton is not politically associated with the Americas, as is the case with other oceanic islands near the Americas, having had almost no interaction with the continent throughout its history.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p241101/pdf/book.pdf |title=France in the South Pacific: Power and Politics |author=Denise Fisher |publisher=Australian National University |location=Canberra |year=2013 |access-date=1 June 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326211929/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p241101/pdf/book.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pacific-studies.net/datadetails.php?place=4&type=Data&source=3|title=pacific-studies.eu: Clipperton Island (France) {{pipe}} The World Factbook|website=Pacific-studies.net|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-02-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204075635/https://www.pacific-studies.net/datadetails.php?place=4&type=Data&source=3|url-status=live}}</ref> From the early 20th century to 2007, the island was administratively part of French Polynesia, which itself was known as French Oceania up until 1957.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/French-Polynesia|title=French Polynesia summary |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504205135/https://www.britannica.com/summary/French-Polynesia|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Clipperton-Island|title=Clipperton Island {{pipe}} island, Pacific Ocean |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504205134/https://www.britannica.com/place/Clipperton-Island|url-status=live}}</ref> In terms of marine fauna, Clipperton shares similarities with areas of the Pacific which are much farther removed from the Americas.<ref name="clipzoo">{{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=D. Ross |last2=Allen |first2=Gerald R. |year=1996 |title=Zoogeography of the shorefish fauna of Clipperton Atoll |url=https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/19435 |publisher=Repository.si.edu |hdl=10088/19435 |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112172307/https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/19435 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.2839.1.1 |title=Sponges from Clipperton Island, East Pacific |journal=Zootaxa |publisher=Mapress.com |date= 29 April 2011 |volume=2839 |issue=1 |pages=1–46–1–46 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.2839.1.1 |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=27 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227130813/https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.2839.1.1 |url-status=live |last1=Van Soest |first1=Rob W. M. |last2=Kaiser |first2=Kirstie L. |last3=Van Syoc |first3=Robert |citeseerx=10.1.1.296.6640 }}</ref> Scottish author [[Robert Hope Moncrieff]] considered Clipperton to be the easternmost point of Oceania in 1907, while Ian Todd also included it in his definition of Oceania in ''Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moncrieff |first1=Robert Hope |title=The World of To-day A Survey of the Lands and Peoples of The Globe as Seen in Travel and Commerce: Volume 4 |date=1907 |publisher=Oxford University |page=222 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPVaAAAAQAAJ&q=%22easter+island%22+%22clipperton+island%22+%22oceania%22 |access-date=28 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064635/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_World_of_To_day/VPVaAAAAQAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22easter+island%22+%22clipperton+island%22+%22oceania%22&dq=%22easter+island%22+%22clipperton+island%22+%22oceania%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>

Other uninhabited Pacific Ocean landmasses have been explicitly associated with Oceania,<ref name="janick">{{Cite book |last=Janick |first=Jules |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrXCupIJVQMC&dq=%22galapagos%22+%22oceania%22+%22polynesia%22&pg=PA146 |title=Horticultural Reviews, Volume 36 |date=2010 |publisher=Wiley |page=146 |isbn=978-0-470-52722-1 |quote=Oceania is a broadly applied term for the thousands of islands in the Pacific Ocean. They range from extremely small, uninhabited islands to large ones, including Australia, New Zealand, and New Guinea. Oceania is further grouped into three regions: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. There are a few other Pacific island groups that do not fit into these groupings, such as the Galapagos. |access-date=1 February 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064634/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Horticultural_Reviews_Volume_36/DrXCupIJVQMC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22galapagos%22+%22oceania%22+%22polynesia%22&pg=PA146&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> including the highly remote Baker Island and Wake Island (now administered by the [[United States Armed Forces|U.S. military]]).<ref name="stats"/> This is due to their location in the centre of the Pacific, their biogeography and their oceanic geology. Less isolated oceanic islands that were once uninhabited, such as the Bonin Islands, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands, have since been sparsely populated by citizens of their political administrators.<ref name="realm"/><ref name="ling"/> Archaeological evidence suggests that [[Micronesians]] may have lived on the Bonin Islands {{c.|2,000}} years ago, but they were uninhabited at the time of European discovery in the 16th century.<ref>{{citation |last=Welsch |first=Bernhard |date=June 2004 |contribution-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25169675 |contribution=Was Marcus Island Discovered by Bernardo de la Torre in 1543? |title=Journal of Pacific History |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=109–122 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Milton Park |doi=10.1080/00223340410001684886 |jstor=25169675 |s2cid=219627973 }}.</ref>

====Boundaries between subregions====
Depending on the definition, New Zealand could be part of Polynesia, or part of Australasia with Australia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dumas |first1=Michel |last2=Preux |first2=Pierre-Marie |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KUuZDgAAQBAJ&dq=%22new+zealand%22+%22australasia+or+polynesia%22&pg=PA87 |title=Neuroepidemiology in Tropical Health |date=2017 |publisher=Academic Press |page=87 |access-date=6 February 2022 |chapter=Neurologic Diseases in Tropical Oceania |isbn=978-0-12-804625-8 |archive-date=4 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304050555/https://books.google.com/books?id=KUuZDgAAQBAJ&dq=%22new+zealand%22+%22australasia+or+polynesia%22&pg=PA87 |url-status=live }}</ref> New Zealand was originally settled by the Polynesian [[Māori people|Māori]], and has long maintained a political influence over the subregion.<ref name="southsea">{{cite book |last1=Halter |first1=Nicholas |title=Australian Travellers in the South Seas |date=2021 |publisher=ANU Press |isbn=978-1-76046-415-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dAAbEAAAQBAJ |access-date=10 January 2022 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206160214/https://books.google.com/books?id=dAAbEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="lowy18">{{cite web |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/nz-and-australia-big-brothers-or-distant-cousins |title=NZ and Australia: Big Brothers or Distant Cousins? {{pipe}} The Interpreter |publisher=Lowyinstitute.org |date=9 July 2020 |access-date=6 February 2022 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206160214/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/nz-and-australia-big-brothers-or-distant-cousins |url-status=live }}</ref> Through immigration and high Māori birth rates, New Zealand has attained the largest population of Polynesians in the world,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whimp |first1=Graeme |chapter=Working in the Space Between: Pacific Artists in Aotearoa/New Zealand |date=2009 |hdl=10125/146805b24 |editor1-first=A. Marata |editor1-last=Tamaira |title=In the Space Between: Negotiating Culture, Place, and Identity in the Pacific |pages=9–23 }}</ref> while Australia has the third largest Polynesian population (consisting entirely of immigrants). Modern-day Indigenous Australians are loosely related to Melanesians,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Whole-Genome Genetic Diversity in a Sample of Australians with Deep Aboriginal Ancestry|last1=McEvoy|first1=B. P.|last2=Lind|first2=J. M.|last3=Wang|first3=E. T.|last4=Moyzis|first4=R. K.|last5=Visscher|first5=P. M.|last6=Van Holst Pellekaan|first6=S. M.|last7=Wilton|first7=A. N.|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|year=2010|volume=87|issue=2|pages=297–305|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.07.008|pmc=2917718|pmid=20691402}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Malaspinas |first1=Anna-Sapfo |last2=Westaway |first2=Michael C. |last3=Muller |first3=Craig |last4=Sousa |first4=Vitor C. |last5=Lao |first5=Oscar |last6=Alves |first6=Isabel |last7=Bergström |first7=Anders |last8=Athanasiadis |first8=Georgios |last9=Cheng |first9=Jade Y. |last10=Crawford |first10=Jacob E. |last11=Heupink |first11=Tim H. |last12=Macholdt |first12=Enrico |last13=Peischl |first13=Stephan |last14=Rasmussen |first14=Simon |last15=Schiffels |first15=Stephan |last16=Subramanian |first16=Sankar |last17=Wright |first17=Joanne L. |last18=Albrechtsen |first18=Anders |last19=Barbieri |first19=Chiara |last20=Dupanloup |first20=Isabelle |last21=Eriksson |first21=Anders |last22=Margaryan |first22=Ashot |last23=Moltke |first23=Ida |last24=Pugach |first24=Irina |last25=Korneliussen |first25=Thorfinn S. |last26=Levkivskyi |first26=Ivan P. |last27=Moreno-Mayar |first27=J. Víctor |last28=Ni |first28=Shengyu |last29=Racimo |first29=Fernando |last30=Sikora |first30=Martin |last31=Xue |first31=Yali |last32=Aghakhanian |first32=Farhang A. |last33=Brucato |first33=Nicolas |last34=Brunak |first34=Søren |last35=Campos |first35=Paula F. |last36=Clark |first36=Warren |last37=Ellingvåg |first37=Sturla |last38=Fourmile |first38=Gudjugudju |last39=Gerbault |first39=Pascale |last40=Injie |first40=Darren |last41=Koki |first41=George |last42=Leavesley |first42=Matthew |last43=Logan |first43=Betty |last44=Lynch |first44=Aubrey |last45=Matisoo-Smith |first45=Elizabeth A. |last46=McAllister |first46=Peter J. |last47=Mentzer |first47=Alexander J. |last48=Metspalu |first48=Mait |last49=Migliano |first49=Andrea B. |last50=Murgha |first50=Les |last51=Phipps |first51=Maude E. |last52=Pomat |first52=William |last53=Reynolds |first53=Doc |last54=Ricaut |first54=Francois-Xavier |last55=Siba |first55=Peter |last56=Thomas |first56=Mark G. |last57=Wales |first57=Thomas |last58=Wall |first58=Colleen Ma'run |last59=Oppenheimer |first59=Stephen J. |last60=Tyler-Smith |first60=Chris |last61=Durbin |first61=Richard |last62=Dortch |first62=Joe |last63=Manica |first63=Andrea |last64=Schierup |first64=Mikkel H. |last65=Foley |first65=Robert A. |last66=Lahr |first66=Marta Mirazón |last67=Bowern |first67=Claire |last68=Wall |first68=Jeffrey D. |last69=Mailund |first69=Thomas |last70=Stoneking |first70=Mark |last71=Nielsen |first71=Rasmus |last72=Sandhu |first72=Manjinder S. |last73=Excoffier |first73=Laurent |last74=Lambert |first74=David M. |last75=Willerslev |first75=Eske |title=A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia |journal=Nature |date=13 October 2016 |volume=538 |issue=7624 |pages=207–214 |doi=10.1038/nature18299 |pmid=27654914 |pmc=7617037 |bibcode=2016Natur.538..207M |hdl=10754/622366 |s2cid=4471731 |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1516136/ |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and Australia maintains political influence over Melanesia,<ref name="lowy18"/> which is mostly located on the same tectonic plate.<ref name="birds"/><ref name="plates"/> Despite this, Australia is rarely seen as a part of the subregion.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 40387356|last1 = Kirch|first1 = Patrick V.|title = Reviewed work: Archaeology of Oceania: Australia and the Pacific Islands, Ian Lilley|journal = Archaeology in Oceania|year = 2006|volume = 41|issue = 3|pages = 128–130|doi = 10.1002/j.1834-4453.2006.tb00623.x}}</ref><ref name="Codrington Melanesians Encyc">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Codrington|first=Robert|title=Melanesians|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics|year=1915|publisher=T & T Clark|location=Edinburgh|pages=528–535}}</ref> As with Australia and New Zealand, Melanesia's New Caledonia has a significant non-indigenous European population, numbering around 71,000.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://www.isee.nc/tec/popsociete/telechargements/4-population.pdf|title=ISEE - Salaires|website=Isee.nc|access-date=20 August 2017|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225164238/http://www.isee.nc/tec/popsociete/telechargements/4-population.pdf%20}}</ref> Conversely, New Caledonia has still had a similar history to the rest of Melanesia, and their [[French language|French]]-speaking Europeans make up only 27% of the total population.<ref name="autogenerated2"/><ref name="devchris">{{Cite journal |last1=Ernst |first1=Manfred |last2=Anisi |first2=Anna |date=1 February 2016 |title=The Historical Development of Christianity in Oceania |url=https://www.academia.edu/33371338 |journal=Sanneh/Wiley |pages=588–604 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412012839/https://www.academia.edu/33371338 |url-status=live }}</ref> As such, it is not also culturally considered a part of the predominantly English-speaking Australasia.<ref name="emb">{{cite web|url=https://noumea.embassy.gov.au/nmeafrench/media191.html|title=Australian Consulate-General in|first=corporateName= Department of Foreign Affairs and|last=Trade|website=Noumea.embassy.gov.au|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411100613/https://noumea.embassy.gov.au/nmeafrench/media191.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Some cultural and political definitions of Australasia include most or all of Melanesia, due to its geographical proximity to Australia and New Zealand, but these are rare.<ref name=NZOD>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Australasia |encyclopedia=New Zealand Oxford Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-558451-6 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001|editor1-last=Deverson |editor1-first=Tony |editor2-first=Graeme |editor2-last=Kennedy }}</ref> Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia are more commonly grouped together as part of the [[Australasian realm|Australasian biogeographical realm]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/australasia-realm|title=Australasia realm|date=7 October 2019|website=Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064726/https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/australasia-realm|url-status=live}}</ref> Papua New Guinea is geographically the closest country to Australia, and is often geologically associated with Australia as it was once physiologically connected.<ref name="stats"/> Australia's Indian Ocean external territories of [[Christmas Island]] and [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] are situated within the bounds of the Australian Plate and have been geographically associated with Southeast Asia, due to their proximity to western Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ecat.ga.gov.au/geonetwork/srv/api/records/a05f7892-8f70-7506-e044-00144fdd4fa6|title=BMR Cruise 107: Seabed Morphology and Offshore Resources around Christmas Island, Indian Ocean|website=Product catalogue}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/pub/scientific-publications/archive/conservation-christmas-cocos.pdf |title=Conservation values in Commonwealth waters of the Christmas and Cocos (Keeling) Island remote Australian territories |publisher=CSIRO |date=August 2009 |access-date=1 June 2022 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401084035/https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/pub/scientific-publications/archive/conservation-christmas-cocos.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=M. Athyal |first1=Jesudas |title=Religion in Southeast Asia: An Encyclopedia of Faiths and Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Faiths and Cultures |date=2015 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=40 |isbn=978-1-61069-250-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-RfYBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22christmas+island%22+%22in+southeast+asia%22&pg=PA40 |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710222449/https://books.google.com/books?id=-RfYBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22christmas+island%22+%22in+southeast+asia%22&pg=PA40 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wildlifetourism.org.au/christmas-island-australias-gem-in-the-indian-ocean/|title=Christmas Island – Australia's Gem in the Indian Ocean|website=Wildlifetourism.org.au|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064649/https://www.wildlifetourism.org.au/christmas-island-australias-gem-in-the-indian-ocean/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://parksaustralia.gov.au/christmas/pub/bird-brochure.pdf|title=Christmas & Cocos Keeling Islands Birding Guide|website=Parksaustralia.gov.au|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=6 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210406033004/https://parksaustralia.gov.au/christmas/pub/bird-brochure.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Both were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans during the 17th century. Approximately half of the population on these islands are [[European Australians|European Australian]] mainlanders (with smaller numbers being [[European New Zealanders]]), while the other half are immigrants from China or the nearby Malay Archipelago.<ref name=Census2016>{{cite web |publisher=Australian Government |department=[[Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development]] |title=2016 Census: Christmas Island |url=http://regional.gov.au/territories/Christmas/files/CI_2016_Census_Data_Fact_Sheet_Final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111164850/http://regional.gov.au/territories/Christmas/files/CI_2016_Census_Data_Fact_Sheet_Final.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2018|access-date=3 May 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Egan |first1=Colleen |title=Bad tidings on Christmas |url=http://sievx.com/articles/psdp/19991211ColleenEgan.html |publisher=The Weekend Australian |access-date=7 March 2022 |date=11 December 1999 |archive-date=8 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608164850/http://sievx.com/articles/psdp/19991211ColleenEgan.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia's Indian Ocean external territory Heard Island and McDonald Islands lie on the [[Antarctic Plate]] and are also thought of as being in Antarctica or no region at all, due to their extreme geographical isolation.<ref name="geo">{{cite book |doi=10.1130/2007.2425(18) |chapter=The seismicity of the Antarctic plate |title=Continental Intraplate Earthquakes: Science, Hazard, and Policy Issues |year=2007 |last1=Reading |first1=Anya M. |isbn=978-0-8137-2425-6 }}</ref><ref name="stats"/> The World Factbook define Heard Island and McDonald Islands as part of Antarctica, while placing Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands as the westernmost extent of Oceania.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cocos-keeling-islands/ |title=Cocos (Keeling) Islands - The World Factbook |website=Cia.gov |date=24 June 2022 |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710181719/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cocos-keeling-islands/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/christmas-island/|title=Christmas Island|date=24 June 2022|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|website=Cia.gov|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032949/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/christmas-island/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Norfolk Island]], an external territory of Australia, was inhabited in prehistoric times by either Melanesians or Polynesians, and is geographically adjacent to the islands of Melanesia. The current inhabitants are mostly European Australians, and the UN categorizes it as being in the Australasia subregion.<ref name="stats"/> The 1982 edition of the ''South Pacific Handbook'', by David Stanley, groups Australia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Hawai{{okina}}i together under an "Anglonesia" category. This is despite the geographical distance separating these areas from Hawai{{okina}}i, which technically lies in the North Pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanley |first=David |url={{Google books|lRV1FozOqQAC|page=502|plainurl=yes}} |title=South Pacific Handbook |date=1982 |publisher=Moon Publications |page=502 |isbn=978-0-9603322-3-6 }}</ref> The 1985 edition of the ''South Pacific Handbook'' also groups the Galápagos Islands as being in Polynesia, while noting that they are not culturally a part of the subregion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanley |first=David |url={{Google books|unz2v_HT5q0C|page=43||plainurl=yes}} |title=South Pacific Handbook |date=1985 |publisher=Moon Publications |page=43 |isbn=978-0-918373-29-8 }}</ref> The islands are typically grouped with others in the southeastern Pacific that were never inhabited by Polynesians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hinz |first1=Earl R. |title=Landfalls of Paradise: Cruising Guide to the Pacific Islands |date=1999 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2115-9 |edition=4th |url={{Google books|uK5-YO9J_GcC|page=337|plainurl=yes}} |page=337 }}</ref><ref name="veg"/>

The Bonin Islands are in the same biogeographical realm as the geographically adjacent Micronesia, and are often grouped in with the subregion because of this.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bluejapan.org/fr/geography/climate-and-season/|title=Climate And Seasons – Blue Japan en français|website=Bluejapan.org|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064648/https://bluejapan.org/fr/geography/climate-and-season/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="veg">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-8686-3 |title=Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands |series=Ecological Studies |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-387-98313-4 |s2cid=46366808 }}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Oceania|History of the Pacific Islands}}

===Colonisation of Oceania===

====Australia====
{{Main|Prehistory of Australia|History of Indigenous Australians}}

[[File:Native Encampment by Skinner Prout, from Australia (1876, vol II).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A 19th-century engraving of an Aboriginal Australian encampment]]

[[Indigenous Australians]] are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands who migrated from [[Africa]] to [[Asia]] {{circa}} 70,000 years ago<ref name="scimag" /> and arrived in Australia {{circa}} 50,000 years ago.<ref name="illumina.com" /> They are believed to be among the [[Recent African origin of modern humans|earliest human migrations out of Africa]].<ref name="BBSRC" /> Although they likely migrated to Australia through Southeast Asia, they are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Polynesian population.<ref name="ourcount" /> There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day [[New Guinea]] and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and [[Interracial marriage|intermarriage]].<ref name="germs314" />

They reached [[Tasmania]] {{circa}} 40,000 years ago by migrating across a [[land bridge]] from the mainland that existed during the last [[ice age]].<ref name="prehis" /> It is believed that the first [[early human migration]] to Australia was achieved when this landmass formed part of the [[Sahul continent]], connected to the island of New Guinea via a land bridge.<ref name="perspe81" /> The [[Torres Strait Islanders]] are indigenous to the [[Torres Strait]] Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of [[Queensland]] near [[Papua New Guinea]].<ref name="uow2004" /> The earliest definite human remains found in Australia are those of [[Mungo Man]], which have been dated at {{circa}} 40,000 years old.<ref name="pmid4570638" />

It is estimated that 4% to 6% of the genome in [[Melanesians]] (e.g., Papua New Guinean and Bougainville Islander) derives from the [[Denisovan|Denisova hominin]], an ancient human species discovered in 2010, while no Eurasians or Africans displayed contributions of the Denisovan genes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reich|first=D.|author2=Green, R.E.|author3=Kircher, M.|author4=Krause, J.|author5=Patterson, N.|author6=Durand, E.Y.|title=Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia|journal=Nature|year=2010|volume=468|issue=7327|pages=1053–1060|doi=10.1038/nature09710|pmid=21179161|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2010Natur.468.1053R|pmc=4306417|url=http://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/10230/25596/1/Marques_nat_gen.pdf|hdl=10230/25596|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517024908/https://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/handle/10230/25596/Marques_nat_gen.pdf;jsessionid=35CCDAE27CDE1B5CACE38275BC976DFA?sequence=1|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Melanesia====
{{Main|History of New Guinea}}

The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day [[Papuan languages|Papuan]]-speaking people. Migrating from Southeast Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the [[Solomon Islands (archipelago)|Solomon Islands archipelago]], including [[Makira]] and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.<ref name="struct2072" />

Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the [[Austronesian people]], who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples.<ref name="malenes" />

====Micronesia====
{{See also|History of the Federated States of Micronesia}}
[[File:HH1883 pg125 Hafen von Jap.jpg|thumb|Stone money transport to [[Yap Island]] in Micronesia (1880)]]
[[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg|thumb|Chronological dispersal of [[Austronesian people]] across the Pacific (per Bellwood in Chambers, 2008)]]
Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns, and storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis.<ref name="lapita" />

The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of [[Saipan]], dated to 1500 BCE or slightly before. The ancestors of the [[Micronesians]] settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centred on [[Yap]] and [[Pohnpei]].<ref name="USDOS" /> The prehistories of many Micronesian islands, such as Yap, are not known very well.<ref name="books.google" />

The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands and discovered it at some period between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from [[Southeast Asia]]. They became known as the [[Chamorro people|Chamorros]]. Their [[Chamorro language|language]] was named after them. The ancient Chamorro left several megalithic ruins, including [[Latte stone]]. The Refaluwasch or [[Carolinian people]] came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the [[Caroline Islands]]. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the [[2nd millennium BC]]E, with inter-island navigation made possible using [[Marshall Islands stick chart|traditional stick charts]].<ref name="races165" />

====Polynesia====
{{Main|History of Hawaii|History of New Zealand}}

{{Further|Polynesian navigation}}
[[File:AhuTongariki.jpg|thumb|left|[[Moai]] at Ahu Tongariki on [[Easter Island|Rapa Nui (Easter Island)]]]]

The Polynesian people are considered to be, by linguistic, archaeological, and human genetic ancestry, a subset of the sea-migrating [[Austronesian people]] and tracing [[Polynesian languages]] places their [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] origins in the [[Malay Archipelago]], and ultimately, in [[Geography of Taiwan|Taiwan]]. Between {{circa}} 3000 and 1000 BCE, speakers of [[Austronesian languages]] began spreading from Taiwan into [[Island Southeast Asia]],<ref name="matrilineality2003" /><ref name="Kayser, M. 2006" /><ref name="polyori8225" /> as tribes whose [[Taiwanese aborigines|natives]] were thought to have arrived through South China {{circa}} 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia.

In the archaeological record, there are well-defined traces of this expansion that allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BCE,<ref name="wings" /> "[[Lapita culture|Lapita]] Peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] of north-west Melanesia.<ref name="Leach & Green 1989"/><ref name="burley128" />

Easter Islanders claimed that a chief [[Hotu Matuꞌa]]<ref name="vikings228" /> discovered the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family.<ref name="hawaii" /> They are believed to have been [[Polynesians|Polynesian]]. Around 1200, [[Tahitians|Tahitian]] explorers discovered and began settling the area. This date range is based on [[Glottochronology|glottochronological]] calculations and on three [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dates]] from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities.<ref name="failor89" /> Moreover, a recent study, which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very early material, suggests that the island was discovered and settled as recently as 1200.<ref name="scimag23874" />

===European exploration===
{{See also|Magellan expedition|Spanish East Indies|History of Australia (1788–1850)|Colony of New Zealand}}
[[File:1852 Bocage Map of Australia and Polynesia - Geographicus - Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg|thumb|1852 map of Oceania by J. G. Barbié du Bocage. Includes regions of Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, and [[Malesia]].]]

Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the [[Maluku Islands]] (by [[António de Abreu]] and [[Francisco Serrão]] in 1512), [[Timor]], the [[Aru Islands Regency|Aru Islands]] (Martim A. Melo Coutinho), the [[Tanimbar Islands]], some of the [[Caroline Islands]] (by [[Gomes de Sequeira]] in 1525), and west [[Papua New Guinea]] (by [[Jorge de Menezes]] in 1526). In 1519, a [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] expedition led by [[Ferdinand Magellan]] sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed through the [[Strait of Magellan|strait that bears his name]], and on 28 November 1520 entered the ocean which he named "Pacific". The three remaining ships, led by Magellan and his captains [[Duarte Barbosa]] and [[João Serrão]], then sailed north and caught the [[trade winds]] which carried them across the Pacific to the Philippines, where Magellan was killed. One surviving ship led by [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]] returned west across the Indian Ocean, and [[Trinidad (ship)|the other]] went north in the hope of finding the [[westerlies]] and reaching Mexico. Unable to find the right winds, it was forced to return to the East Indies. The [[Timeline of Magellan's circumnavigation|Magellan-Elcano]] expedition achieved the first [[circumnavigation]] of the world and reached the [[Philippines]], the [[Mariana Islands]], and other islands of Oceania.

From 1527 to 1595, several other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the arrival in [[Marshall Islands]] and [[Palau]] in the North Pacific, as well as [[Tuvalu]], the [[Marquesas Islands]], the [[Solomon Islands (archipelago)|Solomon Islands archipelago]], the [[Cook Islands]], and the [[Admiralty Islands]] in the South Pacific.<ref name="Fernandez-Armesto 2006 305–307" />

In the quest for [[Terra Australis]], Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator [[Pedro Fernandes de Queirós]], sailed to [[Pitcairn Islands|Pitcairn]] and [[Vanuatu]] archipelagos, and sailed the [[Torres Strait]] between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator [[Luís Vaz de Torres]]. [[Willem Janszoon]], made the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606), in [[Cape York Peninsula]].<ref name="discos19" /> [[Abel Tasman]] circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered [[Van Diemen's Land]] (now [[Tasmania]]), New Zealand in 1642, and [[Fiji]].<ref name="primary" /> He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands.<ref name="tearag" />

On 23 April 1770, British explorer [[James Cook]] made his first recorded direct observation of [[Aboriginal Australians]] at [[Brush Island]] near [[Bawley Point, New South Wales|Bawley Point]].<ref name="cook22470" /> On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the [[Kurnell, New South Wales|Kurnell Peninsula]]. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an Aboriginal tribe known as the [[Gweagal]]. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline of Australia.<ref name="herald86292" />

====European settlement and colonisation====
{{See also|History of Australia (1788–1850)|History of New Zealand}}
[[File:New Guinea (1884-1919).png|thumb|New Guinea from 1884 to 1919. The Netherlands controlled the western half of New Guinea, [[German Empire|Germany]] the north-eastern part, and Britain the south-eastern part.]]
In 1789, the [[mutiny on the Bounty]] against [[William Bligh]] led to several of the mutineers escaping the [[Royal Navy]] and settling on [[Pitcairn Islands]], which later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840, and [[Colonial Fiji|Fiji]] in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the [[British Empire]]. The [[Gilbert Islands]] (now known as [[Kiribati]]) and the Ellice Islands (now known as [[Tuvalu]]) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century.<ref name="TAHNPT" /><ref name="cinderella1" />

French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and [[Tahuata]] were declared a [[Protectorate|French protectorate]], to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed.<ref name="KMLA1889" /> On 24 September 1853, under orders from [[Napoleon III]], Admiral [[Auguste Febvrier Despointes|Febvrier Despointes]] took formal possession of New Caledonia.<ref name="ped" />

The Spanish explorer [[Alonso de Salazar]] landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were named by [[Adam Johann von Krusenstern|Krusenstern]], after English explorer [[John Marshall (British captain)|John Marshall]], who visited them together with [[Thomas Gilbert (captain)|Thomas Gilbert]] in 1788, en route from [[Botany Bay]] to [[Guangzhou|Canton]] (two ships of the [[First Fleet]]). In 1905, the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over southeast New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area "[[Territory of Papua]]"), and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and [[German Samoa|Samoa]] in 1900. The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with [[Baker Island]] and [[Howland Island]] in 1857, and with Hawai{{okina}}i becoming a [[Territory of Hawaii|US territory]] in 1898. Disagreements between the US, the UK, and Germany over Samoa led to the [[Tripartite Convention (1899)|Tripartite Convention of 1899]].<ref name="amesagrey" />

===Modern history===
{{Main|Pacific War|Military history of Oceania|Military history of New Zealand|Military history of Australia during World War I|Military history of Australia during World War II|History of Guam|History of Australia (1901–1945)|Decolonisation of Oceania}}

[[File:NZ 3rd Division (USMC photo).jpg|thumb|New Zealand troops land on [[Vella Lavella]], in [[Solomon Islands]]]]

One of the first land offensives in Oceania was the [[Occupation of German Samoa]] in August 1914 by [[New Zealand Defence Force|New Zealand forces]]. The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the German colony. Australian forces attacked [[German New Guinea]] in September 1914. A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender.<ref name="awm.gov.au" />

The [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] by the Japanese [[Imperial General Headquarters]],<ref name="pearl17ff" /><ref name="operat1315" /> was a surprise [[military strike]] conducted by the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] against the United States [[naval base]] at [[Pearl Harbor]], Hawaii, on the morning of 7 December 1941. The attack led to the [[Military history of the United States during World War II|United States' entry into World War II]]. The Japanese subsequently invaded New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] and the [[Kokoda Track campaign]] before they were finally defeated in 1945. Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the [[Battle of Bita Paka]], the [[Solomon Islands campaign]], the [[Bombing of Darwin|Air raids on Darwin]], the [[Kokoda Track campaign|Kokoda Track]], and the [[Borneo campaign]].<ref name="decode32" /><ref name="reconcil7" /> The United States fought the [[Battle of Guam (1944)|Battle of Guam]] from 21 July to 10 August 1944, to recapture the island from [[Japanese military]] occupation.<ref name="nyt1997" />

Australia and New Zealand became [[British Dominions|dominions]] in the 20th century, adopting the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster Act]] in 1942 and 1947, respectively. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship, and the islands' status was changed to an [[overseas administrative territorial entity|overseas territory]]; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to ''Polynésie Française'' ([[French Polynesia]]). Hawaii became a [[U.S. state]] in 1959. [[Fiji]] and [[Tonga]] became independent in 1970. On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the [[Marshall Islands]], the United States recognised the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the government of the [[Republic of the Marshall Islands]]. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, and it became the [[Pacific Islands Forum]] in 2000.<ref name="awm.gov.au" />

==Geography==
{{anchor|Territories and regions}}
{{See also|List of Oceanian countries by population|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania}}
[[File:Aoraki Mount Cook.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Aoraki / Mount Cook]], located on the [[South Island]] of New Zealand]]
[[File:Puncakjaya.jpg|thumb|[[Puncak Jaya]] / ''Carstensz Pyramid'', highest summit in Oceania]]
Under a four subregion model, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the west, the [[Bonin Islands]] in the northwest, the [[Hawaiian Islands]] in the northeast, [[Easter Island]] and [[Isla Salas y Gómez|Sala y Gómez Island]] in the east, and [[Macquarie Island]] in the south. Excluded under most definitions of Oceania are the Pacific landmasses of [[Taiwan]], the [[Ryukyu Islands]], and the [[Japanese archipelago]], which are all on the margins of Asia, as well as the [[Aleutian Islands]] and other Alaskan or Canadian islands.<ref name="nz"/><ref name="ev"/> In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl [[28th parallel north|28 degrees north]] to the Bonin Islands in the [[Northern Hemisphere]], and [[55th parallel south|55 degrees south]] to Macquarie Island in the [[Southern Hemisphere]].<ref name="race1750" />

Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, [[high island]]s, [[coral reef]]s, and uplifted [[coral island|coral platforms]]. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]], Hawai{{okina}}i, and Solomon Islands.<ref name="GillespieClague2009" />

Oceania is one of eight terrestrial [[biogeographic realm]]s, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are [[Near Oceania]], that part of western [[Island Melanesia]] which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and [[Remote Oceania]], which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – [[Kangaroo Island]] and [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]], for instance, are situated in the [[Southern Ocean]] and [[Indian Ocean]], respectively, and [[West Coast, Tasmania|Tasmania's west coast]] faces the Southern Ocean.<ref name="othero5" />
The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the [[Great Barrier Reef]] off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include [[Banaba Island|Banaba]] (formerly Ocean Island) and [[Makatea]] in the Tuamotu group of [[French Polynesia]].<ref name="britta" /><ref name="abcnet22613" />

[[File:"Political Oceania" CIA World Factbook.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|A map of Oceania from the CIA World Factbook]]

===Regions===
[[Micronesia]], which lies north of the equator and west of the [[International Date Line]], includes the [[Mariana Islands]] in the northwest, the [[Caroline Islands]] in the centre, the [[Marshall Islands]] to the west and the islands of [[Kiribati]] in the southeast.<ref name="AAE" /><ref name="LalFortune2000p63" />

[[Melanesia]], to the southwest, includes [[New Guinea]], the world's second largest island after [[Greenland]] and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the [[Bismarck Archipelago]], the [[Solomon Islands]], the [[Santa Cruz Islands]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Fiji]], and [[New Caledonia]].<ref name="West2009" />

[[Polynesia]], stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses [[Tuvalu]], [[Tokelau]], [[Samoa]], [[Tonga]], and the [[Kermadec Islands]] to the west, the [[Cook Islands]], [[Society Islands]] and [[Austral Islands]] in the centre, and the [[Marquesas Islands]], the [[Tuamotus]], [[Mangareva Islands]], and [[Easter Island]] to the east.<ref name="DunfordRidgell1996" />

[[Australasia]] comprises Australia, New Zealand, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India, most of Australasia lies on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]] with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the [[Southern Ocean]] to the south.<ref name="voyage6" /><ref name="auxter" />

===Geology===
{{Main|Geography of Fiji|Geology of New Zealand|Geology of Australia|Geography of Samoa}}

[[File:Plaque Pacifique.JPG|thumb|The [[Pacific Plate]] comprises most of Oceania, excluding [[Australasia]] and the western portion of [[Melanesia]].|left]]
The [[Pacific Plate]], which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plate]] that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At {{convert|103|e6km2|sqmi}}, it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an interior [[Hotspot (geology)|hot spot]] forming the [[Hawaiian Islands]].<ref name="tecto" /> It is almost entirely [[oceanic crust]].<ref name="platetec2010" /> The oldest member disappearing by way of the [[plate tectonics]] cycle is early-[[Cretaceous]] (145 to 137 million years ago).<ref name="ageof" />

Australia became part of the [[Indo-Australian Plate]] 45 to 40 million years ago, and this is in the process of separating again, with the [[Australian Plate]] being relevant to Oceania.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keep |first1=Myra |last2=Schellart |first2=Wouter P. |title=Introduction to the thematic issue on the evolution and dynamics of the Indo-Australian plate |journal=[[Australian Journal of Earth Sciences]] |year=2012 |volume=59, 2012 |issue=6: THEMATIC ISSUE — Evolution and dynamics of the Indo-Australian plate |pages=807–808 |doi=10.1080/08120099.2012.708360 |bibcode=2012AuJES..59..807K |s2cid=128996831 }}</ref> It is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth<ref name="distinct227" /> and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as [[tectonic uplift]] of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of [[Gondwana]]. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, has occasional middle-sized earthquakes, and currently has no active volcanism (but some volcanoes in southeast Australia erupted within the last 10,000 years).<ref name="ag" />

The [[geology]] of New Zealand is noted for its [[volcanic]] activity, [[earthquake]]s, and [[Geothermal activity|geothermal]] [[Geothermal areas in New Zealand|areas]] because of its position on the boundary of the [[Australian Plate]] and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, [[Madagascar]], India, Antarctica, and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of [[Zealandia (continent)|Zealandia]] were nestled between Eastern Australia and [[Western Antarctica]].<ref name="tearaz" />

The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the [[late Cretaceous]] time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The [[Tasman Sea]], and part of Zealandia, then locked together with Australia to form the [[Australian Plate]] (40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate.

Most islands in the Pacific are [[high islands]] ([[volcanic]] islands), such as [[Easter Island]], [[American Samoa]], and [[Fiji]], among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore.<ref name="Factbook-Fiji" /> The [[Northwestern Hawaiian Islands]] were formed {{circa}} 7 to 30 million years ago, as [[shield volcano]]es over the same volcanic [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] that formed the [[Emperor Seamounts]] to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south.<ref name="geochr" /> Hawaii's tallest mountain [[Mauna Kea]] is {{convert|13796|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} above mean sea level.<ref name="usgsgov" />

===Flora===
{{Main|Geography of Australia|Environment of New Zealand|Flora of Australia|Flora of New Zealand|Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands|Domesticated plants of Austronesia}}

[[File:Countryside Kaikoura, New Zealand.JPG|thumb|New Zealand countryside]]
[[File:Uluṟu (Ayers Rock), Sunset.jpg|thumb|[[Uluru]] (Ayers Rock) in [[Central Australia]]]]

The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical [[rainforest]]s in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west, and east, and a desert in the centre.<ref name="envigov2012" /> [[Deserts of Australia|Desert]] or semi-arid land commonly known as the [[outback]] makes up by far the largest portion of land.<ref name="portrait" /> The [[Eastern Australian temperate forests|coastal uplands]] and a [[Brigalow Belt|belt of Brigalow grasslands]] lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland.<ref name="drivers375" /> The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested [[Cape York Peninsula]].<ref name="uplands" /><ref name="gdowns" /><ref name="mulgas" /><ref name="tempera" /><ref name="savanna" />

Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to [[aridity]] and fire, which include [[sclerophyll|scleromorphy]] and [[serotiny]]. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families [[Proteaceae]] (''[[Banksia]]''), [[Myrtaceae]] (''[[Eucalyptus]]'' – gum trees), and [[Fabaceae]] (''[[Acacia]]'' – wattle). The flora of Fiji, [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]], and [[New Caledonia]] is [[tropical dry forest]], with [[tropical vegetation]] that includes [[palm trees]], ''[[Premna protrusa]]'', ''[[Psydrax odorata]]'', ''[[Gyrocarpus americanus]]'', and ''[[Derris trifoliata]]''.<ref name="mostvb" />

New Zealand's landscape ranges from the [[fjord]]-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. The South Island is dominated by the [[Southern Alps]]. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800&nbsp  ft) in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is [[Aoraki / Mount Cook]], at {{convert|3754|metre}}. Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year.<ref name="newzat" /> There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various microclimates in New Zealand.<ref name="vascplant" />

In Hawaii, one endemic plant, ''[[Brighamia]]'', now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct.<ref name="plantprop" /> The two species of ''Brighamia ''– ''B. rockii'' and ''B. insignis ''– are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down {{convert|3000|foot|m|adj=on|order=flip}} cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.<ref name="forgotpol" />

===Fauna===
{{Main|Fauna of Australia|Birds of Australia|Birds of New Zealand|Fauna of New Zealand|Mammals of Australia|List of birds of Australia|List of birds of New Zealand|Domesticated animals of Austronesia}}

[[File:Norfolk Robin (Petroica multicolor) in the Norfolk Island.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|The [[Pacific robin]] inhabits the islands of the south western Pacific.<ref name="IUCN" />]]
The aptly named [[Pacific kingfisher]] is found in the Pacific Islands,<ref name="handbirds" /> as is the [[Red-vented bulbul]],<ref name="icunet22717" /> [[Polynesian starling]],<ref name="hawaiibirds" /> [[Brown goshawk]],<ref name="birdsback" /> [[Pacific Swallow]]<ref name="Turner" /> and the [[Cardinal myzomela]], among others.<ref name="cardinal" /> Birds breeding on [[Pitcairn]] include the [[fairy tern]], [[common noddy]], and [[red-tailed tropicbird]]. The [[Pitcairn reed warbler]], endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the [[endangered species]] list in 2008.<ref name="icunred181023" />

Native to Hawaii is the [[Hawaiian crow]], which has been [[extinct in the wild]] since 2002.<ref name="forestbirds" /> The [[brown tree snake]] is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam, and Solomon Islands.<ref name="btsnakegov" /> Native to Australia, New Guinea and proximate islands are [[birds of paradise]], [[honeyeater]]s, [[Australasian treecreeper]], [[Australasian robin]], [[kingfisher]]s, [[butcherbird]]s, and [[bowerbird]]s.<ref name="systax" /><ref name="Steadman 2006" />

A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native [[placentalia|placental]] mammals, and dominance of the [[marsupial]]s – a group of mammals that raise their young in a [[pouch (marsupial)|pouch]], including the [[Macropodidae|macropods]], [[Phalangeriformes|possums]], and [[dasyuromorphia|dasyuromorphs]]. The [[passerine]]s of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include [[wren]]s, the [[Artamidae|magpie group]], [[Acanthiza|thornbills]], [[corvid]]s, [[pardalote]]s, [[lyrebird]]s.<ref name="ioc" /> Predominant bird species in the country include the [[Australian magpie]], [[Australian raven]], the [[pied currawong]], [[crested pigeon]]s and the [[laughing kookaburra]].<ref name="encycwild" /> The [[koala]], [[emu]], [[platypus]] and [[kangaroo]] are [[national animals]] of Australia,<ref name="CoatArms" /> and the [[Tasmanian devil]] is also one of the well-known animals in the country.<ref name="tassie" /> The [[goanna]] is a [[predatory]] lizard native to the [[Australian mainland]].<ref name="dangerc" />

The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of [[Endemism|endemic]] species. As an island archipelago, New Zealand accumulated bird diversity, and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s, he noted that the [[bird vocalization|bird song]] was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology, such as the [[kākāpō]], which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, [[Lek mating|lek-breeding]] parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighbouring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand are the [[Kiwi (bird)|kiwi]], [[kea]], [[takahē]], kākāpō, [[Yellowhead (bird)|mohua]], [[tūī]], and the [[New Zealand bellbird|bellbird]].<ref name="assemb152" /> The [[tuatara]] is a notable [[reptile]] endemic to New Zealand.<ref name="vicvag32" />

Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Wallacea, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean collectively possess 42% of the world's [[parrot]] species, including half of all [[Critically Endangered]] parrots, many of which are [[endemic]] to the region.<ref name="Olah2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Olah |first1=George |last2=Theuerkauf |first2=Jörn |last3=Legault |first3=Andrew |last4=Gula |first4=Roman |last5=Stein |first5=John |last6=Butchart |first6=Stuart |last7=O'Brien |first7=Mark |last8=Heinsohn |first8=Robert |date=2018 |title=Parrots of Oceania – a comparative study of extinction risk |url=https://georgeolah.com/documents/olah_et_al_2018a_parrots_of_oceania.pdf |journal=Emu - Austral Ornithology |language=en |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=94–112 |doi=10.1080/01584197.2017.1410066 |bibcode=2018EmuAO.118...94O |s2cid=135275510 |issn=0158-4197}}</ref>

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Australia|Climate of New Zealand|Climate of Hawaii}}

[[File:First Church, Dunedin, NZ.jpg|thumb|right|August 2011 winter's snowfall in [[Dunedin]], [[Otago]]]]
The Pacific Islands are ruled by a [[tropical rainforest]] and [[tropical savanna climate]]. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the [[El Niño Southern Oscillation]] (ENSO) affects weather conditions.<ref name="noaagov" /> In the tropical western Pacific, the [[monsoon]] and the related [[wet season]] during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass.<ref name="allenp2009" /> November is the only month in which all the [[tropical cyclone basins]] are active.<ref name="AOML FAQ G1" />

To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is mostly desert or [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]], with the southern coastal corners having a [[Temperateness|temperate]] climate, such as [[oceanic climate|oceanic]] and [[humid subtropical]] climate in the east coast and [[Mediterranean climate]] in the west. The northern parts of the country have a [[tropical climate]].<ref name="climatea" /> Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[New South Wales]], [[Tasmania]] and in the [[Australian Capital Territory]].<ref name="precip376" />

Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a [[maritime climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the [[West Coast, New Zealand|West Coast]] of the [[South Island]] to almost [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] in [[Central Otago]] and [[subtropical]] in [[North Auckland Peninsula|Northland]].<ref name="enviclim" /><ref name="niwaco" /> Snow falls in New Zealand's [[South Island]] and at higher altitudes in the [[North Island]]. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island.<ref name="tele141116" />

Hawaii, although being in the [[tropics]], experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The [[Hawaii (island)|island of Hawaii]], for example, hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as {{convert|4,028|sqmi|km2|abbr=on|order=flip}} according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate, and polar. The Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April).<ref name="loveb20120703" /> A few islands in the northwest, such as [[Guam]], are susceptible to [[typhoon]]s in the wet season.<ref name="pubaff042700" />

The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in [[Oodnadatta]], South Australia (2 January 1960), where the temperature reached {{convert|50.7|C}}.<ref name="bomgovdai" /> The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was {{convert|-25.6|C|F}}, at [[Ranfurly, New Zealand|Ranfurly]] in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of {{convert|-21.6|C|F}} recorded in 1995 in nearby [[Ophir, New Zealand|Ophir]].<ref name="herald120611" /> [[Pohnpei]] of the [[Senyavin Islands]] in [[Micronesia]] is the wettest settlement in Oceania, and one of the wettest places on earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding {{convert|300|in|mm|order=flip|abbr=on}} each year in certain mountainous locations.<ref name="werigu" /> [[Big Bog, Maui|The Big Bog]] on the island of Maui is the wettest place, receiving an average {{convert|10,271|mm|in|abbr=on}} each year.<ref name="matology105" />

{{Gallery
|title= Köppen climate classification of selected regions in Oceania
|width=220
|height=200
|align=center
|File:Australia Köppen.svg|Australia
|File:Hawaii Köppen.png|Hawaii
|File:New Zealand Köppen.png|New Zealand
|File:New Guinea map of Köppen climate classification.svg|Papua New Guinea
|File:Oceania map of Köppen climate classification.svg|Australasia and adjacent islands}}

==Politics==
===Australia===
{{Main|Politics of Australia}}

[[File:Prince Charles in Aotearoa (cropped).jpg|thumb|Charles is [[Head of the Commonwealth]] and King of five Oceanian countries: Australia, New Zealand, [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Solomon Islands]] and [[Tuvalu]].]]
Australia is a [[federalism|federal]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]]<ref name="ausparliwork" /> with [[Charles III]] at its apex as the [[Monarchy of Australia|King of Australia]], a role that is distinct from his position as monarch of the other [[Commonwealth realm]]s. The King is represented in Australia by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]] at the federal level and by the [[Governors of the Australian states|Governors]] at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers.<ref name="Davison pp287–8" /><ref name="govgenaus" /> There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the [[Australian Labor Party]]<!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: The name of the party is spelt "Labor" (i.e., no "u") even though the usual Australian spelling is "labour". --> and the [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] which is a formal grouping of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] and its minor partner, the [[National Party of Australia|National Party]].<ref name="glosselec" /><ref name="statepar" /> Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered [[centre-right]] and the Labor Party is considered [[centre-left]].<ref name="govpol2013" /> The [[Australian Defence Force]] is by far the largest military force in Oceania.<ref name="defenceann" />

===New Zealand===
{{Main|Politics of New Zealand}}

New Zealand is a [[constitutional monarchy]] with a [[parliamentary democracy]],<ref name="GG constitution" /> although [[Constitution of New Zealand|its constitution]] is [[Uncodified constitution|not codified]].<ref name="Economist factsheet" /> [[Charles III]] is the [[Monarchy of New Zealand|King of New Zealand]] and the [[head of state]].<ref name="royalt1974" /> The King is represented by the [[Governor-General of New Zealand|Governor-General]], whom he appoints on the [[Advice (constitutional)|advice]] of the [[Prime Minister of New Zealand|Prime Minister]].<ref name="rolegg" /> The [[New Zealand Parliament]] holds [[legislative power]] and consists of the King and the [[New Zealand House of Representatives|House of Representatives]].<ref name="parliament facts" /> A [[Elections in New Zealand|parliamentary general election]] must be called no later than three years after the previous election.<ref name="eleccyc" /> New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states,<ref name="fragileind16" /><ref name="demoindex16" /> with high government transparency and among the lowest perceived levels of corruption.<ref name="transpint201116" />

===Pacific Islands===
[[File:Samoa government building 2010.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|Government building in the Samoan capital [[Apia]] housing administrative ministerial offices]]
In [[Politics of Samoa|Samoan politics]], the [[Prime Minister of Samoa]] is the [[head of government]]. The [[Constitution of Samoa|1960 constitution]], which formally came into force with independence from New Zealand in 1962, builds on the British pattern of [[parliamentary democracy]], modified to take account of Samoan customs. The national government (''malo'') generally controls the [[Legislative Assembly of Samoa|legislative assembly]].<ref name="backnotes" /> [[Politics of Tonga]] takes place in a framework of a [[constitutional monarchy]], whereby the [[King of Tonga]] is the [[Head of State]].

[[Politics of Fiji|Fiji]] has a multiparty system with the [[Prime Minister of Fiji]] as head of government. The [[Executive (government)|executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the government and the [[Parliament of Fiji]]. [[Fiji]]'s [[Head of State of Fiji|Head of State]] is the [[President of Fiji|President]].

In the [[politics of Papua New Guinea]] the [[List of Prime Ministers of the Papua New Guinea|Prime Minister]] is the head of government, and the head of state is [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|the monarch of the United Kingdom]], represented by a [[Governor-General of Papua New Guinea|Governor-General]]. In [[Politics of Kiribati|Kiribati]], a [[Parliamentary system|Parliamentary regime]], the [[President of Kiribati]] is the head of state and government, and of a multi-party system.

[[Politics of New Caledonia|New Caledonia]] remains an integral part of the [[French Republic]]. Inhabitants of New Caledonia are [[French citizens]]. New Caledonia sends two representatives to the [[French National Assembly]] and two senators to the [[French Senate]].

[[Politics of Hawaii|Hawaii]] is dominated by the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]. As codified in the [[Constitution of Hawaii|Hawaiian Constitution]], there are three [[branches of government]]: executive, legislative, and judicial. The governor is elected statewide.

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Oceania}}

The linked map below shows the [[exclusive economic zone]]s (EEZs) of the islands of Oceania and neighbouring areas, as a guide to the following table (few land boundaries can be drawn on a map of the Pacific at this scale).<div class="center">{{Oceania Labelled Map}}</div>

===Australia===
{{Main|Economy of Australia}}

[[File:Sydney skyline from Waverton Balls head reserve.jpg|thumb|The [[skyline of Sydney]]]]
Australia and New Zealand are the only highly [[Developed country|developed]] independent nations in the region, although the [[economy of Australia]] is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. New Caledonia, Hawai'i {{okina}}i, and French Polynesia are highly developed too, but are not [[sovereignty|sovereign]] states. Australia's per-capita GDP is [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|higher]] than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of [[purchasing power parity]].<ref name="unstat228" /> New Zealand is also one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade.<ref name="stand260511" /><ref name="guard150411" />

The [[Australian Securities Exchange]] in [[Sydney]] is the largest [[List of stock exchanges in Oceania|stock exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific]].<ref name="if5com200514" /> In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by [[Purchasing power parity|PPP-adjusted]] GDP.<ref name="rbagov200514" />

Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of [[quality of living]],<ref name="mercer.com" /> making it one of the [[world's most livable cities|most livable cities]].<ref name="mercer2014" /> It is classified as an Alpha [[World City]] by [[Globalization and World Cities Research Network|GaWC]].<ref name="accgawc" /><ref name="urbanst" /> [[Melbourne]] also ranked highly in the [[World's Most Livable Cities|world's most liveable city]] list,<ref name="melb181" /> and is a leading [[financial centre]] in the [[Asia–Pacific]] region.<ref name="longfi041213" /><ref name="citindex" />
[[File:Night view of the lit city of Auckland from Northcote Point, Auckland - 0365.jpg|thumb|Auckland's [[Auckland CBD|central business district]] at night in 2006]]
The majority of people living in Australia work in health care, retail and education sectors.<ref>{{cite web |title=Industry sector of employment {{!}} Australia {{!}} Community profile |url=https://profile.id.com.au/australia/industries?BMID=50 |access-date=20 January 2022 |website=profile.id.com.au |archive-date=16 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916114311/http://profile.id.com.au/australia/industries?BMID=50 |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia boasts the largest amount of manufacturing in the region, [[Automotive industry in Australia|producing cars]], electrical equipment, machinery and [[clothing industry|clothes]].

===New Zealand===
{{Main|Economy of New Zealand}}

New Zealand's [[Economy of New Zealand|economy]] is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|53rd]]-largest in the world measured by [[nominal gross domestic product]] (GDP) and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|68th]]-largest in the world measured by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP). A major economic and cultural powerhouse of the [[Southern Hemisphere]], Auckland is ranked as a Beta+ world city by the [[Globalization and World Cities Research Network]]. Auckland and [[Wellington]] are frequently ranked among the [[world's most liveable cities]], with Auckland being ranked [[Global Liveability Ranking|first in the world]] according to the [[Global Liveability Ranking]].<ref name="businrank" /><ref name="mercer190214" />

[[New Zealand]] has a large GDP for its population of 5.2 million, and sources of revenue are spread throughout the large island nation. The country has one of the most [[globalised]] economies and depends greatly on international trade – mainly with [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[China]], the [[European Union]], [[Japan]], [[Singapore]], [[South Korea]] and the [[United States]]. New Zealand's 1983 [[Closer Economic Relations]] agreement with Australia means that the economy aligns closely with [[Economy of Australia|that of Australia]]. In 2005, the [[World Bank]] praised New Zealand as the most business-friendly country in the world.<ref name="SALE">{{cite news |last=McCarten |first=Matt |date=14 January 2007 |title=Foreign owners muscle in as New Zealand sells off all its assets |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=280&objectid=10419011 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=10 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210225528/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=280&objectid=10419011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="IHT">{{cite news |date=14 September 2005 |title=New Zealand rated most business-friendly |work=International Herald Tribune |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/09/13/business/biz.php |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=19 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051219014600/http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/09/13/business/biz.php |url-status=live }}</ref> The economy diversified and by 2008, tourism had become the single biggest generator of foreign exchange.<ref name="diversify">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Page 10 – External diversification after 1966 |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/page-10 |access-date=9 December 2014 |archive-date=25 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025050720/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/page-10 |url-status=live }}</ref> The New Zealand dollar is the 10th-most traded currency in the world.<ref name="BIS">{{cite web |title=Triennial Central Bank Survey, April 2013 |url=http://bis.org/publ/rpfx13fx.pdf |access-date=25 March 2014 |work=Triennial Central Bank Survey |publisher=[[Bank for International Settlements]] |archive-date=27 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527135902/http://www.bis.org/publ/rpfx13fx.pdf |url-status=live }} [pg.10 of PDF]</ref>

===Pacific Islands===
{{Main|Economy of Fiji|Economy of Samoa|Economy of Tonga}}

[[File:Waikiki view from Diamond Head.JPG|thumb|[[Honolulu]] viewed from [[Diamond Head, Hawaii|Diamond Head]] crater]]
The overwhelming majority of people living in the Pacific islands work in the service industry, which includes tourism, education, and financial services. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States, and South Korea. The smallest Pacific nations rely on trade with Australia, New Zealand, and the United States for exporting goods and for accessing other products. Australia and New Zealand's trading arrangements are known as [[Closer Economic Relations]]. Australia and New Zealand, along with other countries, are members of [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) and the [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS), which may become trade blocs in the future, particularly EAS.

The main produce from the Pacific is [[copra]] or [[coconut]], but [[timber]], [[beef]], [[palm oil]], [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]], [[sugar]], and [[ginger]] are also commonly grown across the [[tropics]] of the Pacific. [[Fishing]] provides a major [[Industry (economics)|industry]] for many of the smaller nations in the Pacific, although many [[fishing]] areas are exploited by other larger countries, namely Japan. [[Natural Resources]], such as [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[nickel]], and [[gold]], are mined in Australia and [[Solomon Islands]]. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States, India, South Korea, and the [[European Union]].

[[File:Bora Bora (16542797633).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of [[Bora Bora]], French Polynesia]]
Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, [[Fiji]] is one of the most developed of the Pacific island [[economics|economies]], though it remains a [[developing nation|developing country]] with a large [[subsistence agriculture]] sector.<ref name="ciafacfj" /> Agriculture accounts for 18% of [[gross domestic product]], although it employed some 70% of the workforce as of 2001. [[Sugar]] exports and the growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar cane processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. [[Coconut]]s, [[ginger]], and [[copra]] are also significant.

The history of Hawaii's economy can be traced through a succession of dominant industries; [[sandalwood]],<ref name="hawahis" /> [[whaling]],<ref name="whalinhawa" /> sugarcane, [[pineapple]], the military, tourism, and education.<ref name="capitagdf" /> Hawaiian exports include food and clothing. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, due to the shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. The state's food exports include coffee, macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane, and honey.<ref name="hawabee" /> {{As of|2015}}, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U.S.<ref name="MercerSurvey2015" /><ref name="KITVSafestCity" />

===Tourism===
[[File:Shangri-La Fijian Resort 15.jpg|thumb|left|[[Shangri-La's Fijian Resort]]]]
{{Further|Tourism in Australia|Tourism in New Zealand}}
Tourists mostly come from Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. [[Economy of Fiji#Tourism|Fiji]] currently attracts almost half a million tourists each year, more than a quarter of whom come from Australia. This has contributed $1 billion or more to Fiji's economy since 1995, but the Government of Fiji likely underestimates these figures due to the invisible economy inside the tourism industry.

Vanuatu is widely recognised as one of the premier vacation destinations for [[scuba divers]]s wishing to explore [[coral reefs]]s of the South Pacific region. Tourism has been promoted, in part, by Vanuatu being the site of several reality-TV shows. The ninth season of the reality TV series ''[[Survivor (US TV series)|Survivor]]'' was filmed in Vanuatu, entitled ''[[Survivor: Vanuatu]]&nbsp;– Islands of Fire''. Two years later, Australia's ''[[Celebrity Survivor]]'' was filmed at the same location used by the U.S. version.<ref name="uatustats" />
[[File:Autumn in the Dandenong Ranges.jpg|thumb|[[Dandenong Ranges]] in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] are popular among tourists.]]

[[Tourism in Australia]] is an important component of the Australian economy. In the financial year 2014/15, [[tourism]] represented 3% of [[Australia]]'s [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy.<ref name="ABS1011" /> In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals.<ref name="touraus181029" /> Popular Australian destinations include the [[Sydney Harbour]] ([[Sydney Opera House]], [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]], [[Royal Botanic Garden, Sydney|Royal Botanic Garden]], etc.), [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]] ([[theme parks]] such as [[Warner Bros. Movie World]], [[Dreamworld (Australian theme park)|Dreamworld]] and [[Sea World (Australia)|Sea World]]), [[Walls of Jerusalem National Park]] and [[Mount Field National Park]] in [[Tasmania]], [[Royal Exhibition Building]] in [[Melbourne]], the [[Great Barrier Reef]] in [[Queensland]], [[The Twelve Apostles (Victoria)|The Twelve Apostles]] in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Uluru]] (Ayers Rock) and the [[Australian outback]].<ref name="ausnatacc" />

[[Tourism in New Zealand]] contributes [[New Zealand dollar|NZ$]]7.3 billion (or 4%) of the country's [[gross domestic product|GDP]] in 2013, as well as directly supporting 110,800 full-time equivalent jobs (nearly 6% of New Zealand's workforce). International tourist spending accounted for 16% of New Zealand's export earnings (nearly NZ$10 billion). International and domestic tourism contribute, in total, NZ$24 billion to New Zealand's economy every year. [[Tourism New Zealand]], the country's official tourism agency, is actively promoting the country as a destination worldwide.<ref name="minisbusi" /> [[Milford Sound]] in the South Island is acclaimed as New Zealand's most famous tourist destination.<ref name="SC" />

In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million [[Tourism in Hawaii|visitors to the Hawaiian Islands]] with expenditures of over $10.6 billion.<ref name="DBEDT 2003" /> Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. In 2011, Hawai{{okina}}i saw increasing arrivals and share of foreign tourists from Canada, Australia, and China increasing 13%, 24% and 21% respectively from 2010.<ref name="hawasafe" />

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Oceania}}

The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and territories in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, depending on the source and purpose of each description.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="border:1px solid #aaa; font-size:90%;"
|- style="background:#ececec;"|
! style="line-height:95%; width:4em" class="unsortable" | [[Coat of arms|Arms]]
! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | Flag
! Name of region, followed by countries<ref name="region"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|Area]]<br />(km<sup>2</sup>)
! data-sort-type="number" | [[List of countries by population|Population]]<br />({{UN_Population|Year}}){{UN_Population|ref}}
! data-sort-type="number" | [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|Population density]]<br />(per km<sup>2</sup>)
! [[Capital (political)|Capital]]
! [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2|ISO 3166-1]]
|-
| colspan="8" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"|'''[[Australasia]]'''<ref name="Australasia" />
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Australia}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Ashmore and Cartier Islands}}
| [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] (Australia)
| style="text-align:right;"| 199
| style="text-align:right;"| 0
| style="text-align:right;"| 0
|
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Australia}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Australia}}
| '''[[Australia]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 7,686,850
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Australia}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 3.1
| [[Canberra]]
| AU
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Australia}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Christmas Island}}
| [[Christmas Island]] (Australia)
| style="text-align:right;"| 135
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,692
| style="text-align:right;"| 12.5
| [[Flying Fish Cove]]
| CX
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Australia}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Cocos (Keeling) Islands}}
| [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] (Australia)
| style="text-align:right;"| 14
| style="text-align:right;"| 593
| style="text-align:right;"| 42.4
| [[West Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands|West Island]]
| CC
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Australia}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Coral Sea Islands}}
| [[Coral Sea Islands]] (Australia)
| style="text-align:right;"| 10
| style="text-align:right;"| 4
| style="text-align:right;"| 0.4
|
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|New Zealand}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|New Zealand}}
| '''[[New Zealand]]'''<ref name="nzpol"/>
| style="text-align:right;"| 268,680
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|New Zealand}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 17.3
| [[Wellington]]
| NZ
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Norfolk Island}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Norfolk Island}}
| [[Norfolk Island]] (Australia)
| style="text-align:right;"| 35
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,302
| style="text-align:right;"| 65.8
| [[Kingston, Norfolk Island|Kingston]]
| NF
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Australasia (total)
| style="text-align:right;"| 7,955,923
| style="text-align:right;"| 29,645,874
| style="text-align:right;"| 3.7
|
|
|-
| colspan="8" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"| '''[[Melanesia]]'''<ref name="Melanesia"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Fiji}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Fiji}}
| '''[[Fiji]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 18,270
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Fiji}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 49.2
| [[Suva]]
| FJ
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|[[File:Emblem of New Caledonia.svg|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|New Caledonia|}}
| [[New Caledonia]] (France)
| style="text-align:right;"| 19,060
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|New Caledonia}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 14.3
| [[Nouméa]]
| NC
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|[[File:Lambang Kabupaten Kepulauan Aru.jpg|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
|[[Aru Islands Regency]], [[Maluku (province)|Maluku]] (Indonesia)
| style="text-align:right;" | 6,426
| style="text-align:right;" | 108,834
| style="text-align:right;" | 17
|Dobo
|ID (ID-MA)
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{center|[[File:Lambang Papua Tengah.png|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| [[Central Papua]] (Indonesia)
| style="text-align:right;" | 61,073
| style="text-align:right;" | 1,431,000
| style="text-align:right;" | 23
| Wanggar, [[Nabire Regency]]
|ID
(ID-PT)
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{center|[[File: Lambang Papua Pegunungan.svg|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| [[Highland Papua]] (Indonesia)
| style="text-align:right;" | 51,213
| style="text-align:right;" | 1,430,500
| style="text-align:right;" | 28
| Walesi, [[Jayawijaya Regency]]
|ID
(ID-PE)
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Papua|link=Papua (province)}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| [[Papua (province)|Papua]] (Indonesia)<ref name="note000" /><ref name="papauto" />
| style="text-align:right;" | 82,681
| style="text-align:right;" | 1,035,000
| style="text-align:right;" | 13
| [[Jayapura]]
|ID
(ID-PA)
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{center|[[File:Logo Papua Selatan.png|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| [[South Papua]] (Indonesia)
| style="text-align:right;" | 117,849
| style="text-align:right;" | 522,200
| style="text-align:right;" | 4.4
| [[Salor (city)|Salor]], [[Merauke Regency]]
|ID
(ID-PS)
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{center|[[File:Logo Papua Barat Daya1.png|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| [[Southwest Papua]] (Indonesia)
| style="text-align:right;" | 39,123
| style="text-align:right;" | 621,904
| style="text-align:right;" | 16
| [[Sorong]]
|ID
(ID-PD)
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|West Papua|link=West Papua (province)}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]] (Indonesia)<ref name="note111" /><ref name="rnzi07" />
| style="text-align:right;" | 60,275
| style="text-align:right;" | 561,403
| style="text-align:right;" | 9
| [[Manokwari]]
|ID
(ID-PB)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|[[File:National emblem of Papua New Guinea.svg|30px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Papua New Guinea}}
| '''[[Papua New Guinea]]'''<ref name="pngaus"/>
| style="text-align:right;"| 462,840
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Papua New Guinea}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 17.5
| [[Port Moresby]]
| PG
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Solomon Islands}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Solomon Islands}}
| '''[[Solomon Islands]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 28,450
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Solomon Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 21.1
| [[Honiara]]
| SB
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|[[File:Coat of arms of Vanuatu.svg|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Vanuatu}}
| '''[[Vanuatu]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 12,200
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Vanuatu}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 22.2
| [[Port Vila]]
| VU
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Melanesia (total)
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,000,231
| style="text-align:right;"| 14,373,536
| style="text-align:right;"| 14.4
|
|
|-
| colspan="8" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"| '''[[Micronesia]]'''
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|[[File:Seal of the Federated States of Micronesia.svg|25px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Federated States of Micronesia}}
| '''[[Federated States of Micronesia]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 702
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Micronesia (Fed. States of)}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 149.5
| [[Palikir]]
| FM
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|[[File:Seal of Guam.svg|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Guam}}
| [[Guam]] (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 549
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Guam}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 296.7
| [[Hagåtña, Guam|Hagåtña]]
| GU
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Kiribati}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Kiribati}}
| '''[[Kiribati]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 811
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Kiribati}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 141.1
| [[South Tarawa]]
| KI
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|[[File:Seal of the Marshall Islands.svg|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Marshall Islands}}
| '''[[Marshall Islands]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 181
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Marshall Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 293.2
| [[Majuro]]
| MH
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Nauru}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Nauru}}
| '''[[Nauru]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 21
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Nauru}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 540.3
| [[Yaren District|Yaren]] <small>(''de facto'')</small>
| NR
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|[[File:Seal of the Northern Mariana Islands.svg|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Northern Mariana Islands}}
| [[Northern Mariana Islands]] (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 477
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Northern Mariana Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 115.4
| [[Saipan]]
| MP
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center| }}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Palau}}
| '''[[Palau]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 458
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Palau}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 46.9
| [[Ngerulmud]]<ref name="Palau"/>
| PW
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|United States}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Wake Island|local}}
| [[Wake Island]] (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 2
| style="text-align:right;"| 150
| style="text-align:right;"| 75
| [[Wake Island]]
| UM
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Micronesia (total)
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,307
| style="text-align:right;"| 526,343
| style="text-align:right;"| 163.5
|
|
|-
| colspan="8" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"| '''[[Polynesia]]'''
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|[[File:Seal of American Samoa.svg|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|American Samoa}}
| [[American Samoa]] (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 199
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|American Samoa}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 279.4
| [[Pago Pago]], [[Fagatogo]]<ref name="ASamoa"/>
| AS
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Cook Islands}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Cook Islands}}
| '''[[Cook Islands]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 240
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Cook Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 72.4
| [[Avarua]]
| CK
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Easter Island}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Easter Island}}
| [[Easter Island]] (Chile)
| style="text-align:right;"| 164
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,761
| style="text-align:right;"| 35.1
| [[Hanga Roa]]
| CL
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|French Polynesia}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|French Polynesia}}
| [[French Polynesia]] (France)
| style="text-align:right;"| 4,167
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|French Polynesia}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 67.2
| [[Papeete]]
| PF
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Hawaii}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Hawaii}}
| [[Hawaii]] (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 16,636
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,360,301
| style="text-align:right;"| 81.8
| [[Honolulu]]
| US
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|United States}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Johnston Atoll}}
| [[Johnston Atoll]] (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 276.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 0
| style="text-align:right;"| 0
| [[Johnston Atoll]]
| UM
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|United States}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Midway Atoll}}
| [[Midway Atoll]] (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,355
| style="text-align:right;"| 39
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.37
| [[Midway Atoll]]
| UM
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|New Zealand}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Niue}}
| '''[[Niue]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 260
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Niue}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.2
| [[Alofi]]
| NU
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Pitcairn Islands}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Pitcairn Islands}}
| [[Pitcairn Islands]] (United Kingdom)
| style="text-align:right;"| 47
| style="text-align:right;"| 47
| style="text-align:right;"| 1
| [[Adamstown, Pitcairn Island|Adamstown]]
| PN
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Samoa}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Samoa}}
| '''[[Samoa]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,944
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Samoa}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 66.3
| [[Apia]]
| WS
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|[[File:Badge of Tokelau.svg|20px]]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Tokelau}}
| [[Tokelau]] (New Zealand)
| style="text-align:right;"| 10
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Tokelau}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 128.2
| [[Atafu]] <small>(''de facto'')</small>
| TK
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Tonga}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Tonga}}
| '''[[Tonga]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 748
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Tonga}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 143.2
| [[Nuku{{fakau'a}}alofa]]
| TO
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Tuvalu}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Tuvalu}}
| '''[[Tuvalu]]'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 26
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Tuvalu}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 426.8
| [[Funafuti]]
| TV
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:BlasonWallisetFutuna.svg|20px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Wallis and Futuna|local}}
| [[Wallis and Futuna]] (France)
| style="text-align:right;"| 274
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Wallis and Futuna Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 43.4
| [[Mata-Utu]]
| WF
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Polynesia (total)
| style="text-align:right;"| 25,715
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,047,444
| style="text-align:right;"| 79.6
|
|
|-
! colspan="3" | Total
! style="text-align:right;" | 8,919,530
! style="text-align:right;" | {{formatnum:{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Oceania}}|R}} + 3486432 + 760855 + 1360301}}}}
! style="text-align:right;" | 5.1
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="3" | Total ''minus mainland Australia''
! style="text-align:right;" | 1,232,680
! style="text-align:right;" | {{formatnum:{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Oceania}}|R}} + 3486432 + 760855 + 1360301 - {{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Australia}}|R}}}}}}
! style="text-align:right;" | 16.6
|}

===Largest city for regions===
* [[Australasia]] (metro, urban or proper largest city: [[Sydney]])
* [[Melanesia]] (metro, urban or proper largest city: [[Jayapura]])
* [[Micronesia]] (metro, urban or proper largest city: [[Dededo]])
* [[Polynesia]] (metro, urban or proper largest city: [[Honolulu]])

===Cities by metropolitan area===
{{Largest population centres
| country      = Oceania
| stat_ref     = <ref>{{cite web|title=3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2016|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/3218.0Main+Features12016?OpenDocument|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|access-date=10 August 2017|language=en|date=28 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/latestProducts/3218.0Media%20Release12016-17?OpenDocument|title=What's driving population growth in Australia's cities?|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref>{{NZ population data 2018|||y}} estimate ({{abbr|SSGA18|Statistical Standard for Geographic Areas 2018)}} boundaries){{NZ population data 2018||||y}}<ref name=USCB>{{Cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk |title=American FactFinder – Results |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=April 16, 2016 |df=mdy }}{{dead link|date=May 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011.</ref>
| list_by_pop  = <!-- link to the list of cities in the given country, if possible sorted by population -->
| div_name     = Country
| div_link     = List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania{{!}}Country
| city_1 = Sydney| div_1 = Australia| pop_1 = 5,131,326| img_1 = Sydney Opera house 3.jpg
| city_2 = Melbourne| div_2 = Australia| pop_2 = 5,031,195 | img_2 = Melbourne CBD and Ceremonial Avenue (in 2024) as seen from the rooftop of Shrine of Remembrance.jpg
| city_3 = Brisbane| div_3 = Australia| pop_3 = 2,408,223 | img_3 = River views of Brisbane CBD seen from the top of 135 Coronation Drive, in March 2019, 14.jpg
| city_4 = Perth| div_4 = Australia| pop_4 = 2,043,138| img_4 = Skyline of Perth seen from Perth Stadium, March 2021 02.jpg
| city_5 = Auckland| div_5 = New Zealand| pop_5 = {{NZ population data 2018|Auckland|y}}
| city_6 = Adelaide| div_6 = Australia| pop_6 = 1,333,927
| city_7 = Honolulu| div_7 = United States| pop_7 =  953,207
| city_8 = Gold Coast, Queensland| div_8 = Australia| pop_8 =  646,983
| city_9 = Wellington| div_9 = New Zealand| pop_9 = 497,200<ref>Includes [[Kāpiti Coast]] statistical area</ref>
| city_10 = Newcastle, New South Wales| div_10 = Australia| pop_10 = 436,171
| city_11 = Canberra| div_11 = Australia| pop_11 =  435,019
| city_12 = Jayapura| div_12 = Indonesia| pop_12 =  414,862
| city_13 = Port Moresby| div_13 = Papua New Guinea| pop_13 =  420,000
| city_14 = Christchurch| div_14 = New Zealand| pop_14 = {{NZ population data 2018|Christchurch|y}}
| city_15 = Sunshine Coast, Queensland| div_15 = Australia| pop_15 =  317,404
| city_16 = Wollongong| div_16 = Australia| pop_16 =  295,669
| city_17 = Sorong| div_17 = Indonesia| pop_17 =  294,978
| city_18 = Hobart| div_18 = Australia| pop_18 =  224,462
| city_19 = Geelong| div_19 = Australia| pop_19 =  196,393
| city_20 = Hamilton, New Zealand| div_20 = New Zealand| pop_20 = {{NZ population data 2018|Hamilton|y}}
}}

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Oceania}}

The predominant religion in Oceania is [[Christianity]] (73%).<ref name="Christianity in Oceania" /><ref name="US Dept of State Background Notes" /> A 2011 survey found that 92% in [[Melanesia]],<ref name="Christianity in Oceania" /> 93% in [[Micronesia]]<ref name="Christianity in Oceania" /> and 96% in [[Polynesia]] described themselves as [[Christians]].<ref name="Christianity in Oceania" /> Traditional religions are often [[Animism|animist]], and prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (''masalai'' in [[Tok Pisin]]) representing natural forces.<ref name="Anthropology-Cowan-Messengers of the Gods" /> In the 2018 census, 37% of New Zealanders affiliated themselves with Christianity, and 48% declared no religion.<ref name="quickstats" /> In the 2016 Census, 52% of the Australian population declared some variety of Christianity and 30% stated "no religion".<ref name="reflect" />

In recent Australian and New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the population say they belong to "[[Irreligion|no religion]]" (which includes [[atheism]], [[agnosticism]], [[deism]], and [[secular humanism]]). In [[Tonga]], everyday life is heavily influenced by [[Polynesian culture|Polynesian]] traditions and especially by the Christian faith. The [[Ahmadiyya]] mosque in the Marshall Islands is the only mosque in Micronesia.<ref name="mosque2011" /> Another one in [[Tuvalu]] belongs to the same sect. The [[Baháʼí House of Worship]] in Tiapapata, [[Samoa]], is one of seven designations administered in the [[Baháʼí Faith]].

[[Hinduism]] is a minority faith in Oceania. [[Hinduism in Fiji|Fiji]] has the highest percentage of Hindus in Oceania at 29.7%<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report|url=https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/FIJI-2019-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf}}</ref> In absolute numbers, [[Hinduism in Australia|Australia]] has the largest population of Hindus in Oceania constituting 2.7% of the country's population.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-28 |title=2021 Census shows changes in Australia's religious diversity {{!}} Australian Bureau of Statistics |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/media-centre/media-releases/2021-census-shows-changes-australias-religious-diversity |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=abs.gov.au |language=en}}</ref> In [[Hinduism in New Zealand|New Zealand]], Hindus form 2.65% of the population of.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx|title=Table 26, 2018 Census Data – Tables}}</ref> [[Hinduism in Samoa|Samoa]] also has a significant Hindu population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=God is inside, says Hindu |url=https://www.samoaobserver.ws/category/samoa/21867 |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=Samoa Observer |language=en}}</ref>

Other religions in the region include [[Islam]] and [[Buddhism]], which are prominent [[minority religions]] in Australia and New Zealand. [[Judaism]], [[Sikhism]] and [[Jainism]] are also present. Sir [[Isaac Isaacs]] was the first Australian-born [[Governor General of Australia]] and was the first Jewish vice-regal representative in the [[British Empire]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/first-australian-born-governor-general|title=First Australian-born governor-general |publisher=National Museum of Australia|date=11 March 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=1 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301202007/https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/first-australian-born-governor-general|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Prince Philip Movement]] is followed around [[Yaohnanen]] village on the southern island of [[Tanna (island)|Tanna]] in [[Vanuatu]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2021/apr/10/prince-philip-south-sea-island-god-duke-of-edinburgh |title=Prince Philip: the unlikely but willing Pacific deity {{pipe}} Prince Philip |work=The Guardian |date= 10 April 2021|access-date=1 March 2022 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411102321/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2021/apr/10/prince-philip-south-sea-island-god-duke-of-edinburgh |url-status=live |last1=Davies |first1=Caroline }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-56713953 |title=Prince Philip: The Vanuatu tribes mourning the death of their 'god' |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date= 12 April 2021|access-date=1 March 2022 |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530075046/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-56713953 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<gallery widths=200 heights=200>
File:Holy Innocent's Anglican Church, Amberley.jpg|Holy's Innocent Anglican Church in [[Amberley, New Zealand]]
File:Saione.jpg|Saione, the church of the King, a [[Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga|Free Wesleyan Church]] in [[Kolomotu{{fakau'a}}a]], [[Tonga]]. Especially, British and American missionaries brought various Protestant denominations to Oceania.
File:Nadi_Sri_Siva_Subramaniya_Temple.jpg|[[Sri Siva Subramaniya temple]] in [[Fiji]]
</gallery>

===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of Oceania}}

Native languages of Oceania fall into three major geographic groups:
* The large [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] [[language family]], with such languages as [[Malay language|Malay]] (Indonesian), and [[Oceanic languages]] such as [[Gilbertese language|Gilbertese]], [[Fijian language|Fijian]], [[Māori language|Māori]], and [[Hawaiian language|Hawai{{okina}}ian]]
* The [[Aboriginal Australian languages]], including the large [[Pama–Nyungan]] family
* The [[Papuan languages]] of [[New Guinea]] and neighbouring islands, including the large [[Trans–New Guinea]] family

Immigrants brought their own languages to the region.<ref name="absgov20120621" /> Common non-indigenous languages include [[English language|English]] in Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and many other territories; [[French language|French]] in [[New Caledonia]], [[French Polynesia]], [[Wallis and Futuna]]; Japanese in the [[Bonin Islands]];<ref name="realm"/> and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] on [[Easter Island]] and the [[Galápagos Islands]].<ref name="realm"/><ref name="ling">{{cite book |last1=Sebeok |first1=Thomas Albert |title=Current Trends in Linguistics: Linguistics in Oceania |date=1971 |publisher=the University of Michigan |page=950 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lYouAAAAMAAJ&q=%22multitude%22+oceania+%22linguistics%22 |access-date=2 February 2022 |quote=Most of this account of the influence of the Hispanic languages in Oceania has dealt with the Western Pacific, but the Eastern Pacific has not been without some share of the presence of the Portuguese and Spanish. The Eastern Pacific does not have the multitude of islands so characteristic of the Western regions of this great ocean, but there are some: Easter Island, 2000 miles off the Chilean coast, where a Polynesian tongue, Rapanui, is still spoken; the Juan Fernandez group, 400 miles west of Valparaiso; the Galapagos archipelago, 650 miles west of Ecuador; Malpelo and Cocos, 300 miles off the Colombian and Costa Rican coasts respectively; and others. Not many of these islands have extensive populations — some have been used effectively as prisons — but the official language on each is Spanish. |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730065403/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Current_Trends_in_Linguistics_Linguistic/lYouAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22multitude%22+oceania+%22linguistics%22&dq=%22multitude%22+oceania+%22linguistics%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Silva |first=Diego B. |date=2019 |title=Language policy in Oceania |url=https://www.scielo.br/j/alfa/a/YPntRnVWDW5F8P8PYfJGPKd/?lang=en |journal=Alfa - Revista de Linguística |volume=63-2 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331141629/https://www.scielo.br/j/alfa/a/YPntRnVWDW5F8P8PYfJGPKd/?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref> There are also [[Creole language|Creoles]] formed from the interaction of Malay or the colonial languages with indigenous languages, such as [[Tok Pisin]], [[Bislama]], [[Chavacano]], various [[Malay trade and creole languages]], [[Hawaiian Pidgin]], [[Norfuk]], and [[Pitkern]]. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as [[Maisin language|Maisin]].

===Immigration===
{{Main|Post-war immigration to Australia|Immigration to Australia|Immigration to New Zealand|Refugees in Australia|Refugees in New Zealand|Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)}}

[[File:Dutch_Migrant_1954_MariaScholte%3D50000thToAustraliaPostWW2.jpg|thumb|[[Dutch Australians|Dutch]] immigrants arriving in Melbourne, Australia in 1954]]
The most multicultural areas in Oceania, which have a [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population|high degree]] of [[immigration]], are Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii. Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a [[Multiculturalism in Australia|multicultural country]].<ref name="bureau181126" />

Sydney is the most [[Multiculturalism|multicultural]] city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken, with about 40% of residents speaking a [[Languages Other Than English|language other than English]] at home.<ref name="herald231114" /> Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been [[foreign born|born overseas]], with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam, and Iraq, among others.<ref name="TheAus" /><ref name="Population, dwellings, and ethnicity" /> [[Melbourne]] is also fairly multicultural, having the largest [[Greek community of Melbourne|Greek-speaking]] population outside of Europe,<ref name="oecd5024" /> and the second largest [[Asian Australians|Asian]] population in Australia after Sydney.<ref name="indiandir" /><ref name="srilandir" /><ref name="yarra062408" />

European migration to New Zealand provided a major influx following the signing of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] in 1840. Subsequent immigration has been chiefly from the British Isles, but also from continental Europe, the Pacific, the Americas, and Asia.<ref name="parlnz1840" /><ref name="immireg" /> [[Auckland]] is home to over half (51.6 percent) of New Zealand's overseas born population, including 72 percent of the country's Pacific Island-born population, 64 percent of its [[Asian people|Asian]]-born population, and 56 percent of its [[Middle Eastern people|Middle Eastern]] and African born population.<ref name="2013census" />
[[File:Portuguese immigrant family in Hawaii during the 19th century.jpg|thumb|Many [[Portuguese Americans|Portuguese]] immigrants in Hawaii were [[Azores|Azorean]] or [[Madeira]]n.]]
Hawaii is a [[majority-minority state]].<ref name="reuter013113" /> [[Chinese people|Chinese]] workers on Western trading ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820, the first American missionaries arrived to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians Western ways.<ref name="Charles Williams" /> {{As of|2015}}, a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian ancestry&nbsp;– especially [[Filipino people|Filipino]], Japanese, [[Korean immigration to Hawaii|Korean]] and Chinese. Many are descendants of immigrants brought to work on the sugarcane plantations in the mid-to-late 19th century. Almost 13,000 [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] immigrants had arrived by 1899; they also worked on the [[sugarcane]] plantations.<ref name="Hoffman" /> [[Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii]] began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawaii.<ref name="ricandias" />

Between 2001 and 2007, Australia's [[Pacific Solution]] policy transferred [[asylum seekers]] to several Pacific nations, including the [[Nauru detention centre]]. Australia, New Zealand, and other nations took part in the [[Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands]] between 2003 and 2017 after a request for aid.<ref name="bat" />

===Archaeogenetics===
[[File:Jally Cultural Society - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|[[Yali people|Yali]] in the [[Yahukimo Regency]], [[Highland Papua]]]]

[[Archaeology]], [[linguistics]], and existing [[genetics|genetic studies]] indicate that Oceania was settled by two major waves of migration. The first migration of [[Australo-Melanesians]] took place {{circa}} 40 to 80 thousand years ago, and these migrants, [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|Papuans]], colonised much of [[Near Oceania]]. Approximately 3.5 thousand years ago, a second expansion of [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] speakers arrived in Near Oceania, and the descendants of these people spread to the far corners of the Pacific, colonising [[Remote Oceania]].<ref name="doi10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.03.014"/> [[Mitochondrial DNA]] (mtDNA) studies quantify the magnitude of the [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian expansion]] and demonstrate the homogenising effect of this expansion. With regards to Papuan influence, autochthonous [[haplogroup]]s support the hypothesis of a long history in Near Oceania, with some lineages suggesting a time depth of 60 thousand years. [[Santa Cruz Islands|Santa Cruz]], a population located in Remote Oceania, is an anomaly with extreme frequencies of autochthonous haplogroups of Near Oceanian origin.<ref name="doi10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.03.014"/>

Large areas of [[New Guinea]] are unexplored by scientists and [[anthropologists]] due to extensive [[deforestation]] and mountainous terrain. Known indigenous tribes in [[Papua New Guinea]] have very little contact with local authorities aside from the authorities knowing who they are. Many remain [[preliterate]] and, at the national or international level, the names of tribes and information about them are extremely hard to obtain. The [[Indonesia]]n provinces of [[Papua (province)|Papua]] and [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]] on the island of New Guinea are home to an estimated 44 [[uncontacted peoples|uncontacted tribal groups]].<ref name="survival" />

==Culture==
===Australia===
{{Main|Culture of Australia|Cuisine of Australia}}

[[File:Sydney Opera House, botanic gardens 1.jpg|thumb|right|On 28 June 2007, the Sydney Opera House became a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref name="operawin" />]]
Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been [[Anglo-Celtic]] [[Western culture]], with some [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous]] influences.<ref name="jupp769" /><ref name="twhite118" /> The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture.<ref name="Davison pp98–9" /><ref name="twhite125" /> Since the mid-20th century, [[Culture of the United States|American popular culture]] has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema.<ref name="tw" /> Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations.<ref name=tw/><ref name="jupp74" /> ''[[The Story of the Kelly Gang]]'' (1906), the world's first [[feature length]] film, spurred a boom in [[cinema of Australia|Australian cinema]] during the [[silent film]] era.<ref name="kellyg07" /><ref name="wavefilm" /> The [[Australian Museum]] in Sydney and the [[National Gallery of Victoria]] in Melbourne are the oldest and [[List of largest art museums|largest]] [[museum]]s in Oceania.<ref name="ausmuseum" /><ref name="VHR" /> The city's [[Sydney New Year's Eve|New Year's Eve]] celebrations are the largest in Oceania.<ref name="auseve2013" />

Australia is also known for its [[Coffeehouse|cafe]] and [[coffee culture]] in [[Urban area|urban centres]].<ref name="abcnet160511" /> Australia and [[New Zealand]] were responsible for the [[flat white]] coffee. Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple [[hunter-gatherer diet]] of native fauna and flora, otherwise called [[bush tucker]].<ref name="bushtpb" /> The first settlers introduced [[British cuisine|British food]] to the continent, much of which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the [[Sunday roast]].<ref name="food" /><ref name="f2" /> Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World War II European migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to build a thriving Australian [[coffee culture]], and the influence of [[Culture of Asia|Asian cultures]] has led to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]]-inspired [[dim sim]] and [[Chiko Roll]].<ref name="kangcww1999" />

===Hawaii===
{{Main|Culture of Hawaii|Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaiian religion}}

[[File:Iolani Palace (1328).JPG|thumb|left|The [[ʻIolani Palace]] in [[Honolulu]], formerly the residence of the Hawaiian monarch, was restored and opened to the public as a museum in 1978.]]

The music of Hawaii includes traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to modern [[Rock music|rock]] and [[Hip hop music|hip hop]]. Hawaii's musical contributions to the [[music of the United States]] are out of proportion to the state's small size. Styles such as [[slack-key guitar]] are well known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to [[country music]] with the introduction of the [[steel guitar]].<ref name="Unterberger" /> The Hawaiian religion is [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] and [[Animism|animistic]], with a belief in many deities and spirits, including the belief that spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as animals, the waves, and the sky.<ref name="Chai" />

The [[cuisine of Hawaii]] is a fusion of many foods brought by immigrants to the Hawaiian Islands, including the earliest Polynesians and [[Native Hawaiian cuisine|native Hawaiians]], and [[Cuisine of the United States|American]], [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], [[Filipino cuisine|Filipino]], [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]], [[Korean cuisine|Korean]], [[Polynesian cuisine|Polynesian]], and [[Portuguese cuisine|Portuguese]] origins. Native Hawaiian musician and Hawaiian sovereignty activist [[Israel Kamakawiwoʻole]], famous for his medley of "[[Somewhere Over the Rainbow/What a Wonderful World]]", was named "The Voice of Hawaii" by [[NPR]] in 2010 in its 50 great voices series.<ref name="npr101206" />

===New Zealand===
{{Main|Culture of New Zealand|Cuisine of New Zealand}}

[[File:Hobbit holes reflected in water.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Hills with inset, round doors. Reflected in water.|The [[Hobbiton Movie Set]], located near [[Matamata]], was used for ''The Lord of the Rings'' film trilogy.<ref name="hobbitset" />]]

New Zealand, as a culture, is a Western culture, which is influenced by the cultural input of the indigenous [[Māori people|Māori]] and the various waves of multi-ethnic migration which followed the [[History of New Zealand|British colonisation of New Zealand]]. The Māori people constitute one of the major cultures of Polynesia. The country has been broadened by globalisation and immigration, specifically from Oceania, Europe, and Asia.<ref name="natdays" /> New Zealand marks two national days of remembrance, [[Waitangi Day]] and [[ANZAC Day]], and also celebrates many holidays such as the King's Birthday, Labour Day, and Christmas Day, as well as public anniversaries of the founding dates of most regions.<ref name="govnathol" /> The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States.<ref name="music" /> Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of ''[[kapa haka]]'' (song and dance) has made a resurgence.<ref name="create062010" /> The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives,<ref name="nyt101028" /> have encouraged some [[Film producer|producers]] to film big budget movies in New Zealand, including ''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]'', ''[[The Lord of the Rings (film series)|The Lord of the Rings]]'', ''[[The Hobbit (film series)|The Hobbit]]'', ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia (film series)|The Chronicles of Narnia]]'', ''[[King Kong (2005 film)|King Kong]]'' and ''[[The Last Samurai]]''.<ref name="filmnz" />

The national cuisine has been described as [[Pacific Rim]], incorporating the native [[Māori cuisine]] and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia, and Asia.<ref name="cuisine" /> New Zealand yields produce from land and sea&nbsp– most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes, and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers.<ref name="kaipakeha" /> Distinctive ingredients or dishes include [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]]; salmon; [[Paranephrops|koura]] (crayfish);<ref name="encyclnzshell" /> [[whitebait]]; shellfish including [[dredge oyster]]s, [[pāua]], mussels, scallops, [[Paphies australis|pipi]] and [[tuatua]];<ref name="ecyclnzshell222" /> [[Sweet potato|kumara]] (sweet potato); [[kiwifruit]]; [[tamarillo]]; and [[Pavlova (food)|pavlova]] (considered a national dish).<ref name="encyclnzcook" /><ref name="cuisine" /><!--Second source references ingredients-->

===Samoa===
{{Main|Culture of Samoa|Polynesian culture}}

[[File:Fale on Manono Island.jpg|thumb|A [[Architecture of Samoa|fale]] on [[Manono Island]]]]

The [[fa'a Samoa]], or traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan life and politics. Despite centuries of European influence, Samoa maintains its historical customs, social and political systems, and [[Samoan language|language]]. Cultural customs such as the [[Samoa 'ava ceremony]] are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions, including the bestowal of ''[[fa'amatai|matai]]'' chiefly titles. Items of great cultural value include the finely woven ''[['ie toga]]''. The Samoan word for dance is ''[[siva Samoa|siva]]'', which consists of unique, gentle movements of the body in time to music and which tell a story. Samoan male dances can be more snappy.<ref name="dancesiva" /> The ''[[sasa (dance)|sasa]]'' is also a traditional dance where rows of dancers perform rapid [[synchronization|synchronised]] movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums ''([[pate (musical instrument)|pate]])'' or rolled mats. Another dance performed by males is called the ''[[fa'ataupati]]'' or the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body. As with other Polynesian cultures ([[Hawaiian culture|Hawaiian]], [[Tahitians|Tahitian]], and [[Māori culture|Māori]]) with significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos.<ref name="wwpride" />

===Arts===
{{Main|Oceanian art|Samoan art|Hawaiian art|Māori art|Indigenous Australian art}}

[[File:Bradshaw rock paintings.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|[[Gwion Gwion rock paintings]] found in the north-west [[Kimberley region of Western Australia]]]]

The artistic creations of native Oceanians vary greatly throughout the cultures and regions. The subject matter typically carries themes of fertility or the supernatural. [[Petroglyphs]], [[tattooing]], painting, wood carving, stone carving, and textile work are other common art forms.<ref name="artino" /> Art of Oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to Australia and the Pacific Islands.<ref name="oce" /> These early peoples lacked a [[writing system]], and made works on perishable materials, so few records of them exist from this time.<ref name="mettime" /> Indigenous Australian [[rock art]] is the oldest and richest unbroken tradition of art in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years and spread across hundreds of thousands of sites.<ref name="rockart531" /><ref name="nyt051106" /> These rock paintings served several functions. Some were used in magic, others to increase animal populations for hunting, while some were simply for amusement.<ref name="mettime4" /> Sculpture in Oceania first appears on New Guinea as a series of stone figures found throughout the island, but mostly in the mountainous highlands. Establishing a chronological timeframe for these pieces in most cases is difficult, but one has been dated to {{circa}} 1500 BCE.<ref name="mettime444" />

By 1500 BCE, the [[Lapita culture]], descendants of the second wave, would begin to expand and spread into the more remote islands. At around the same time, art began to appear in New Guinea, including the earliest examples of sculpture in Oceania. Beginning {{circa}} 1100 CE, the people of Easter Island would begin construction of nearly 900 [[moai]] (large stone statues). At {{circa}} 1200 CE, the people of Pohnpei, a Micronesian island, would embark on another megalithic construction, building [[Nan Madol]], a city of artificial islands and a system of canals.<ref name="mettime 453" /> Hawaiian art includes [[wood carving]]s, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth (called [[kapa]] in Hawaiian and [[Tapa cloth|tapa]] elsewhere in the Pacific), and tattoos. Native Hawaiians had neither metal nor woven cloth.<ref name="mettime3456" />

===Sport===
{{See also|Sport in Oceania}}
[[File:Fiji vs Wales CG Melbourne 2006.jpg|thumb|Fiji playing [[Wales national rugby sevens team|Wales]] at [[Rugby sevens|seven-a-side rugby]]]]

[[Rugby union]] is one of the region's most prominent sports,<ref name="ocerugb" /> and is the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga. The most popular overall sport in Australia is [[cricket]], with their [[Australia national cricket team|national team]] having won the [[Cricket World Cup]] a record five times.<ref>{{cite web |date=26 October 2021 |title=ICC Cricket World Cup facts with list of winners and host countries |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/icc-cricket-world-cup-facts-with-list-of-winners-and-host-countries-1869701-2021-10-26 |publisher=Indiatoday.in |access-date=26 July 2022 |archive-date=26 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726040915/https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/icc-cricket-world-cup-facts-with-list-of-winners-and-host-countries-1869701-2021-10-26 |url-status=live }}</ref> The most popular sport among Australian women is [[netball]], while [[Australian rules football]] garners the highest spectatorship numbers and television ratings.<ref name="ausrulebrit" /><ref name="aust54" /><ref name="planetsp85" /><ref name="aust101" /> Rugby union is the most popular sport among New Zealanders,<ref name="newzea76" /> and they are tied with [[South Africa]] for the most [[Rugby World Cup]] titles, having won the tournament three times.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 November 2019 |title=Rugby World Cup final: South Africa break records and beat All Blacks to milestones |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/rugby-world-cup/rwc-2019-japan/117131319/rugby-world-cup-final-south-africa-break-records-and-beat-all-blacks-to-milestones |website=Stuff |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=3 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103115213/https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/rugby-world-cup/rwc-2019-japan/117131319/rugby-world-cup-final-south-africa-break-records-and-beat-all-blacks-to-milestones |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia's team [[Australia national rugby union team|the Wallabies]] have won the World Cup twice, despite Rugby union being less popular among Australians.<ref>{{cite web |last=Price |first=Graham |date=3 November 2019 |title=Warren Gatland failed to learn lessons of 2015 {{pipe}} Graham Price |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/rugby/rugby-news/warren-gatland-six-nations-hit-17190027 |website=WalesOnline |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730065406/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/rugby/rugby-news/warren-gatland-failed-learn-lessons-17190027 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Papua New Guinea, the most popular sport is [[Rugby league]].<ref name="rl" /><ref name="rugby66" /> [[Fiji national rugby sevens team|Fiji's sevens team]] is one of the most successful in the world, as is [[New Zealand national rugby sevens team|New Zealand's]].<ref name="southemiclass" />

Australian rules football is the national sport in [[Australian rules football in Nauru|Nauru]].<ref name="naurafl" /> It has a large following in Papua New Guinea, where it is the second most popular sport after Rugby League.<ref name="miningpapua" /><ref name="msnclosure" /><ref name="footinaus" /> Additionally, it attracts significant attention across New Zealand and the [[Pacific Islands]]. The highest level of the sport is the [[Australian Football League]] (AFL), which was the fourth-best attended sporting league in the world during the 2010s.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 May 2015 |title=AFL still fourth-best attended sporting competition in the world |url=https://www.theage.com.au/sport/afl/afl-still-fourthbest-attended-sporting-competition-in-the-world-20150520-gh5oya.html |publisher=Theage.com.au |access-date=18 January 2022 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118183052/https://www.theage.com.au/sport/afl/afl-still-fourthbest-attended-sporting-competition-in-the-world-20150520-gh5oya.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Football in Vanuatu|Vanuatu]] is the only country in Oceania to call [[association football]] its national sport. However, it is also the most popular sport in [[Football in Kiribati|Kiribati]], [[Football in Solomon Islands|Solomon Islands]] and [[Football in Tuvalu|Tuvalu]], and has a significant (and growing) popularity in [[Soccer in Australia|Australia]]. In 2006, Australia left the [[Oceania Football Confederation]] (OFC) for the [[Asian Football Confederation]] (AFC), and their men's team [[Australia men's national soccer team|the Socceroos]] has qualified for every subsequent [[FIFA World Cup]] as an Asian entrant.<ref name="fifa2010" /> The sole Micronesian country with membership in the OFC is Kiribati, although it is not recognised by [[FIFA]] like the other OFC members. [[Federated States of Micronesia national football team|Federated States of Micronesia]], Marshall Islands, Nauru and [[Palau national football team|Palau]] all have no presence, primarily due to lack of infrastructure and logistical difficulties related to Micronesia's remoteness.<ref>{{cite web |title=Meet Pohnpei: the Pacific islanders battling to become FIFA's 212th member |date=3 September 2017 |url=https://thesefootballtimes.co/2017/09/04/meet-pohnpei-the-pacific-islanders-battling-to-become-fifas-212th-member/ |publisher=Thesefootballtimes.co |access-date=18 January 2022 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118182659/https://thesefootballtimes.co/2017/09/04/meet-pohnpei-the-pacific-islanders-battling-to-become-fifas-212th-member/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Associate Members of OFC">{{cite web |last=Düerkop |first=Sascha |title=The Associate Members of OFC – 0:3 for football |date=5 January 2020 |url=https://footballoceania.com/2020/01/05/the-associate-members-of-ofc-03-for-football/ |access-date=30 July 2021 |publisher=Football in Oceania |archive-date=21 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621161916/https://footballoceania.com/2020/01/05/the-associate-members-of-ofc-03-for-football/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=13 November 2021 |title=The Marshall Islands: The last country on Earth without a football team|url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/2935126/2021/11/13/the-marshall-islands-the-last-country-on-earth-without-a-football-team/ |publisher=Theathletic.com |access-date=18 January 2022 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118183005/https://theathletic.com/2935126/2021/11/13/the-marshall-islands-the-last-country-on-earth-without-a-football-team/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Like Australia, the Micronesian dependent territories of [[Guam national football team|Guam]] and [[Northern Mariana Islands national football team|Northern Mariana Islands]] currently compete in the AFC instead of the OFC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://guamfa.com/contact-us/history-of-gfa/|title=Guam Football Association {{pipe}} History of GFA|website=Guamfa.com|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=15 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415204416/https://guamfa.com/contact-us/history-of-gfa/|url-status=live}}</ref> The OFC was dominated by Australia for many years, and became known for one-sided results.<ref name="wsc">{{cite web |last=Hall |first=Matthew |title=Australia – World Cup is a long way away |url=https://www.wsc.co.uk/the-archive/18-letter-from/2421-australia--world-cup-is-a-long-way-away |website=When Saturday Comes |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714234044/https://www.wsc.co.uk/the-archive/18-letter-from/2421-australia--world-cup-is-a-long-way-away |url-status=live }}</ref>

Australians view sport as an important part of their cultural identity, and the country performs well on the international stage, despite having a relatively small population.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Sporting Agenda Announcement {{pipe}} Commonwealth Games Australia |date=31 July 2018 |url=https://commonwealthgames.com.au/national-sporting-agenda-announcement/ |publisher=Commonwealthgames.com.au |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112172302/https://commonwealthgames.com.au/national-sporting-agenda-announcement/ |url-status=live }}</ref> They have hosted two Summer Olympics: [[1956 Summer Olympics|Melbourne 1956]] and [[2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney 2000]], and the city of Brisbane is also set to host the [[2032 Summer Olympics|2032 edition]].<ref>{{cite web |date=21 July 2021 |title=Brisbane2032 {{pipe}} About Queensland and its government {{pipe}} Queensland Government |url=https://www.qld.gov.au/about/Brisbane2032 |publisher=Qld.gov.au |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111154204/https://www.qld.gov.au/about/Brisbane2032 |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia has hosted five editions of the [[Commonwealth Games]] and New Zealand three times. The [[Pacific Games]] (formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics on a much smaller scale, with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific; Australia and New Zealand competed in the games for the first time in 2015.<ref name="abc20140703" />

Melbourne hosts the [[Australian Open]] every year, considered one of the four [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] tournaments in [[tennis]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Australian Open {{pipe}} tennis tournament {{pipe}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/sports/Australian-Open |website=Britannica.com |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712125009/https://www.britannica.com/sports/Australian-Open |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Oceania}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* {{anl|Australasia}}
* {{anl|Europeans in Oceania}}
* {{anl|Festival of Pacific Arts}}
* [[Flags of Oceania]]
* {{anl|Global Southeast}}
* [[Indigenous peoples of Oceania]]
* {{anl|Insular Chile}}
* [[List of cities in Oceania]]
* {{anl|Oceania (journal)}}
* {{anl|Oceanic cuisine}}
* {{anl|Pacific Community}}
* {{anl|Pacific Islander}}
* {{anl|Pacific Union}}
* [[United Nations geoscheme for Oceania]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
<!-- 159 -->
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="pronun">{{Citation |last=Wells |first=John C. |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |year=2008 |edition=3rd |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref>

<ref name="worlda">{{cite web |title=Australia: World Audit Democracy Profile |url=http://www.worldaudit.org/countries/australia.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213032213/http://www.worldaudit.org/countries/australia.htm |archive-date=13 December 2007 |access-date=5 January 2008 |website=WorldAudit.org}}</ref>

<ref name="herita">{{cite web |date=2016 |title=Rankings on Economic Freedom |url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |access-date=30 November 2016 |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |archive-date=16 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916153902/http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |url-status=unfit }}</ref>

<ref name="imforg">{{cite web |date=24 May 2011 |title=Kiribati: 2011 Article IV Consultation-Staff Report, Informational Annexes, Debt Sustainability Analysis, Public Information Notice on the Executive Board Discussion, and Statement by the Executive Director for Kiribati |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.aspx?sk=24871.0 |access-date=10 September 2011 |publisher=International Monetary Fund Country Report No. 11/113 |archive-date=24 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224064230/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.aspx?sk=24871.0 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="dfatgov">{{cite web |title=Fast facts about Australia |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030820155859/http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html |archive-date=20 August 2003 |access-date=30 August 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="foundi">{{cite web |title=Secret Instructions to Captain Cook, 30 June 1768 |url=http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/nsw1_doc_1768.pdf |access-date=3 September 2011 |publisher=[[National Archives of Australia]] |archive-date=15 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815042109/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/nsw1_doc_1768.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="oceanart">"Oceanic art", The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]], Sixth Edition 2006.</ref>

<ref name="modern283">MacKay (1864, 1885) ''Elements of Modern Geography'', p. 283</ref>

<ref name="newpol162">{{Cite book |last=Drage |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUpmpeJz-8gC |title=New Politics in the South pacific |publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific |year=1994 |isbn=978-982-02-0115-6 |page=162 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2020-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032044/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUpmpeJz-8gC |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="OED">{{OED|Oceania}}</ref>

<ref name="Lewis 1997 32">{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |url=https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi |title=The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography |last2=Kären E. Wigen |publisher=University of California Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-520-20742-4 |location=Berkeley |page=[https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi/page/n24 32] |quote=Interestingly enough, the answer [from a scholar who sought to calculate the number of continents] conformed almost precisely to the conventional list: North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Oceania (Australia plus New Zealand), Africa, and Antarctica. |url-access=limited}}</ref>

<ref name="scimag">{{Cite journal |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Morten |last2=Guo |first2=Xiaosen |last3=Wang |first3=Yong |last4=Lohmueller |first4=Kirk E. |last5=Rasmussen |first5=Simon |last6=Albrechtsen |first6=Anders |last7=Skotte |first7=Line |last8=Lindgreen |first8=Stinus |last9=Metspalu |first9=Mait |last10=Jombart |first10=Thibaut |last11=Kivisild |first11=Toomas |date=7 October 2011 |title=An Aboriginal Australian Genome Reveals Separate Human Dispersals into Asia |journal=Science |volume=334 |issue=6052 |pages=94–98 |bibcode=2011Sci...334...94R |doi=10.1126/science.1211177 |pmc=3991479 |pmid=21940856 |first12=Weiwei |last12=Zhai |first13=Anders |last13=Eriksson |first14=Andrea |last14=Manica |first15=Ludovic |last15=Orlando |first16=Francisco M. De La |last16=Vega |first17=Silvana |last17=Tridico |first18=Ene |last18=Metspalu |first19=Kasper |last19=Nielsen |first20=María C. |last20=Ávila-Arcos |first21=J. Víctor |last21=Moreno-Mayar |first22=Craig |last22=Muller |first23=Joe |last23=Dortch |first24=M. Thomas P. |last24=Gilbert |first25=Ole |last25=Lund |first26=Agata |last26=Wesolowska |first27=Monika |last27=Karmin |first28=Lucy A. |last28=Weinert |first29=Bo |last29=Wang |first30=Jun |last30=Li |first31=Shuaishuai |last31=Tai |first32=Fei |last32=Xiao |first33=Tsunehiko |last33=Hanihara |first34=George van |last34=Driem |first35=Aashish R. |last35=Jha |first36=François-Xavier |last36=Ricaut |first37=Peter de |last37=Knijff |first38=Andrea B. |last38=Migliano |first39=Irene Gallego |last39=Romero |first40=Karsten |last40=Kristiansen |first41=David M. |last41=Lambert |first42=Søren |last42=Brunak |first43=Peter |last43=Forster |first44=Bernd |last44=Brinkmann |first45=Olaf |last45=Nehlich |first46=Michael |last46=Bunce |first47=Michael |last47=Richards |first48=Ramneek |last48=Gupta |first49=Carlos D. |last49=Bustamante |first50=Anders |last50=Krogh |first51=Robert A. |last51=Foley |first52=Marta M. |last52=Lahr |author-link53=Francois Balloux |first53=Francois |last53=Balloux |first54=Thomas |last54=Sicheritz-Pontén |first55=Richard |last55=Villems |first56=Rasmus |last56=Nielsen |first57=Jun |last57=Wang |first58=Eske |last58=Willerslev}}</ref>

<ref name="illumina.com">{{cite web |title=Sequencing Uncovers a 9,000 Mile Walkabout |url=https://www.illumina.com/documents/icommunity/article_2012_04_Aboriginal_Genome.pdf |website=illumina.com |quote=A lock of hair and the HiSeq 2000 system identify a human migration wave that took more than 3,000 generations and 10,000 years to complete. |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2020-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430044039/https://www.illumina.com/documents/icommunity/article_2012_04_Aboriginal_Genome.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="BBSRC">[http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_23-9-2011-10-41-8 "Aboriginal Australians descend from the first humans to leave Africa, DNA sequence reveals"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006103055/http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_23-9-2011-10-41-8 |date=2014-10-06 }}, ''Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC)''.</ref>

<ref name="ourcount">{{cite web |title=About Australia: Our Country |url=http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country |publisher=Australian Government |quote=Australia's first inhabitants, the Aboriginal people, are believed to have migrated from some unknown point in Asia to Australia between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago. |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2012-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227080043/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="germs314">[[Jared Diamond]]. (1997). ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]''. Random House. London. pp. 314–316</ref>

<ref name="prehis">Mulvaney, J. and Kamminga, J., (1999), ''Prehistory of Australia''. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.</ref>

<ref name="perspe81">{{cite book |last1=Lourandos |first1=Harry |title=Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory |date=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-35946-7 |page=81 |url={{Google books|tTy-I8no1MwC|page=81|plainurl=yes}} }}</ref>

<ref name="uow2004">[http://media.uow.edu.au/news/2004/0917a/index.html "When did Australia's earliest inhabitants arrive?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329145442/http://media.uow.edu.au/news/2004/0917a/index.html |date=2012-03-29 }}, ''University of Wollongong'', 2004. Retrieved 6 June 2008.</ref>

<ref name="pmid4570638">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Barbetti M, Allen H |year=1972 |title=Prehistoric man at Lake Mungo, Australia, by 32,000 years BP |journal=Nature |volume=240 |issue=5375 |pages=46–48 |bibcode=1972Natur.240...46B |doi=10.1038/240046a0 |pmid=4570638 |s2cid=4298103}}</ref>

<ref name="struct2072">{{Cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=Michael |last2=Terrill |first2=Angela |last3=Reesink |first3=Ger |last4=Foley |first4=Robert A. |last5=Levinson |first5=Stephen C. |date=23 September 2005 |title=Structural phylogenetics and the reconstruction of ancient language history |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5743 |pages=2072–2075 |bibcode=2005Sci...309.2072D |doi=10.1126/science.1114615 |pmid=16179483 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1B84-E |s2cid=2963726}}</ref>

<ref name="malenes">{{Cite book |last=Spriggs, Matthew |title=The Island Melanesians |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-631-16727-3}}</ref>

<ref name="matrilineality2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Hage |first1=P. |last2=Marck |first2=J. |year=2003 |title=Matrilineality and Melanesian Origin of Polynesian Y Chromosomes |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=44 |issue=S5 |pages=S121 |doi=10.1086/379272|s2cid=224791767 }}</ref>

<ref name="Kayser, M. 2006">{{Cite journal |last1=Kayser |first1=M. |last2=Brauer |first2=S. |last3=Cordaux |first3=R. |last4=Casto |first4=A. |last5=Lao |first5=O. |last6=Zhivotovsky |first6=L.A. |last7=Moyse-Faurie |first7=C. |last8=Rutledge |first8=R.B. |last9=Schiefenhoevel |first9=W. |last10=Gil |first10=D |last11=Lin |first11=A.A. |display-authors=8 |year=2006 |title=Melanesian and Asian origins of Polynesians: mtDNA and Y chromosome gradients across the Pacific |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=2234–2244 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msl093 |pmid=16923821 |doi-access=free |last12=Underhill |first12=P.A. |last13=Oefner |first13=P.J. |last14=Trent |first14=R.J. |last15=Stoneking |first15=M|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0010-0145-0 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="polyori8225">{{Cite journal |last1=Su |first1=B. |last2=Underhill |first2=P. |last3=Martinson |first3=J. |last4=Saha |first4=N. |last5=McGarvey |first5=S.T. |last6=Shriver |first6=M.D. |last7=Chu |first7=J. |last8=Oefner |first8=P. |last9=Chakraborty |first9=R. |last10=Chakraborty |first10=R. |last11=Deka |first11=R. |year=2000 |title=Polynesian origins: Insights from the Y chromosome |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=97 |issue=15 |pages=8225–8228 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.8225S |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.15.8225 |pmc=26928 |pmid=10899994 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name="wings">{{Cite book |last=Kirch |first=P.V. |title=On the road of the wings: an archaeological history of the Pacific Islands before European contact |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-520-23461-1 |location=London}} Quoted in Kayser, M.; ''et al.'' (2006).</ref>

<ref name="Leach & Green 1989">{{cite journal |last1=Leach |first1=Helen M. |last2=Green |first2=Roger C. |title=New information for the Ferry Berth site, Mulifanua, western Samoa |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |date=1989 |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=319–329 |jstor=20706295 }}</ref>

<ref name="burley128">{{Cite journal |last1=Burley |first1=David V. |last2=Barton |first2=Andrew |last3=Dickinson |first3=William R. |last4=Connaughton |first4=Sean P. |last5=Taché |first5=Karine |year=2010 |title=Nukuleka as a Founder Colony for West Polynesian Settlement: New Insights from Recent Excavations |journal=Journal of Pacific Archaeology |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=128–144|doi=10.70460/jpa.v1i2.26 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="vikings228">Resemblance of the name to an early [[Mangareva]]n founder god ''Atu Motua'' ("Father Lord") has made some historians suspect that Hotu Matua was added to Easter Island mythology only in the 1860s, along with adopting the Mangarevan language. The "real" founder would have been ''Tu'u ko Iho'', who became just a supporting character in Hotu Matu{{okina}}a centric legends. See Steven Fischer (1994). ''Rapanui's Tu'u ko Iho Versus Mangareva's 'Atu Motua. Evidence for Multiple Reanalysis and Replacement in Rapanui Settlement Traditions, Easter Island''. The Journal of Pacific History, 29(1), 3–18. See also ''Rapa Nui / Geography, History and Religion''. Peter H. Buck, Vikings of the Pacific, University of Chicago Press, 1938. pp. 228–236. [http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/rapanui/rapa1.html Online version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050523092130/http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/rapanui/rapa1.html |date=2005-05-23 }}</ref>

<ref name="hawaii">{{cite web|url=https://archive.hokulea.com/rapanui/hotu.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040928070714/http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/rapanui/hotu.html|title=The Hotu Matua|archive-date=28 September 2004|website=archive.hokulea.com}}</ref>

<ref name="failor89">[[Jared Diamond|Diamond, Jared]]. ''[[Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]''. Penguin Books: 2005. {{ISBN|0-14-303655-6}}. Chapter 2: Twilight at Easter pp. 79–119. p. 89.</ref>

<ref name="scimag23874">{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Terry L. |last2=Lipo |first2=Carl P. |title=Late Colonization of Easter Island |journal=Science |date=17 March 2006 |volume=311 |issue=5767 |pages=1603–1606 |doi=10.1126/science.1121879 |pmid=16527931 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1603H |s2cid=41685107 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="lapita">{{cite book |last1=Kirch |first1=Patrick Vinton |title=The Lapita Peoples: Ancestors of the Oceanic World |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-57718-036-4 }}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="USDOS">{{cite web |title=Background Note: Micronesia |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1839.htm |access-date=6 January 2012 |publisher=United States Department of State |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604190535/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1839.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="books.google">{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=William N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3Z-aH7govUC |title=Prehistoric Architecture in Micronesia |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-292-78621-9 |page=30 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2013-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616140015/http://books.google.com/books?id=B3Z-aH7govUC |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="races165">[http://www.inquirewithin.biz/history/american_pacific/oceania/orientation.htm The History of Mankind] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927110432/http://www.inquirewithin.biz/history/american_pacific/oceania/orientation.htm |date=27 September 2013 }} by Professor Friedrich Ratzel, Book II, Section A, The Races of Oceania, p. 165, picture of a stick chart from the Marshall Islands. MacMillan and Co., published 1896.</ref>

<ref name="Fernandez-Armesto 2006 305–307">{{Cite book |last=Fernandez-Armesto |first=Felipe |url=https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba00fern/page/305 |title=Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration |date=2006 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-06259-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba00fern/page/305 305–307]}}</ref>

<ref name="discos19">J.P. Sigmond and L.H. Zuiderbaan (1979) ''Dutch Discoveries of Australia''. Rigby Ltd, Australia. pp. 19–30 {{ISBN|0-7270-0800-5}}</ref>

<ref name="primary">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_i98Pu5dDhkC&pg=PA6 |title=Primary Australian History: Book F [B6] Ages 10–11 |date=2008 |publisher=R.I.C. Publications |isbn=978-1-74126-688-7 |page=6 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420234832/https://books.google.com/books?id=_i98Pu5dDhkC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="tearag">{{cite web |date=4 March 2009 |title=European discovery of New Zealand |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101110165647/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/2 |archive-date=10 November 2010 |access-date=9 December 2010 |publisher=Encyclopedia of New Zealand}}</ref>

<ref name="cook22470">{{cite web |title=Cook's Journal: Daily Entries, 22 April 1770 |url=http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html |access-date=21 September 2011 |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927080037/http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="herald86292">{{cite news |title=Once were warriors |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/once-were-warriors-20021111-gdft6f.html |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=11 November 2002 }}</ref>

<ref name="TAHNPT">{{Cite book |last=Simati Faaniu |title=Tuvalu: a history |date=1983 |publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies and Extension Services, University of the South Pacific |editor-last=Hugh Laracy |pages=127–139 |chapter=Chapter 17, Colonial Rule |oclc=20637433}}</ref>

<ref name="cinderella1">Macdonald, Barrie (2001) ''Cinderellas of the Empire: towards a history of Kiribati and Tuvalu'', Institute of Pacific Studies, [[University of the South Pacific]], Suva, Fiji, {{ISBN|982-02-0335-X}}, p. 1</ref>

<ref name="KMLA1889">{{cite web |last=Ganse |first=Alexander |title=History of French Polynesia, 1797 to 1889 |url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/pacific/frpolyn17971889.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230062212/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/pacific/frpolyn17971889.html |archive-date=30 December 2007 |access-date=20 October 2007}}</ref>

<ref name="ped">{{cite web |title=Rapport annuel 2010 |url=http://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf |access-date=30 January 2013 |publisher=IEOM Nouvelle-Calédonie |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310075134/https://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="amesagrey">Gray, J.A.C. Amerika Samoa, ''A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute''. 1960.</ref>

<ref name="awm.gov.au">{{Cite book |last=Jose |first=Arthur Wilberforce |title=Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918: Volume IX – The Royal Australian Navy: 1914–1918 |publisher=Angus and Robertson |year=1941 |editor-last=Bean |editor-first=Charles Edwin Woodrow |editor-link=Charles Bean |edition=9th |series=Official Histories, Australian War Memorial |location=Sydney, Australia |chapter=Chapter V – Affairs in the Western Pacific |chapter-url=http://static.awm.gov.au/images/collection/pdf/RCDIG1070027--1-.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203074454/http://static.awm.gov.au/images/collection/pdf/RCDIG1070027--1-.PDF |archive-date=3 February 2014 |orig-date=1928}}</ref>

<ref name="pearl17ff">Prange, Gordon W., Goldstein, Donald, & Dillon, Katherine. ''The Pearl Harbor Papers'' (Brassey's, 2000), pp. 17ff; [https://books.google.com/books?id=q2pFnALHfykC&pg=PA1 Google Books entry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032058/https://books.google.com/books?id=q2pFnALHfykC&pg=PA1 |date=2020-07-28 }} on Prange ''et al''.</ref>

<ref name="operat1315">Fukudome, Shigeru, "Hawaii Operation". United States Naval Institute, ''Proceedings'', 81 (December 1955), pp. 1315–1331</ref>

<ref name="decode32">For the Japanese designator of Oahu. Wilford, Timothy. "Decoding Pearl Harbor", in ''The Northern Mariner'', XII, #1 (January 2002), p. 32 fn 81.</ref>

<ref name="reconcil7">{{Cite book |last1=Braithwaite |first1=John |title=Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment: Sequencing peace in Bougainville |last2=Charlesworth |first2=Hilary |last3=Reddy |first3=Peter |last4=Dunn |first4=Leah |publisher=ANU E Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-921666-68-1 |chapter=Chapter 7: The cost of the conflict |chapter-url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Reconciliation+and+Architectures+of+Commitment%3A+Sequencing+peace+in+Bougainville/5301/ch07.xhtml |name-list-style=amp |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2013-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221445/http://epress.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Reconciliation+and+Architectures+of+Commitment%3A+Sequencing+peace+in+Bougainville/5301/ch07.xhtml |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="nyt1997">{{Cite news |last=Kristof |first=Nicholas D. |date=26 September 1997 |title=Shoichi Yokoi, 82, Is Dead; Japan Soldier Hid 27 Years |work=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE7D81F3BF935A1575AC0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=1 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201172619/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE7D81F3BF935A1575AC0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="race1750">{{cite book |last1=Douglas |first1=Bronwen |last2=Ballard |first2=Chris |title=Foreign Bodies: Oceania and the Science of Race 1750–1940 |date=2008 |publisher=ANU E Press |isbn=978-1-921536-00-7 }}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="GillespieClague2009">{{Cite book |last1=Gillespie |first1=Rosemary G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C&pg=PA706 |title=Encyclopedia of Islands |last2=Clague |first2=David A. |date=2009 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25649-1 |page=706 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420214345/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C&pg=PA706 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="othero5">Ben Finney, The Other One-Third of the Globe, [[Journal of World History]], Vol. 5, No. 2, Fall, 1994.</ref>

<ref name="britta">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137072/coral-island "Coral island"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427013344/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137072/coral-island |date=2015-04-27 }}, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 22 June 2013.</ref>

<ref name="abcnet22613">[http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/nauru.htm "Nauru"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518100704/http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/nauru.htm |date=2013-05-18 }}, Charting the Pacific. Retrieved 22 June 2013.</ref>

<ref name="AAE">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cF8NAQAAMAAJ |title=Academic American encyclopedia |date=1997 |publisher=Grolier Incorporated |isbn=978-0-7172-2068-7 |page=8 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421165702/https://books.google.com/books?id=cF8NAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="LalFortune2000p63">{{Cite book |last1=Lal |first1=Brij Vilash |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pPpJl8E5wC&pg=PA63 |title=The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia |last2=Fortune |first2=Kate |date=2000 |publisher=University of Hawai{{okina}}i Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2265-1 |page=63 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421164832/https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pPpJl8E5wC&pg=PA63 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="West2009">{{Cite book |last=West |first=Barbara A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA521 |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7 |page=521 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421021635/https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA521 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="DunfordRidgell1996">{{Cite book |last1=Dunford |first1=Betty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3n2z7E1zH3MC |title=Pacific Neighbors: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia |last2=Ridgell |first2=Reilly |date=1996 |publisher=Bess Press |isbn=978-1-57306-022-6 |page=125 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420224420/https://books.google.com/books?id=3n2z7E1zH3MC |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="voyage6">{{Cite book |last=Douglas |first=Bronwen |title=Science, Voyages, and Encounters in Oceania, 1511–1850 |date=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=6}}</ref>

<ref name="auxter">{{Cite book |last=de Brosses |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3x_MaYZVJQC |title=Histoire des navigations aux terres Australes. Contenant ce que l'on sçait [sic] des moeurs & des productions des contrées découvertes jusqu'à ce jour; & où il est traité de l'utilité d'y faire de plus amples découvertes, & des moyens d'y former un établissement |publisher=Durand |year=1756 |location=Paris |publication-date=1756 |language=fr |trans-title=History of voyages to the Southern Lands. Containing what is known concerning the customs and products of the countries so far discovered; and treating of the usefulness of making broader discoveries there, and of the means of setting up an establishment there |author-link=Charles de Brosses |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2020-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726130911/https://books.google.com/books?id=o3x_MaYZVJQC |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="tecto">{{cite web |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |url=http://www.ees1.lanl.gov/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217002443/http://www.ees1.lanl.gov/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |archive-date=17 February 2013 |access-date=27 February 2013 |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory }}</ref>

<ref name="platetec2010">{{Citation |last1=Frisch |first1=Wolfgang |title=Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Mountain Building |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vx1oiTMOTRcC&pg=PA11 |pages=11–12 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-76504-2 |last2=Meschede |first2=Martin |last3=Blakey |first3=Ronald C.}}</ref>

<ref name="ageof">{{cite web|url=http://wserver.crc.losrios.edu/~jacksoh/Images/crustageposter.gif|title=Age of the Ocean Floor|website=Wserver.crc.losrios.edu|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=6 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806131959/http://wserver.crc.losrios.edu/~jacksoh/Images/crustageposter.gif|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="distinct227">Pain, C.F., Villans, B.J., Roach, I.C., Worrall, L. & Wilford, J.R. (2012): Old, flat and red – Australia's distinctive landscape. In: ''Shaping a Nation: A Geology of Australia''. Blewitt, R.S. (Ed.) Geoscience Australia and ANU E Press, Canberra. pp. 227–275 {{ISBN|978-1-922103-43-7}}</ref>

<ref name="ag">{{cite web |last=Kevin Mccue |date=26 February 2010 |title=Land of earthquakes and volcanoes? |url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/land-of-earthquakes-and-volcanoes.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306150520/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/land-of-earthquakes-and-volcanoes.htm |archive-date=6 March 2010 |access-date=25 April 2010 |publisher=[[Australian Geographic]] }}</ref>

<ref name="tearaz">[http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/Geology/GeologyOverview/3/ENZ-Resources/Standard/1/en#breadcrumbtop New Zealand within Gondwana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715071623/http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/Geology/GeologyOverview/3/ENZ-Resources/Standard/1/en#breadcrumbtop |date=2009-07-15 }} from Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand</ref>

<ref name="Factbook-Fiji">{{cite web |title=Fiji |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ |access-date=28 December 2014 |website=CIA World Factbook |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827055140/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="geochr">Clague, D.A. and Dalrymple, G.B. (1989) ''Tectonics, geochronology, and origin of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain'' in Winterer, E.L. et al. (editors) (1989) ''The Eastern Pacific Ocean and Hawaii'', Boulder, Geological Society of America.</ref>

<ref name="usgsgov">{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea Volcano, Hawaii |url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/ |access-date=5 November 2011 |publisher=Hvo.wr.usgs.gov |archive-date=21 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061021204300/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="envigov2012">{{cite web |date=23 November 2011 |title=Parks and Reserves – Australia's National Landscapes |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/parks/national-landscapes/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104114011/http://environment.gov.au/parks/national-landscapes/index.html |archive-date=4 January 2012 |access-date=4 January 2012 |publisher=Environment.gov.au}}</ref>

<ref name="portrait">{{Cite book |last1=Loffler |first1=Ernst |title=Australia: Portrait of a continent |last2=Anneliese Loffler |last3=A.J. Rose |last4=Denis Warner |publisher=Hutchinson Group (Australia) |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-09-130460-7 |location=Richmond, Victoria |pages=37–39}}</ref>

<ref name="drivers375">{{Cite journal |last1=Seabrooka |first1=Leonie |last2=McAlpinea |first2=Clive |last3=Fenshamb |first3=Rod |year=2006 |title=Cattle, crops and clearing: Regional drivers of landscape change in the Brigalow Belt, Queensland, Australia, 1840–2004 |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=375–376 |doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.11.007|bibcode=2006LUrbP..78..373S }}</ref>

<ref name="uplands">{{WWF ecoregion| name = Einasleigh upland savanna| id=aa0705 | access-date =16 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="gdowns">{{WWF ecoregion |name=Mitchell grass downs | id=aa0707 | access-date =16 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="mulgas">{{WWF ecoregion | name = Eastern Australia mulga shrublands| id=aa0802 | access-date =16 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="tempera">{{WWF ecoregion| name = Southeast Australia temperate savanna | id=aa0803 | access-date =16 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="savanna">{{WWF ecoregion |name=Arnhem Land tropical savanna |id=aa0701|access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="mostvb">{{Cite book |last=Newman |first=Arnold |url=https://archive.org/details/tropicalrainfore00newm_0 |title=Tropical Rainforest: Our Most Valuable and Endangered Habitat With a Blueprint for Its Survival Into the Third Millennium |publisher=Checkmark |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8160-3973-9 |edition=2}}</ref>

<ref name="newzat">{{Cite book |last=McKenzie |first=D.W. |title=Heinemann New Zealand atlas |publisher=[[Heinemann (publisher)|Heinemann Publishers]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-7900-0187-6}}</ref>

<ref name="vascplant">NZPCN (2006). ''New Zealand indigenous vascular plant checklist''. {{ISBN|0-473-11306-6}}. Written by Peter de Lange, John W.D. Sawyer, and J.R. Rolfe.</ref>

<ref name="plantprop">{{cite web |title=Hawaiian Native Plant Propagation Database |url=http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/hawnprop/plants/bri-insi.htm |access-date=15 December 2013 |archive-date=28 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128012940/http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/hawnprop/plants/bri-insi.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="forgotpol">{{Cite book |last1=Stephen Buchmann |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=YWTZs5fSqb8C|page=133}} |title=The Forgotten Pollinators |last2=Gary Paul Nabhan |date=2012 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=978-1-59726-908-7 |access-date=17 December 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="IUCN">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2017 |title=''Petroica pusilla'' |volume=2017 |article-number=e.T103734840A157467789 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T103734840A157467789.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>

<ref name="handbirds">{{Cite book |url=http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/sites/all/files/302_Sacred%20Kingfisher_0.pdf |title=Handbook of Australian Birds |date=1999 |publisher=OUP |editor-last=Higgins, P.J |location=Melbourne |page=1178 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418051319/https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/sites/all/files/302_Sacred%20Kingfisher_0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="icunet22717">{{Cite iucn | author = BirdLife International | title = Pycnonotus cafer | volume = 2016 | date = 2016 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22712695A94343459.en }}</ref>

<ref name="hawaiibirds">{{Cite book |last=Pratt |first=H. Douglas |title=The Birds of Hawaii and the Tropical Pacific |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-691-02399-1 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

<ref name="birdsback">{{cite web |title=Brown Goshawk {{!}} Birds in Backyards |url=http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/species/Accipiter-fasciatus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817202637/http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/species/Accipiter-fasciatus |archive-date=17 August 2016 |access-date=18 August 2016 |website=Birdsinbackyards.net |publisher=Birdlife Australia}}</ref>

<ref name="Turner">{{Cite book |last1=Turner |first1=Angela K |url=https://archive.org/details/swallowsmartinsi00turn |title=Swallows & Martins: An Identification Guide and Handbook |last2=Rose |first2=Chris |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-395-51174-9}}</ref>

<ref name="cardinal">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2017 |title=''Myzomela cardinalis'' |volume=2017 |article-number=e.T22703868A118657750 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22703868A118657750.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>

<ref name="icunred181023">{{Cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22714832/94429444|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|access-date=23 October 2018}}</ref>

<ref name="forestbirds">{{cite web |last=Howard Youth |title=Hawaii's Forest Birds Sing the Blues |url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/publications/zoogoer/1995/1/hawaiisforestbirds.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070318100849/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/publications/zoogoer/1995/1/hawaiisforestbirds.cfm |archive-date=18 March 2007 |access-date=31 October 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="btsnakegov">[https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/brown-tree-snake Invasive Species: Animals – Brown Tree Snake] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824120114/https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/brown-tree-snake |date=2019-08-24 }}, National Agricultural Library, United States Department of Agriculture, Retrieved 31 August 2010</ref>

<ref name="systax">Christidis, L., Boles, W., 2008. Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian birds, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia. CSIRO Publishing.</ref>

<ref name="Steadman 2006">Steadman. 2006. ''Extinction & biogeography of tropical Pacific birds''</ref>

<ref name="ioc">{{cite web |year=2016 |editor-last=Gill |editor-first=Frank |editor-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) |editor2-last=Donsker |editor2-first=David |title=Rollers, ground rollers & kingfishers |url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/rollers/ |access-date=10 October 2016 |website=World Bird List Version 6.3 |publisher=International Ornithologists' Union |archive-date=4 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004213031/http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/rollers/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="encycwild">Egerton, L. ed. 2005. ''Encyclopedia of Australian wildlife''. Reader's Digest</ref>

<ref name="CoatArms">{{cite web |title=Australia's National Symbols |url=http://dfat.gov.au/about-australia/land-its-people/Pages/australias-national-symbols.aspx |access-date=15 July 2015 |publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |archive-date=19 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719062442/http://dfat.gov.au/about-australia/land-its-people/Pages/australias-national-symbols.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="tassie">{{Cite news |date=June 2008 |title=Welcome |page=1 |work=Save the Tasmanian Devil |url=http://www.tassiedevil.com.au/tasdevil.nsf/downloads/D595436FECB69A66CA2576ED0083D3F6/$file/DevilNews_June_2008.pdf |access-date=6 October 2010 |archive-date=17 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217185140/http://www.tassiedevil.com.au/tasdevil.nsf/downloads/D595436FECB69A66CA2576ED0083D3F6/$file/DevilNews_June_2008.pdf }}</ref>

<ref name="dangerc">Underhill D (1993) ''Australia's Dangerous Creatures'', Reader's Digest, Sydney, New South Wales, {{ISBN|0-86438-018-6}}</ref>

<ref name="assemb152">{{cite journal |last1=Trewick |first1=Steven A. |last2=Gibb |first2=Gillian C. |title=Vicars, tramps and assembly of the New Zealand avifauna: a review of molecular phylogenetic evidence |journal=Ibis |date=April 2010 |volume=152 |issue=2 |pages=226–253 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2010.01018.x |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="vicvag32">{{cite journal |last1=Trewick |first1=Steve |title=Vicars & Vagrants |journal=Australasian Science |date=September 2011 |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=24–27 |url=https://www.australasianscience.com.au/article/issue-september-2011/vicars-vagrants.html |access-date=14 November 2022 |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114035634/https://www.australasianscience.com.au/article/issue-september-2011/vicars-vagrants.html }}</ref>

<ref name="noaagov">{{cite web |last=Climate Prediction Center |author-link=Climate Prediction Center |date=30 June 2014 |title=ENSO: Recent Evolution, Current Status and Predictions |url=http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/lanina/enso_evolution-status-fcsts-web.pdf |access-date=30 June 2014 |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |pages=5, 19–20 |archive-date=5 March 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305231546/http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/lanina/enso_evolution-status-fcsts-web.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="allenp2009">Glossary of Meteorology (2009). [http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=monsoon&submit=Search Monsoon.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080322122025/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=monsoon&submit=Search |date=22 March 2008 }} American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.</ref>

<ref name="AOML FAQ G1">{{cite web |last=Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory – Hurricane Research Division |author-link=Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory |title=Frequently Asked Questions: When is hurricane season? |url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html |access-date=25 July 2006 |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174608/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="climatea">{{cite web |last=National Climate Centre |title=BOM – Climate of Australia |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclim.html |archive-url=https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20090317054300/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/96122/20090317-1643/www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclim.html |archive-date=17 March 2009 |website=webarchive.nla.gov.au}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

<ref name="precip376">{{Cite book |last1=Edward Linacre |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwQ7FulHCCsC&pg=PA376 |chapter=Precipitation in Australia |last2=Bart Geerts |title=Climates and Weather of Australia |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-415-12519-2 |page=376 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424122343/https://books.google.com/books?id=uwQ7FulHCCsC&pg=PA376 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="enviclim">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Natural environment – Climate |encyclopedia=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/3 |access-date=13 November 2016 |last=Walrond |first=Carl |date=March 2009 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120165411/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="niwaco">[http://www.niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate/meanrain Mean monthly rainfall] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806140624/https://www.niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate/meanrain |date=6 August 2017 }}, NIWA.</ref>

<ref name="tele141116">{{Cite news |last=Chapman |first=Paul |date=15 August 2011 |title='Once in a lifetime' snow storm hits New Zealand |work=Telegraph.co.uk |location=Wellington |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/australiaandthepacific/newzealand/8701481/Once-in-a-lifetime-snow-storm-hits-New-Zealand.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=14 November 2016 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/australiaandthepacific/newzealand/8701481/Once-in-a-lifetime-snow-storm-hits-New-Zealand.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

<ref name="loveb20120703">{{cite web |date=23 July 2012 |title=Island of Hawaii: climate zones |url=https://www.lovebigisland.com/hawaii-blog/climate-zones-big-island/ |access-date=2 January 2017 |publisher=lovebigisland.com |archive-date=3 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103094244/https://www.lovebigisland.com/hawaii-blog/climate-zones-big-island/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="pubaff042700">{{cite web |date=27 April 2000 |title=National Weather Service Dedicated Forecast Office in Typhoon Alley |url=http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2000/apr00/noaa00r235.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130107012415/http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2000/apr00/noaa00r235.html |archive-date=7 January 2013 |access-date=19 August 2012 |publisher=US NOAA NWS}}</ref>

<ref name="bomgovdai">{{cite web |date=31 July 2013 |title=Official records for Australia in January |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/extremes/daily_extremes.cgi?period=%2Fcgi-bin%2Fclimate%2Fextremes%2Fdaily_extremes.cgi&climtab=tmax_high&area=aus&year=2013&mon=1&day=11 |access-date=12 March 2013 |website=Daily Extremes |publisher=Bureau of Meteorology |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923215953/http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/extremes/daily_extremes.cgi?period=%2Fcgi-bin%2Fclimate%2Fextremes%2Fdaily_extremes.cgi&climtab=tmax_high&area=aus&year=2013&mon=1&day=11 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="herald120611">{{Cite news |date=12 July 2011 |title=NZ's temperature record hits new low – minus 25.6degC |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10737901 |access-date=12 July 2011 |archive-date=11 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711224734/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10737901 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="werigu">{{cite web |title=Rainfall Climatology for Pohnpei Islands, Federated States of Micronesia |url=http://www.weriguam.org/docs/reports/100.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035749/http://www.weriguam.org/docs/reports/100.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=21 July 2017}}</ref>

<ref name="matology105">{{cite report |last1=Longman |first1=Ryan J. |last2=Giambelluca |first2=Thomas W. |last3=Nullet |first3=Michael A. |last4=Loope |first4=Lloyd L. |title=Climatology of Haleakalā |date=July 2015 |hdl=10125/36675 |pages=105–106 }}</ref>

<ref name="region">Regions and constituents as per [[:File:United Nations geographical subregions.png|UN categorisations/map]] except [[#endnote CCAU|notes 2–3]], 6. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 3, 5–7, 9) may be in [[List of countries spanning more than one continent|one or both of]] Oceania and Asia or North America.<br /></ref>

<ref name="Australasia">The use and scope of this term vary. The UN designation for this subregion is "Australia and New Zealand".</ref>

<ref name="nzpol">New Zealand is often considered part of Polynesia rather than [[Australasia]].<br /></ref>

<ref name="Melanesia">Excludes parts of Indonesia, island territories in [[Southeast Asia]] (UN region) frequently reckoned in this region.<br /></ref>

<ref name="papauto">{{cite web |date=12 July 2017 |title=UNDANG-UNDANG REPUBLIK INDONESIA NOMOR 21 TAHUN 2001 TENTANG OTONOMI KHUSUS BAGI PROVINSI PAPUA |url=http://www.kinerja.or.id/pdf/8bbcd469-bc2c-4d89-bf63-c2d81804ae27.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712195402/http://www.kinerja.or.id/pdf/8bbcd469-bc2c-4d89-bf63-c2d81804ae27.pdf |archive-date=12 July 2017 |access-date=16 March 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="rnzi07">{{cite web |date=7 February 2007 |title=Papuan province changes name from West Irian Jaya to West Papua |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=29965 |access-date=27 December 2008 |publisher=Radio New Zealand International |archive-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217013012/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=29965 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="pngaus">[[Papua New Guinea]] is often considered part of [[Australasia]] and [[Melanesia]]. It is sometimes included in the [[Malay Archipelago]] of [[Southeast Asia]].<br /></ref>

<ref name="Palau">On 7 October 2006, government officials moved their offices in the former capital of [[Koror]] to [[Ngerulmud]] in the state of [[Melekeok]], located {{convert|20|km|0|abbr=on}} northeast of Koror on [[Babeldaob|Babelthuap Island]].<br /></ref>

<ref name="ASamoa">[[Fagatogo]] is the seat of government of [[American Samoa]].<br /></ref>

<ref name="Christianity in Oceania">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130815184022/http://wwwgordonconwell.com/netcommunity/CSGCResources/ChristianityinitsGlobalContext.pdf Christianity in its Global Context, 1970–2020 Society, Religion, and Mission], Center for the Study of Global Christianity</ref>

<ref name="US Dept of State Background Notes">{{cite web |last=US Dept of State |date=1 May 2012 |title=Background Notes Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, Malaysia, Micronesia, New Zealand, Samoa |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn |access-date=14 July 2012 |publisher=State.gov |archive-date=21 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121012610/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Anthropology-Cowan-Messengers of the Gods">{{Cite book |last=Cowan |first=James G. |url=https://archive.org/details/messengersofgods00cowa |title=Messengers of the Gods |publisher=Bell Tower |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-517-88078-4 |location=New York}}</ref>

<ref name="reflect">{{cite web |date=21 June 2012 |title=Cultural diversity in Australia |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/2071.0Main%20Features902012%E2%80%932013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425232111/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/2071.0Main%20Features902012%E2%80%932013 |archive-date=25 April 2016 |access-date=27 June 2012 |website=2071.0 – Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>

<ref name="mosque2011">{{cite web |date=28 November 2011 |title=Mosque soon to open in Uliga |url=http://www.marshallislandsjournal.com/Archive%2010-28-11-page.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813171435/http://www.marshallislandsjournal.com/Archive%2010-28-11-page.html |archive-date=13 August 2013 |access-date=2 May 2014 }}</ref>

<ref name="absgov20120621">{{cite web |date=21 June 2012 |title=Main Features – Cultural Diversity in Australia |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/2071.0main+features902012-2013 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=22 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522180357/https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/2071.0main+features902012-2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="bureau181126">{{cite web |title=Main Features – Net Overseas Migration |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3412.0Main+Features52015-16?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3412.0&issue=2015-16&num=&view= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010010130/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3412.0Main+Features52015-16?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3412.0&issue=2015-16&num=&view= |archive-date=10 October 2017 |access-date=26 November 2018 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>

<ref name="herald231114">{{Cite news |date=2014 |title=Sydney's melting pot of language |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/data-point/sydney-languages |access-date=13 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923055934/http://www.smh.com.au/data-point/sydney-languages |archive-date=23 September 2014 }}</ref>

<ref name="TheAus">{{cite web |date=15 July 2017 |title=Census 2016: Migrants make a cosmopolitan country |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/inquirer/census-2016-migrants-make-a-cosmopolitan-country/news-story/da01bec138fc8600ea7bb84d1844ea80 |access-date=16 July 2017 |website=The Australian |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032107/https://www.theaustralian.com.au/subscribe/news/1/?sourceCode=TAWEB_WRE170_a&dest=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fnews%2Finquirer%2Fcensus-2016-migrants-make-a-cosmopolitan-country%2Fnews-story%2Fda01bec138fc8600ea7bb84d1844ea80&memtype=anonymous&mode=premium&nk=c0a83136ea65eea638b9f7a8869c8fde-1595906467 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Population, dwellings, and ethnicity">{{cite web |date=2014 |title=Population, dwellings, and ethnicity |url=http://profile.id.com.au/sydney/population |access-date=27 July 2014 |publisher=.id |archive-date=24 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824072945/http://profile.id.com.au/sydney/population |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="oecd5024">{{cite web |title=Map of greek Islands |url=http://www.oecd.org/gov/regional-policy/50242959.pdf |access-date=16 March 2019 |website=Oecd.org |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924135215/http://www.oecd.org/gov/regional-policy/50242959.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="indiandir">{{cite web |title=Vicnet Directory Indian Community |url=http://www.vicnet.net.au/community/ethnic/indian/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928011559/http://www.vicnet.net.au/community/ethnic/indian/ |archive-date=28 September 2008 |access-date=2 October 2008 |publisher=Vicnet }}</ref>

<ref name="srilandir">{{cite web |title=Vicnet Directory Sri Lankan Community |url=http://www.vicnet.net.au/community/ethnic/srilankan/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016054206/http://www.vicnet.net.au/community/ethnic/srilankan/ |archive-date=16 October 2008 |access-date=2 October 2008 |publisher=Vicnet }}</ref>

<ref name="yarra062408">{{cite web |title=Vietnamese Community Directory |url=http://www.yarranet.net.au/~acacia/vietcom.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724113628/http://www.yarranet.net.au/~acacia/vietcom.htm |archive-date=24 July 2008 |access-date=2 October 2008 |publisher=yarranet.net.au }}</ref>

<ref name="parlnz1840">{{cite web |title=Immigration chronology: selected events 1840–2008 |url=http://www.parliament.nz/en-nz/parl-support/research-papers/00PLSocRP08011/immigration-chronology-selected-events-1840-2008 |access-date=17 May 2016 |archive-date=24 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224053101/http://www.parliament.nz/en-nz/parl-support/research-papers/00PLSocRP08011/immigration-chronology-selected-events-1840-2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="immireg">{{cite web |title=Immigration regulation |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/immigration-regulation/page-1 |access-date=17 May 2016 |page=1 |archive-date=4 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604170659/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/immigration-regulation/page-1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="2013census">{{cite web |date=15 April 2014 |title=2013 Census QuickStats about culture and identity – data tables |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/tables.xls |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140524102811/http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/tables.xls |archive-date=24 May 2014 |access-date=29 January 2016 |publisher=[[Statistics New Zealand]] }}</ref>

<ref name="reuter013113">{{Cite news |date=31 January 2013 |title=California's Hispanic population projected to outnumber white in 2014 |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-population-california-idUSBRE91006920130201 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=17 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017075415/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/02/01/us-usa-population-california-idUSBRE91006920130201 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Charles Williams">{{Cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Charles |last2=Edwards |first2=((B. B. (1832 ed.))) |year=1832 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=V6YNAAAAQAAJ|page=42}} |title=The missionary gazetteer: comprising a geographical and statistical account ... |publisher=W. Hyde & Co. |edition=America |series=CIHM/ICMH microfiche series, no. 35042 (also ATLA monograph preservation program; ATLA fiche 1988–3226) |location=Boston |page=424 |id={{OCLC|657191416|718098082|719990067|680518873}} |access-date=3 May 2012 |orig-date=1828}} Reprint: {{ISBN|978-0-665-35042-9}}.</ref>

<ref name="Hoffman">{{Cite journal |last=Hoffman |first=Frederic L. |date=September 1899 |title=The Portuguese Population in the United States |journal=Publications of the American Statistical Association |volume=6 |issue=47 |pages=327–336 |doi=10.2307/2276463 |jstor=2276463 |s2cid=128107627 |oclc=11137237 }}</ref>

<ref name="ricandias">''The Puerto Rican Diaspora'', by Carmen Teresa Whalen; p. 47; Publisher: Temple University Press (2005); {{ISBN|978-1-59213-413-7}}</ref>

<ref name="bat">{{Cite book |last=Mares |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XiPAMuTaQFEC |title=Borderline: Australia's Treatment of Refugees and Asylum Seekers in the Wake of the Tampa |publisher=UNSW Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-86840-789-0 |pages=132–133 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2019-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211231325/https://books.google.com/books?id=XiPAMuTaQFEC |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="doi10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.03.014">{{Cite journal |last1=Duggan |first1=A.T. |last2=Evans |first2=B. |last3=Friedlaender |first3=F.O.R. |last4=Friedlaender |first4=J.S. |last5=Koki |first5=G. |last6=Merriwether |first6=D.A. |last7=Kayser |first7=M. |last8=Stoneking |first8=M. |year=2014 |title=Maternal History of Oceania from Complete mtDNA Genomes: Contrasting Ancient Diversity with Recent Homogenization Due to the Austronesian Expansion |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=94 |issue=5 |pages=721–33 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.03.014 |pmc=4067553 |pmid=24726474}}</ref>

<ref name="survival">{{cite web |title=BBC: First contact with isolated tribes? |url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191 |access-date=24 July 2015 |publisher=Survival International |archive-date=30 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730073348/http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="unstat228">[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/dnltransfer.asp?fID=2 Field listing – GDP (official exchange rate)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607212419/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/Index |date=2020-06-07 }}, CIA World Factbook</ref>

<ref name="stand260511">{{cite web |title=Sovereigns rating list |url=http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu/?subSectorCode=39 |access-date=26 May 2011 |publisher=Standard & Poor's |archive-date=28 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928234500/http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu/?subSectorCode=39 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="guard150411">{{Cite news |last1=Rogers |first1=Simon |last2=Sedghi |first2=Ami |date=15 April 2011 |title=How Fitch, Moody's and S&P rate each country's credit rating |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2010/apr/30/credit-ratings-country-fitch-moodys-standard |access-date=31 May 2011 |archive-date=1 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801105234/http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2010/apr/30/credit-ratings-country-fitch-moodys-standard |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="if5com200514">{{cite web |title=2012 Report (PDF) |url=http://wfe.if5.com/ReportGen.aspx?year=2012&month=10&currency=usd&type=pdf&idTable=0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904073736/http://wfe.if5.com/ReportGen.aspx?year=2012&month=10&currency=usd&type=pdf&idTable=0 |archive-date=4 September 2015 |access-date=20 May 2014 |website=Wfe.if5.com }}</ref>

<ref name="rbagov200514">{{cite web |title=Statement on Monetary Policy (November 2013) |url=http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/smp/2013/nov/html/index.html |access-date=20 May 2014 |website=Rba.gov.au |archive-date=28 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328135626/http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/smp/2013/nov/html/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="mercer.com">{{cite web |date=19 February 2014 |title=2014 Quality of Living Worldwide City Rankings – Mercer Survey |url=http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#city-rankings |access-date=24 October 2016 |website=Mercer.com |archive-date=22 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622141236/http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#city-rankings |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="mercer2014">{{cite web |date=2014 |title=2014 Quality of Living Index |url=http://www.mercer.com.au/newsroom/mercer-2014-quality-of-living-index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821050133/http://www.mercer.com.au/newsroom/mercer-2014-quality-of-living-index.html |archive-date=21 August 2014 |access-date=20 July 2014 |publisher=Mercer}}</ref>

<ref name="accgawc">{{cite web |title=The World According to GaWC 2010 |url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2010t.html |access-date=22 April 2012 |website=Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and Network |publisher=[[Loughborough University]] |archive-date=24 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120524193101/http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2010t.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="urbanst">{{cite web |date=October 2010 |title=Global Power City Index 2010 |url=http://www.mori-m-foundation.or.jp/english/research/project/6/pdf/GPCI2010_English.pdf |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=Institute for Urban Strategies at The Mori Memorial Foundation |location=Tokyo, Japan |archive-date=9 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009091337/http://www.mori-m-foundation.or.jp/english/research/project/6/pdf/GPCI2010_English.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="melb181">{{cite web |last1=Padovese |first1=Virginia |last2=Gianfagna |first2=Ilaria |title=Happy birthday Melbourne: 181 and still kicking! |url=http://www.sbs.com.au/yourlanguage/italian/en/article/2016/08/30/happy-birthday-melbourne-181-and-still-kicking |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911220215/http://www.sbs.com.au/yourlanguage/italian/en/article/2016/08/30/happy-birthday-melbourne-181-and-still-kicking |archive-date=11 September 2016}}</ref>

<ref name="longfi041213">[http://www.longfinance.net/images/GFCI14_30Sept2013.pdf The Global Financial Centres Index 14 (September 2013)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904001601/http://www.longfinance.net/images/GFCI14_30Sept2013.pdf |date=4 September 2015 }}. Y/Zen Group. p 15. Retrieved 4 December 2013.</ref>

<ref name="citindex">[http://www.atkearney.com.au/documents/10192/dfedfc4c-8a62-4162-90e5-2a3f14f0da3a 2012 Global Cities Index and Emerging Cities Outlook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235649/http://www.atkearney.com.au/documents/10192/dfedfc4c-8a62-4162-90e5-2a3f14f0da3a |date=30 December 2013 }}. A.T. Kearney. p. 2. Retrieved 29 December 2013.</ref>

<ref name="businrank">{{Cite news |last=Brinded |first=Lianna |date=23 February 2016 |title=The 23 cities with the best quality of life in the world |language=en |work=Business Insider |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/mercer-2016-quality-of-living-worldwide-city-rankings-2016-2 |access-date=10 February 2017 |archive-date=7 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307013422/http://uk.businessinsider.com/mercer-2016-quality-of-living-worldwide-city-rankings-2016-2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="mercer190214">{{cite web |date=14 March 2017 |title=Vienna tops Mercer's 19th Quality of Living ranking |url=http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#city-rankings |access-date=28 June 2019 |website=Mercer.com |archive-date=22 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622141236/http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#city-rankings |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="ciafacfj">{{cite web |title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ |access-date=27 March 2018 |website=Cia.gov |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827055140/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="hawahis">{{cite web |title=Hawaii sandalwood trade |url=http://www.hawaiihistory.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=ig.page&PageID=274 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005214518/http://www.hawaiihistory.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=ig.page&PageID=274 |archive-date=5 October 2011 |access-date=5 November 2011 |publisher=Hawaiihistory.org }}</ref>

<ref name="whalinhawa">{{cite web |date=16 June 1999 |title=Whaling in Hawaii |url=http://www.hawaiihistory.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=ig.page&PageID=287 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005214600/http://www.hawaiihistory.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=ig.page&PageID=287 |archive-date=5 October 2011 |access-date=5 November 2011 |publisher=Hawaiihistory.org }}</ref>

<ref name="capitagdf">{{cite web |title=Per capita GDF by year |url=https://data.hawaii.gov/Economic-Development/Per-capita-GDP-by-Year/qnar-gix3/data |access-date=25 August 2016 |publisher=State of Hawaii |archive-date=11 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911221546/https://data.hawaii.gov/Economic-Development/Per-capita-GDP-by-Year/qnar-gix3/data |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="hawabee">{{cite web |title=A History of Honey Bees in the Hawaiian Islands |url=http://www.hawaiibeekeepers.org/history.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100908102027/http://www.hawaiibeekeepers.org/history.php |archive-date=8 September 2010 |access-date=15 December 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name="MercerSurvey2015">{{cite web |date=4 March 2015 |title=2015 quality of living survey |url=http://www.uk.mercer.com/newsroom/2015-quality-of-living-survey.html |website=Mercer |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=9 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209025212/http://www.uk.mercer.com/newsroom/2015-quality-of-living-survey.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="KITVSafestCity">{{cite web |last=Kyte |first=Theresa |date=18 November 2015 |title=Honolulu ranked 2nd safest city in America |url=http://www.kitv.com/story/30544485/honolulu-ranked-2nd-safest-city-in-america |access-date=15 December 2015 |website=[[KITV]] |archive-date=19 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119145940/http://www.kitv.com/story/30544485/honolulu-ranked-2nd-safest-city-in-america }}</ref>

<ref name="uatustats">{{cite web |year=2001 |title=Tourism and Migration Statistics – Visitor Arrivals by Usual Country of Residence (1995–2001) |url=http://www.vanuatustatistics.gov.vu/About%20VNSO/Data/Social/Tour%26Mig.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429004619/http://www.vanuatustatistics.gov.vu/About%20VNSO/Data/Social/Tour%26Mig.htm |archive-date=29 April 2009 |access-date=26 July 2009 |publisher=Vanuatu Statistics Office }}</ref>

<ref name="ABS1011">{{cite web |last=Australian Bureau of Statistics |date=14 December 2017 |title=Tourism Satellite Account 2014–15:Key Figures |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/5249.0?OpenDocument |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=15 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615135014/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/5249.0?OpenDocument |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="touraus181029">{{cite web |date=29 October 2018 |title=Visitor Arrivals Data |url=http://www.tourism.australia.com/statistics/arrivals.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905135526/http://www.tourism.australia.com/statistics/arrivals.aspx |archive-date=5 September 2015 |publisher=Tourism Australia}}</ref>

<ref name="ausnatacc">{{cite web |date=14 December 2017 |title=5249.0 – Australian National Accounts: Tourism Satellite Account, 2010–11 |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/5249.0?OpenDocument |publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=15 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615135014/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/5249.0?OpenDocument |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="minisbusi">{{cite web |title=Key Tourism Statistics |url=http://www.med.govt.nz/sectors-industries/tourism/pdf-docs-library/key-tourism-statistics/key-tourism-statistics.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813023935/http://www.med.govt.nz/sectors-industries/tourism/pdf-docs-library/key-tourism-statistics/key-tourism-statistics.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2014 |website=Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment}}</ref>

<ref name="SC">[http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/BU0702/S00157.htm "Real Journeys rapt with Kiwi Must-Do's"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424140251/https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/BU0702/S00157.htm |date=2021-04-24 }}, ''Scoop'', 13 February 2007.</ref>

<ref name="DBEDT 2003">{{Cite journal |last=Hawaii State DBEDT |year=2003 |title=Overview of All Visitors |url=http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/visitor-stats/visitor-research/2003-annual-visitor.pdf |journal=Summary of 2004 Visitors to Hawaii |page=2 |access-date=23 February 2012 |archive-date=9 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209224525/http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/visitor-stats/visitor-research/2003-annual-visitor.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="hawasafe">{{Cite news |last=O'Neill |first=Sandler |date=9 September 2011 |title=Bank of Hawaii Offers a Safe Port |work=Barrons Online |url=http://online.barrons.com/article/SB50001424052702304133804576560534020892142.html?mod=BOL_twm_da |access-date=23 February 2012 |archive-date=17 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117210144/http://online.barrons.com/article/SB50001424052702304133804576560534020892142.html?mod=BOL_twm_da |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="ausparliwork">{{cite web |date=11 August 2010 |title=How Australia's Parliament works |url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/features/2010/08/how-australias-parliament-works |access-date=16 June 2014 |publisher=Australian Geographic |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032100/https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/history-culture/2010/08/how-australias-parliament-works/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Davison pp287–8">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=287–8}}</ref>

<ref name="govgenaus">{{cite web |title=Governor-General's Role |url=http://www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804130529/http://www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2 |archive-date=4 August 2008 |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=Governor-General of Australia}}</ref>

<ref name="glosselec">{{cite web |title=Glossary of Election Terms |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/glossary.htm#coalition |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |archive-date=6 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306034515/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/glossary.htm#coalition |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="statepar">{{cite web |title=State of the Parties |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/results/sop.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418163914/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/results/sop.htm |archive-date=18 April 2010 |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]}}</ref>

<ref name="govpol2013">{{Cite book |last1=Fenna |first1=Alan |title=Government Politics in Australia |last2=Robbins |first2=Jane |last3=Summers |first3=John |publisher=Pearson Higher Education AU |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4860-0138-5 |location=London |page=139}}</ref>

<ref name="defenceann">[http://www.defence.gov.au/budget/05-06/dar/index.htm ''Defence Annual Report 2005-06''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061118052958/http://www.defence.gov.au/budget/05-06/dar/index.htm |date=18 November 2006 }}. pp. 219–220.</ref>

<ref name="GG constitution">{{cite web |title=New Zealand's Constitution |url=http://www.gg.govt.nz/role/constofnz.htm |access-date=13 January 2010 |publisher=The Governor-General of New Zealand |archive-date=6 April 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030406104325/http://www.gg.govt.nz/role/constofnz.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Economist factsheet">{{Cite news |date=15 February 2005 |title=Factsheet – New Zealand – Political Forces |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=http://economist.com/countries/NewZealand/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Political%20Forces |access-date=4 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060514204533/http://economist.com/countries/NewZealand/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Political%20Forces |archive-date=14 May 2006}}</ref>

<ref name="royalt1974">{{cite web |date=February 1974 |title=New Zealand Legislation: Royal Titles Act 1974 |url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1974/0001/latest/DLM411814.html |access-date=8 January 2011 |publisher=New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office |archive-date=20 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020151758/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1974/0001/latest/DLM411814.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="rolegg">{{cite web |title=The Role of the Governor-General |date=27 February 2017 |url=https://gg.govt.nz/role |access-date=6 July 2017 |publisher=The Governor-General of New Zealand |archive-date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629234409/https://gg.govt.nz/role |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="parliament facts">{{cite web |title=Parliament Brief: What is Parliament? |url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/fact-sheets/pbrief7/ |access-date=30 November 2016 |publisher=New Zealand Parliament |archive-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029145006/https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/fact-sheets/pbrief7/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="eleccyc">{{cite web |date=2008 |title=The electoral cycle |url=https://cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/6.2 |access-date=30 April 2017 |website=Cabinet Manual |publisher=Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet |archive-date=27 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127135132/https://www.cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/6.2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="fragileind16">{{cite web |title=The Fragile States Index 2016 |url=http://fsi.fundforpeace.org/rankings-2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204213240/http://fsi.fundforpeace.org/rankings-2016 |archive-date=4 February 2017 |access-date=30 November 2016 |publisher=The Fund for Peace }}</ref>

<ref name="demoindex16">{{cite web |title=Democracy Index 2015 |url=http://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignid=DemocracyIndex2015 |access-date=30 November 2016 |publisher=The Economist Intelligence Unit |archive-date=2 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302130621/http://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignid=DemocracyIndex2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="transpint201116">{{cite web |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2015 |date=27 January 2016 |url=http://www.transparency.org/cpi2015 |access-date=30 November 2016 |publisher=Transparency International |archive-date=13 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113052359/http://www.transparency.org/cpi2015 }}</ref>

<ref name="backnotes">{{cite web |title=Background Note: Samoa |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1842.htm |access-date=26 November 2007 |publisher=U.S. State Department |archive-date=22 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194546/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1842.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="operawin">{{Cite news |last=Braithwaite |first=David |date=28 June 2007 |title=Opera House wins top status |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/news/travel/opera-house-wins-top-status/2007/06/28/1182624058781.html |access-date=28 June 2007 |archive-date=1 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701043939/http://www.smh.com.au/news/travel/opera-house-wins-top-status/2007/06/28/1182624058781.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="jupp769">{{Harvnb|Jupp||pages=796–802}}.</ref>

<ref name="twhite118">{{Harvnb|Teo|White|2003|pages=118–120}}.</ref>

<ref name="Davison pp98–9">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=98–99}}</ref>

<ref name="twhite125">{{Harvnb|Teo|White|2003|pages=125–127}}.</ref>

<ref name="tw">{{Harvnb|Teo|White|2003|pages=121–123}}.</ref>

<ref name="jupp74">{{Harvnb|Jupp||pages=74–77, 808–812}}.</ref>

<ref name="kellyg07">{{cite web |last=Chichester, Jo |year=2007 |title=Return of the Kelly Gang |url=http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=37899&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204220758/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D37899%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |archive-date=4 February 2010 |access-date=1 February 2009 |website=[[UNESCO Courier]] |publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref>

<ref name="wavefilm">{{cite web |title=The first wave of Australian feature film production |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:a0bny9r0rpkJ:www.afc.gov.au/downloads/policies/early%2520history_final1.pdf+australian+film+production+%2B+hollywood+%2B+1920s&hl=en&gl=au&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgSRefiOTOyLQEmeKt6CgCdo2vNSCscav9DLNNt0yc9iUfLnuc0S02qForlyo3T0wLCj_8Hnw2kRlN8jZxyZer_9QXlngel05Rr8NDnAsZWP-8UqmzB0kWW9T4yVDlWQYmhsm7-&sig=AHIEtbRziGrWdip9B8rYLyNLrH02b8IYuQ |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511185347/http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache%3Aa0bny9r0rpkJ%3Awww.afc.gov.au%2Fdownloads%2Fpolicies%2Fearly%2520history_final1.pdf+australian+film+production+%2B+hollywood+%2B+1920s&hl=en&gl=au&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgSRefiOTOyLQEmeKt6CgCdo2vNSCscav9DLNNt0yc9iUfLnuc0S02qForlyo3T0wLCj_8Hnw2kRlN8jZxyZer_9QXlngel05Rr8NDnAsZWP-8UqmzB0kWW9T4yVDlWQYmhsm7-&sig=AHIEtbRziGrWdip9B8rYLyNLrH02b8IYuQ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="ausmuseum">{{cite web|url=https://australian.museum/about/history/|title=History|website=Australian.museum|access-date=19 July 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="VHR">National Gallery of Victoria – Victorian Heritage Register</ref>

<ref name="auseve2013">{{cite web |last=Kaur |first=Jaskiran |date=2013 |title=Where to party in Australia on New Year's Eve |url=http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/531947/20131227/party-new-year-s-eve-australia-sydney.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708231528/http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/531947/20131227/party-new-year-s-eve-australia-sydney.htm |archive-date=8 July 2014 |access-date=27 July 2014 |website=International Business Times}}</ref>

<ref name="abcnet160511">{{Cite news |date=11 May 2016 |title=Avo smash and flat whites bringing the Aussie vibe to New York |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-05-11/australian-cafes-boom-new-york/7404352 |access-date=3 January 2017 |archive-date=3 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103171749/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-05-11/australian-cafes-boom-new-york/7404352 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="bushtpb">{{cite web |title=Bush Tucker Plants, or Bush Food |url=http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094258/http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker/ |archive-date=11 May 2011 |access-date=26 April 2011 |publisher=Teachers.ash.org.au}}</ref>

<ref name="food">{{cite web |date=23 September 2008 |title=Australian food and drink |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326134155/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/ |archive-date=26 March 2010 |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts}}</ref>

<ref name="f2">{{cite web |title=Modern Australian recipes and Modern Australian cuisine |url=http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100503111747/http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383 |archive-date=3 May 2010 |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=[[Special Broadcasting Service]]}}</ref>

<ref name="kangcww1999">{{Cite book |last=Jonsen |first=Helen |title=Kangaroo's Comments and Wallaby's Words: The Aussie Word Book |publisher=[[Hippocrene Books]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7818-0737-1 |page=23}}</ref>

<ref name="Unterberger">Unterberger, pp. 465–473</ref>

<ref name="Chai">Chai, Makana Risser. "Huna, Max Freedom Long, and the Idealization of William Brigham", ''The Hawaiian Journal of History'', Vol. 45 (2011) pp. 101–121</ref>

<ref name="npr101206">{{cite web |last=Kamakawiwo |first=Israel |date=6 December 2010 |title=Israel Kamakawiwo'ole: The Voice Of Hawaii |url=https://www.npr.org/2010/12/06/131812500/israel-kamakawiwo-ole-the-voice-of-hawaii |access-date=16 April 2017 |publisher=NPR |archive-date=16 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416062754/http://www.npr.org/2010/12/06/131812500/israel-kamakawiwo-ole-the-voice-of-hawaii |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="hobbitset">{{Cite news |last=Downes |first=Siobhan |date=1 January 2017 |title=World famous in New Zealand: Hobbiton Movie Set |publisher=Stuff Travel |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/destinations/nz/87903487/world-famous-in-new-zealand-hobbiton-movie-set |access-date=6 July 2017 |archive-date=22 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922194433/http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/destinations/nz/87903487/world-famous-in-new-zealand-hobbiton-movie-set |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="natdays">{{Cite news |last=Tapaleao |first=Vaimoana |date=8 March 2008 |title=Thousands attend Pasifika |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/multiculturalism/news/article.cfm?c_id=58&objectid=10496916 |access-date=3 February 2017 |archive-date=3 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403040349/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/multiculturalism/news/article.cfm?c_id=58&objectid=10496916 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="govnathol">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Government and nation – National holidays |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/government-and-nation/9 |access-date=16 February 2010 |date=3 March 2009 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226002909/https://teara.govt.nz/en/nation-and-government/page-9 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="music">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Creative life – Music |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/creative-life/7 |access-date=21 January 2011 |last=Swarbrick |first=Nancy |date=June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514223830/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/creative-life/7 |archive-date=14 May 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name="create062010">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Creative life – Performing arts |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/creative-life/8 |access-date=21 January 2011 |last=Swarbrick |first=Nancy |date=June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515153908/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/creative-life/8 |archive-date=15 May 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name="nyt101028">{{Cite news |last1=Cieply |first1=Michael |last2=Rose |first2=Jeremy |date=October 2010 |title=New Zealand Bends and "Hobbit" Stays |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/business/media/28hobbit.html |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2017-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701025024/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/business/media/28hobbit.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="filmnz">{{cite web |title=Production Guide: Locations |url=http://www.filmnz.com/production-guide/locations.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107112931/http://www.filmnz.com/production-guide/locations.html |archive-date=7 November 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |publisher=Film New Zealand }}</ref>

<ref name="cuisine">{{cite web |date=January 2016 |title=New Zealand Cuisine |url=http://www.tourism.net.nz/new-zealand/nz/cuisine-and-dining |access-date=4 January 2016 |publisher=New Zealand Tourism Guide |archive-date=15 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115172320/http://www.tourism.net.nz/new-zealand/nz/cuisine-and-dining |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="kaipakeha">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Kai Pākehā – introduced foods |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/kai-pakeha-introduced-foods |access-date=27 June 2017 |date=November 2008 |last1=Petrie |first1=Hazel |archive-date=27 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527070948/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/kai-pakeha-introduced-foods |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="encyclnzshell">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Mātaitai – shellfish gathering |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/mataitai-shellfish-gathering/page-6 |access-date=27 June 2017 |date=June 2006 |last1=Whaanga |first1=Mere |archive-date=11 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611193911/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/mataitai-shellfish-gathering/page-6 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="ecyclnzshell222">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Story: Shellfish |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/shellfish |access-date=29 August 2016 |archive-date=8 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908224002/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/shellfish |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="encyclnzcook">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Cooking – Cooking methods |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/cooking/page-2 |access-date=11 December 2016 |date=September 2013 |language=en |last1=Burton |first1=David |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220093052/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/cooking/page-2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="dancesiva">{{Cite news |title=Dance: Siva |work=Samoa.co.uk |url=http://www.samoa.co.uk/dance.html |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2018-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925092515/http://www.samoa.co.uk/dance.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="wwpride">{{Cite news |title=Worn With Pride – Tatau (Tatoo) |work=Oceanside Museum of Art |url=http://www.oma-online.org/worn_with_pride_04.html |access-date=26 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330024149/http://www.oma-online.org/worn_with_pride_04.html |archive-date=30 March 2009 }}</ref>

<ref name="artino">{{Cite book |last=Brunt |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/artinoceanianewh0000unse/page/410 |title=Art in Oceania: A New History |date=2012 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-19028-1 |location=New Haven and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/artinoceanianewh0000unse/page/410 410–497]}}</ref>

<ref name="oce">[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]. [http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0039821.html Oceanic art] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515024646/http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0039821.html |date=15 May 2006 }}. Retrieved on 23 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="mettime">Met Timeline of Art History, [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/oc/ht02oc.htm Oceania, 80000–2000 BCE] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614002850/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/oc/ht02oc.htm |date=2021-06-14 }}. Retrieved on 22 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="rockart531">Taçon, Paul S.C. (2001). "Australia". In Whitely, David S. ''Handbook of Rock Art Research''. [[Rowman & Littlefield]]. pp. 531–575. {{ISBN|978-0-7425-0256-7}}</ref>

<ref name="nyt051106">{{Cite news |last=Henly |first=Susan Gough |date=6 November 2005 |title=Powerful growth of Aboriginal art |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/arts/06iht-aborigine.html |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=25 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625060911/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/arts/06iht-aborigine.html?_r=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="mettime4">Met Timeline of Art History [http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/hd/ubir/hd_ubir.htm Ubirr ({{circa}} 40,000 BCE–present)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019185309/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ubir/hd_ubir.htm |date=2021-10-19 }}. Retrieved on 22 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="mettime444">Met Timeline of Art History, [http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/hd/lapi/hd_lapi.htm Lapita Pottery ({{circa}} 1500–5000 BCE)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328181919/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/lapi/hd_lapi.htm |date=2022-03-28 }}. Retrieved on 22 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="mettime 453">Met Timeline of Art History, [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/07/oc/ht07oc.htm Oceania, 1000–1400 CE] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614003752/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/07/oc/ht07oc.htm |date=2021-06-14 }}. Retrieved on 22 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="mettime3456">Met Timeline of Art History, [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/08/oc/ht08oc.htm Oceania, 1400–1600 CE] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613230433/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/08/oc/ht08oc.htm |date=2021-06-13 }}. Retrieved on 22 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="ocerugb">{{cite web |title=Oceania Rugby Vacations |url=http://realtravel.com/tag-z3461145-314.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028080851/http://realtravel.com/tag-z3461145-314.html |archive-date=28 October 2010 |access-date=17 April 2009 |publisher=Real Travel}}</ref>

<ref name="aust54">Australia – p. 54, Tracey Boraas – 2002</ref>

<ref name="planetsp85">Planet Sport – p. 85, Kath Woodward – 2012</ref>

<ref name="aust101">Australia – p. 101, Sundran Rajendra – 2002</ref>

<ref name="newzea76">New Zealand – p. 76, Rebecca Hirsch – 2013</ref>

<ref name="rl">{{Cite news |date=15 October 2008 |title=PNG vow to upset World Cup odds |department=Rugby League |publisher=[[BBC News]] |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_league/7671217.stm |access-date=3 July 2009 |quote=But it would still be one of the biggest shocks in [[Rugby League World Cup Records|World Cup history]] if Papua New Guinea – the only country to have Rugby League as its national Sport – were to qualify for the last 4. |archive-date=15 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515044325/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_league/7671217.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="naurafl">{{cite web |date=16 April 2008 |title=Nauru AFL team to play in International Cup |url=http://solomonstarnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1023&change=100&changeown=101&Itemid=42 |access-date=17 April 2009 |website=Solomonstarnews.com |archive-date=16 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116034134/http://solomonstarnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1023&change=100&changeown=101&Itemid=42 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="ausrulebrit">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Australian rules football (sport) |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44079/Australian-rules-football |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=17 April 2009 |archive-date=26 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726103553/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44079/Australian-rules-football |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="miningpapua">{{cite web |title=Papua New Guinea |url=http://www.miningfm.com.au/mining-towns/overseas/papua-new-guinea.html |website=Miningfm.com.au |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2013-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130802055323/http://www.miningfm.com.au/mining-towns/overseas/papua-new-guinea.html }}</ref>

<ref name="msnclosure">{{cite web |date=23 October 2008 |title=MSN Groups Closure Notice |url=http://groups.msn.com/PNGKumuls/history.msnw?pgmarket=en-us |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417041646/http://groups.msn.com/PNGKumuls/history.msnw?pgmarket=en-us |archive-date=17 April 2008 |access-date=17 April 2009 |publisher=Groups.msn.com }}</ref>

<ref name="footinaus">{{cite web |date=28 March 2008 |title=Football in Australia – Australia's Culture Portal |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/football/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515034759/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/football/ |archive-date=15 May 2009 |access-date=17 April 2009 |publisher=Cultureandrecreation.gov.au}}</ref>

<ref name="rugby66">{{cite web |date=13 June 1908 |title=Rugby League Football – 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/R/RugbyLeagueFootball/RugbyLeagueFootball/en |access-date=17 April 2009 |publisher=Teara.govt.nz |archive-date=23 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523192431/http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/R/RugbyLeagueFootball/RugbyLeagueFootball/en |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="southemiclass">{{Cite news |last=Wilson |first=Andy |date=5 November 2009 |title=southern hemisphere sides are a class apart |work=guardian.co.uk |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2009/nov/05/england-rugby-league-australia-new-zealand |access-date=17 June 2010 |archive-date=27 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227085649/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2009/nov/05/england-rugby-league-australia-new-zealand |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="fifa2010">{{cite web |date=3 April 2009 |title=''FIFA world cup 2010 – qualifying rounds and places available by confederation'' |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/tournament/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228220920/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/tournament/index.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |access-date=17 April 2009 |publisher=Fifa.com}}</ref>

<ref name="note000">According to the Act of Papua Autonomy (Undang-Undang Otonomi Khusus bagi Provinsi Papua) section 2 verse 2, the province itself has its own flag and arms, similar to other provinces. However, the flag and arms are not representations of sovereignty over the Republic of Indonesia.</ref>

<ref name="note111">West Papua was split from Papua province in 2003, but still retains autonomous status</ref>

<ref name="abc20140703">{{Cite news |date=3 July 2014 |title=Australia and New Zealand to compete in Pacific Games |publisher=ABC News |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-07-03/australia-and-new-zealand-to-compete-in-pacific-games/5568956 |access-date=9 July 2015 |archive-date=23 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423003643/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-07-03/australia-and-new-zealand-to-compete-in-pacific-games/5568956 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="quickstats">{{cite web |title=2018 Census totals by topic national highlights |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx |access-date=29 May 2020 |publisher=[[Statistics New Zealand]] |at=Table 26 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413185957/https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref>

}}

===Sources===
* {{Cite book |last1=Davison |first1=Graeme |title=The Oxford Companion to Australian History |last2=Hirst |first2=John |last3=Macintyre |first3=Stuart |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-553597-9 |location=Melbourne |author-link2=John Hirst (historian) |author-link3=Stuart Macintyre}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jupp |first=James |title=The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-80789-0 |ref=CITEREFJupp}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C2as0sWxFBAC |title=The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography |last2=Wigen |first2=Kären E. |publisher=University of California Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-520-20743-1 |location=Berkeley |ref={{sfnref|Lewis & Wigen, The Myth of Continents|1997}} |author-link2=Kären Wigen}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Teo| first1=Hsu-Ming |title=Cultural history in Australia |last2=White |first2=Richard |publisher=University of New South Wales Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-86840-589-6 }}

==Further reading==
* Lawson, Stephanie. ''Regional Politics in Oceania: From Colonialism and Cold War to the Pacific Century'' (Cambridge UP, 2024), encyclopedic coverage; [https://issforum.org/essays/PDF/E594.pdf online review of this book]

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=Oceania|d=y}}
* [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destination/oceania "Australia and Oceania"] from [https://web.archive.org/web/20081003132349/http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/ National Geographic]
* [https://library.ucsd.edu/dc/collection/bb1025280p Oceania] photographs, recordings, and digital objects drawn primarily from the Tuzin Archive for Melanesian Anthropology at the UC San Diego Library.

{{Oceania topics}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Articles related to Oceania
|list =
{{Countries and territories of Oceania}}
{{Regions of Oceania}}
{{List of Oceanian capitals by region}}
{{Culture of Oceania}}
{{Regions of the world}}
}} {{Indigenous peoples by continent}}
{{Continent topic|prefix=Politics of|title=[[Politics]] pages by [[continent]]|state=expanded}}
{{Continents}}
{{Authority control}}{{Coord|13|21|0|S|176|8|22|W|dim:30000000_region:XP|display=title}}

[[Category:Oceania| ]]
[[Category:Asia-Pacific]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Pacific Ocean]]
[[Category:Southern Ocean]]