View source for Observations and explorations of Venus

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[[File:11214 2023 956 Fig3 HTML.webp|thumb|upright=2|Venus imaged in different wavelengths by spacecraft.]]

The planet [[Venus]] was first observed in antiquity, and continued with telescopic observations, and then by visiting spacecraft. Spacecraft have performed multiple flybys, orbits, and landings on the planet, including balloon probes that floated in [[atmosphere of Venus|its atmosphere]]. Study of the planet is aided by its relatively close proximity to the Earth, but the surface of Venus is obscured by an atmosphere opaque to visible light.

== Ground-based observations ==
[[File:Venus-pacific-levelled.jpg|thumb|alt=A photograph of the night sky taken from the seashore. Many glimmers of sunlight is on the horizon. There are many stars visible. Venus is at the center, much brighter than any of the stars, and its light can be seen reflected in the ocean.|Venus is always brighter than the brightest stars outside the [[Solar System]], as can be seen here over the Pacific Ocean]]

[[Transit of Venus|Transits of Venus]] directly between the Earth and the Sun's visible disc are rare astronomical events. The first such [[astronomical transit|transit]] to be predicted and observed was the [[1639 transit of Venus]], seen and recorded by English astronomers [[Jeremiah Horrocks]] and [[William Crabtree]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/transits-of-venus-in-history-1631-1716/|title=Transits of Venus in History: 1631-1716|first=Robert|last=Naeye|date=June 1, 2012}}</ref> The observation by [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] of the transit of 1761 provided the first evidence that Venus had an atmosphere, and the 19th-century observations of [[parallax]] during Venus transits allowed the distance between the Earth and Sun to be accurately calculated for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sunearthday.nasa.gov/2012/articles/ttt_73.php|title=Transit of Venus 2012 Articles|website=sunearthday.nasa.gov}}</ref> Transits can only occur either in early June or early December, these being the points at which Venus crosses the ecliptic (the orbital plane of the Earth), and occur in pairs at eight-year intervals, with each such pair more than a century apart. The most recent pair of transits of Venus occurred in 2004 and 2012, while the prior pair occurred in 1874 and 1882.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Simion |first1=Florin |title=Transits of Venus |url=https://ras.ac.uk/education-and-careers/for-everyone/125 |website=The Royal Astronomical Society |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

In the 19th century, many observers stated that Venus had a period of rotation of roughly 24 hours. Italian astronomer [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]] was the first to predict a significantly slower rotation, proposing that Venus was [[tidal locking|tidally locked]] with the Sun (as he had also proposed for Mercury).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/rotation-venus|title=The Rotation of Venus &#124; Center for Astrophysics &#124; Harvard & Smithsonian|website=www.cfa.harvard.edu}}</ref> While not actually true for either body, this was still a reasonably accurate estimate. The near-resonance between its rotation and its closest approach to Earth helped to create this impression, as Venus always seemed to be facing the same direction when it was in the best location for observations to be made. The rotation rate of Venus was first measured during the 1961 conjunction, observed by radar from a 26 m antenna at [[Goldstone, California]], the [[Jodrell Bank]] Radio Observatory in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], and the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] deep space facility in [[Yevpatoria]], [[Crimea]]. Accuracy was refined at each subsequent conjunction, primarily from measurements made from Goldstone and Eupatoria. The fact that rotation was retrograde was not confirmed until 1964.

Before radio observations in the 1960s, many believed that Venus contained a lush, Earth-like environment. This was due to the planet's size and orbital radius, which suggested a fairly Earth-like situation as well as to the thick layer of clouds which prevented the surface from being seen. Among the speculations on Venus were that it had a jungle-like environment or that it had oceans of either [[petroleum]] or carbonated water.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O’Rourke |first1=Joseph G. |last2=Wilson |first2=Colin F. |last3=Borrelli |first3=Madison E. |last4=Byrne |first4=Paul K. |last5=Dumoulin |first5=Caroline |last6=Ghail |first6=Richard |last7=Gülcher |first7=Anna J. P. |last8=Jacobson |first8=Seth A. |last9=Korablev |first9=Oleg |last10=Spohn |first10=Tilman |last11=Way |first11=M. J. |last12=Weller |first12=Matt |last13=Westall |first13=Frances |title=Venus, the Planet: Introduction to the Evolution of Earth's Sister Planet |journal=Space Science Reviews |date=6 February 2023 |volume=219 |issue=1 |pages=10 |doi=10.1007/s11214-023-00956-0 |bibcode=2023SSRv..219...10O |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-023-00956-0 |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=en |issn=1572-9672|hdl=20.500.11850/598198 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> However, microwave observations by C. Mayer et al.<ref>{{cite journal| journal =Astrophysical Journal| volume= 127| date=1958| pages =1–9 | doi=10.1086/146433| title=Observations of Venus at 3.15-CM Wave Length| first1=C. H. | last1= Mayer| first2= T. P. | last2=McCollough | first3=R. M. | last3=Sloanaker | bibcode=1958ApJ...127....1M| doi-access=free}}</ref> indicated a high-temperature source (600 K). Strangely, millimetre-band observations made by A. D. Kuzmin indicated much lower temperatures.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kuz'min |first1=A. D. |last2=Marov |first2=M. Y. |title=Fizika Planety Venera |trans-title=Physics of the Planet Venus |publisher="Nauka" Press |access-date=19 September 2020 |url=https://archive.org/details/nasa_techdoc_19750018887 |page=46  |date=1 June 1975 |quote=The lack of evidence that the Venusian atmosphere is transparent at 3 cm wavelength range, the difficulty of explaining such a high surface temperature, and a much lower brightness temperature measured by Kuz'min and Salmonovich [80, 81] and Gibson [310] at a shorter wavelength of 8 mm all provided a basis for a different interpretation of the radio astronomy measurement results offered by Jones [366].}}</ref> Two competing theories explained the unusual radio spectrum, one suggesting the high temperatures originated in the ionosphere, and another suggesting a hot planetary surface.

In September 2020, a team at [[Cardiff University]] announced that observations of Venus using the [[James Clerk Maxwell Telescope]] and [[Atacama Large Millimeter Array]] in 2017 and 2019 indicated that the Venusian atmosphere contained phosphine (PH<sub>3</sub>) in concentrations 10,000 times higher than those that could be ascribed to any known non-biological source on Venus. The phosphine was detected at heights of at least {{convert|30|mi|km|abbr=off}} above the surface of Venus, and was detected primarily at mid-latitudes with none detected at the poles of Venus. This could have indicated the potential presence of biological organisms on Venus,<ref name="Greaves et al">{{cite journal|last1=Greaves |first1=Jane S. |last2=Richards |first2=A.M.S. |last3=Bains |first3=W |title=Phosphine gas in the cloud decks of Venus |journal=Nature Astronomy |date=14 September 2020 |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=655–664 |doi=10.1038/s41550-020-1174-4 |arxiv=2009.06593 |bibcode=2021NatAs...5..655G |s2cid=221655755 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-020-1174-4 |access-date=16 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sample |first1=Ian |title=Scientists find gas linked to life in atmosphere of Venus |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/sep/14/scientists-find-gas-linked-to-life-in-atmosphere-of-venus |access-date=16 September 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=14 September 2020}}</ref> however, this measurement was later shown to be in error.<ref>{{cite news |title=Is the Phosphine Biosignature on Venus a Calibration Error? |url=https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/phosphine-biosignature-venus-calibration-error/ |work=Sky & Telescope |date=17 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Snellen |first1=I. a. G. |last2=Guzman-Ramirez |first2=L. |last3=Hogerheijde |first3=M. R. |last4=Hygate |first4=A. P. S. |last5=Tak |first5=F. F. S. van der |title=Re-analysis of the 267 GHz ALMA observations of Venus - No statistically significant detection of phosphine |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |date=1 December 2020 |volume=644 |pages=L2 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/202039717 |arxiv=2010.09761 |bibcode=2020A&A...644L...2S |s2cid=224803085 |url=https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2020/12/aa39717-20/aa39717-20.html |language=en |issn=0004-6361|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Terrestrial radar mapping ==
After the Moon, Venus was the second object in the [[Solar System]] to be explored by radar from the Earth. The first studies were carried out in 1961 at [[NASA]]'s [[Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex|Goldstone Observatory]], part of the [[Deep Space Network]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Venus-planet/Observations-from-Earth|title=Venus - Atmosphere, Orbit, Surface &#124; Britannica|date=January 30, 2025|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> At successive [[Inferior conjunction#Superior and inferior|inferior conjunctions]], Venus was observed both by Goldstone and the [[Arecibo Observatory|National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center]] in [[Arecibo]]. The studies carried out were similar to the earlier measurement of transits of the [[meridian (astronomy)|meridian]], which had revealed in 1963 that the rotation of Venus was [[retrograde motion|retrograde]] (it rotates in the opposite direction to that in which it orbits the Sun).<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.139.3558.910|title=Rotation of Venus: Period Estimated from Radar Measurements|first1=R. M.|last1=Goldstein|first2=R. L.|last2=Carpenter|date=March 8, 1963|journal=Science|volume=139|issue=3558|pages=910–911|via=science.org (Atypon)|doi=10.1126/science.139.3558.910|pmid=17743054 |bibcode=1963Sci...139..910G |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The radar observations also allowed astronomers to determine that the [[rotation period]] of Venus was 243.1 days,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1970AJ.....75...61C?utm_source=chatgpt.com|title=A Radar Determination of the Rotation of Venus|journal=The Astronomical Journal|bibcode=1970AJ.....75...61C |last1=Carpenter |first1=R. L. |date=1970 |volume=75 |page=61 |doi=10.1086/110941 }}</ref> and that its [[axis of rotation]] was almost perpendicular to its [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|orbital plane]]. It was also established that the [[radius]] of the planet was {{convert|6,052|km|mi}}, some {{convert|70|km|mi}} less than the best previous figure obtained with terrestrial telescopes.

Interest in the [[astrogeology|geological]] characteristics of Venus was stimulated by the refinement of imaging techniques between 1970 and 1985. Early radar observations suggested merely that the surface of Venus was more compacted than the dusty surface of the Moon. The first radar images taken from the Earth showed very bright (radar-reflective) highlands christened [[Alpha Regio]], [[Beta Regio]], and [[Maxwell Montes]]; improvements in radar techniques later achieved an image resolution of 1–2 kilometres.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

==Observation by spacecraft==
{{See also|List of missions to Venus}}
There have been numerous uncrewed missions to Venus. Ten [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Venera]] probes achieved a soft landing on the surface, with up to 110 minutes of communication from the surface, all without return.<ref>{{cite web |title=Soviet Venus Missions |url=http://astro.if.ufrgs.br/solar/sovvenus.htm |website=astro.if.ufrgs.br |access-date=6 February 2025}}</ref> [[Launch window]]s occur every 19 months.<ref>{{cite web |title=Missions to Venus |url=http://mentallandscape.com/V_VenusMissions.htm |website=mentallandscape.com |access-date=6 February 2025}}</ref>

===Early flybys===

On February 12, 1961, the [[Soviet space program|Soviet spacecraft]] ''[[Venera 1]]'' was the first flyby [[Robotic spacecraft|probe]] launched to another planet. An overheated orientation sensor caused it to malfunction, losing contact with Earth before its closest approach to Venus of 100,000&nbsp;km.<ref name="astronomy">{{cite web |last1=Adler |first1=Doug |title=Behind the Iron Curtain: The Soviet Venera program |url=https://www.astronomy.com/science/the-venera-program-interplanetary-probes-from-behind-the-iron-curtain/ |website=Astronomy Magazine |access-date=14 May 2025 |date=9 May 2025}}</ref> However, the probe was first to combine all the necessary features of an interplanetary spacecraft: solar panels, parabolic telemetry antenna, 3-axis stabilization, course-correction engine, and the first launch from [[parking orbit]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

[[File:Mariner 10 UV Venus.gif|thumb|Global view of Venus in ultraviolet light done by [[Mariner 10]].]]

The first successful flyby Venus probe was the [[United States|American]] ''[[Mariner 2]]'' spacecraft, which flew past Venus in 1962, coming within 35,000&nbsp;km. A modified ''[[Ranger program|Ranger]]'' [[Moon]] probe, it established that Venus has practically no intrinsic [[magnetic field]] and measured the temperature of the planet's atmosphere to be approximately {{convert|500|C|C K F|lk=on|order=out}}.<ref name="nasa.gov">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_964.html|title=Mariner 2|date=6 March 2015}}</ref>

The [[Soviet Union]] launched the ''[[Venera 2]]'' probe to Venus in 1966, but it malfunctioned sometime after its May 16 telemetry session. The probe completed a flyby of Venus, but failed to transmit any data.<ref name="astronomy"/>

During another American flyby in 1967, ''[[Mariner 5]]'' measured the strength of Venus's [[magnetic field]]. In 1974, ''[[Mariner 10]]'' swung by Venus on its way to Mercury and took ultraviolet photographs of the clouds, revealing the extraordinarily high wind speeds in the [[Atmosphere of Venus|Venusian atmosphere]]. Mariner-10 provided the best images of Venus taken so far, the series of images clearly demonstrated the high speeds of the planet's atmosphere, first seen in the Doppler-effect velocity measurements of Venera-4 through Venera-8.<ref>{{Cite web |title=First Pictures of the Surface of Venus |url=http://mentallandscape.com/V_Lavochkin2.htm |access-date=2024-11-16 |website=mentallandscape.com}}</ref>

===Early landings===
[[File:Venera-4 capsule in museum.JPG|thumb|Capsule of Venera-4 in Memorial Museum of Astronautics]]

On March 1, 1966, the ''[[Venera 3]]'' Soviet [[space probe]] crash-landed on Venus, becoming the first spacecraft to reach the surface of another planet.<ref name="astronomy"/>

The descent capsule of ''[[Venera 4]]'' entered the atmosphere of Venus on October 18, 1967, making it the first probe to return direct measurements from another planet's atmosphere.<ref name="astronomy"/> The capsule measured temperature, pressure, density and performed 11 automatic chemical experiments to analyze the atmosphere. It discovered that the atmosphere of Venus was 95% carbon dioxide ({{chem|C|O|2}}), and in combination with radio occultation data from the ''[[Mariner 5]]'' probe, showed that surface pressures were far greater than expected (75 to 100 atmospheres).{{cn|date=May 2025}}

These results were verified and refined by the ''[[Venera 5]]'' and ''[[Venera 6]]'' in May 1969.<ref name="astronomy"/> But thus far, none of these missions had reached the surface while still transmitting. ''Venera 4'''s battery ran out while still slowly floating through the massive atmosphere, and ''Venera 5'' and ''6'' were crushed by high pressure 18&nbsp;km (60,000&nbsp;ft) above the surface.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

The first successful landing on Venus was by ''[[Venera 7]]'' on December 15, 1970 — the first successful soft landing on another planet, as well as the first successful transmission of data from another planet's surface to Earth.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909834,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221214000/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909834,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 21, 2008|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=8 February 1971|access-date=2 January 2013|title=Science: Onward from Venus}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/beyond-earth-tagged.pdf|title=Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016|last1=Siddiqi|first1=Asif A.|lccn=2017059404|isbn=9781626830424|publisher=NASA History Program Office|edition=second|year=2018|id=SP2018-4041|series=The NASA history series|location=Washington, DC|pages=1, 3}}</ref> ''Venera 7'' remained in contact with Earth for 23 minutes, relaying surface temperatures of {{convert|455 to 475|C|F}}, and an atmospheric pressure of 92 bar.<ref name="astronomy"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Venera 7 |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-060A |website=nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov}}</ref> ''[[Venera 8]]'' landed on July 22, 1972. In addition to pressure and temperature profiles, a photometer showed that the clouds of Venus formed a layer ending over {{convert|22|mi|km|order=flip}} above the surface. A [[gamma ray spectrometer]] analyzed the chemical composition of the crust. Venera 8 measured the light level as being suitable for surface photography, finding it to be similar to the amount of light on Earth on an overcast day with roughly 1 km visibility.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Venera 8 |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1972-021A |website=nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov}}</ref>

===Lander/orbiter pairs===

==== Venera 9 and 10 ====
[[File:Foto de Venera 9.png|thumb|upright=2|First view and first clear 180-degree panorama of Venus's surface as well as any other planet than Earth (1975, Soviet ''[[Venera 9]]'' lander). Black-and-white image of barren, black, slate-like rocks against a flat sky. The ground and the probe are the focus.<ref>{{cite web |title=Venera 9's landing site |url=https://www.planetary.org/space-images/20120907_venera_9_panorama_stryk |website=The Planetary Society |access-date=16 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref>]]

The Soviet probe ''[[Venera 9]]'' entered orbit on October 22, 1975, becoming the first artificial satellite of Venus. A battery of cameras and spectrometers returned information about the planet's clouds, ionosphere and magnetosphere, as well as performing bi-static radar measurements of the surface. The {{convert|660|kg|lb|abbr=on}} descent vehicle<ref>{{cite web
 | url = http://www.braeunig.us/space/planet.htm
 | title = Planetary Spacecraft
 | last = Braeunig
 | first = Robert A.
 | date = 2008
 | access-date = 2009-02-15
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170320092733/http://www.braeunig.us/space/planet.htm
 | archive-date = 2017-03-20
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref> separated from ''Venera 9'' and landed, taking the first pictures of the surface and analyzing the crust with a gamma ray spectrometer and a densitometer. During descent, pressure, temperature and photometric measurements were made, as well as backscattering and multi-angle scattering ([[nephelometer]]) measurements of cloud density. It was discovered that the clouds of Venus are formed in three distinct layers.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

On October 25, ''[[Venera 10]]'' arrived and carried out a similar program of study.

==== Pioneer Venus ====
[[File:2438 pioneer venus map of venus.jpg|thumb|A map of Venus compiled from data recorded by NASA's Pioneer Venus Orbiter spacecraft beginning in 1978.]]
In 1978, [[NASA]] sent two ''[[Pioneer Venus project|Pioneer]]'' spacecraft to Venus. The ''Pioneer'' mission consisted of two components, launched separately: an orbiter and a multiprobe. The ''[[Pioneer Venus Multiprobe]]'' carried one large and three small atmospheric probes. The large probe was released on November 16, 1978, and the three small probes on November 20. All four probes entered the Venusian atmosphere on December 9, followed by the delivery vehicle. Although not expected to survive the descent through the atmosphere, one probe continued to operate for 45 minutes after reaching the surface. The ''[[Pioneer Venus Orbiter]]'' was inserted into an elliptical orbit around Venus on December 4, 1978. It carried 17 experiments and operated until the fuel used to maintain its orbit was exhausted and atmospheric entry destroyed the spacecraft in August 1992.

=== Further Soviet missions ===
Also in 1978, ''[[Venera 11]]'' and ''[[Venera 12]]'' flew past Venus, dropping descent vehicles on December 21 and December 25 respectively. The landers carried colour cameras and a soil drill and analyzer, which unfortunately malfunctioned. Each lander made measurements with a [[nephelometer]], [[mass spectrometer]], [[gas chromatograph]], and a cloud-droplet chemical analyzer using [[X-ray fluorescence]] that unexpectedly discovered a large proportion of chlorine in the clouds, in addition to sulfur. Strong [[lightning]] activity was also detected.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A history of the search for life on Venus |url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-missions/history-search-life-venus |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=www.skyatnightmagazine.com |date=14 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Venera 11 & 12 probes to Venus |url=https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/missions/venera1112.html |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Venera 11 descent craft |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1978-084D |website=nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov}}</ref>

[[File:Surface of Venus from Venera 13.jpg|thumb|Surface of Venus from Venera 13]]

In 1982, the Soviet ''[[Venera 13]]'' sent the first colour image of Venus's surface, revealing an orange-brown flat bedrock surface covered with loose [[regolith]] and small flat thin angular rocks,<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Venera 13 |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1981-106D |website=nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov}}</ref> and analysed the [[X-ray fluorescence]] of an excavated soil sample. The probe operated for a record 127 minutes on the planet's hostile surface. Also in 1982, the ''[[Venera 14]]'' lander detected possible [[seismology|seismic]] activity in the planet's [[Crust (geology)|crust]].

In December 1984, during the apparition of [[Halley's Comet]], the Soviet Union launched the two ''[[Vega program|Vega]]'' probes to Venus. ''[[Vega 1]]'' and ''[[Vega 2]]'' encountered Venus in June 1985, each deploying a lander and an instrumented helium balloon. The balloon-borne [[aerostat]] probes floated at about 53&nbsp;km altitude for 46 and 60 hours respectively, traveling about 1/3 of the way around the planet and allowing scientists to study the [[atmospheric dynamics|dynamics]] of the most active part of Venus's atmosphere. These measured wind speed, temperature, pressure and cloud density. More turbulence and convection activity than expected was discovered, including occasional plunges of 1 to 3&nbsp;km in downdrafts.
The landing vehicles carried experiments focusing on cloud aerosol composition and structure. Each carried an ultraviolet absorption spectrometer, aerosol particle-size analyzers, and devices for collecting aerosol material and analyzing it with a mass spectrometer, a gas chromatograph, and an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The upper two layers of the clouds were found to be sulfuric acid droplets, but the lower layer is probably composed of [[phosphoric acid]] solution. The crust of Venus was analyzed with the soil drill experiment and a gamma ray spectrometer. As the landers carried no cameras on board, no images were returned from the surface. They would be the last probes to land on Venus for decades. The ''Vega'' spacecraft continued to rendezvous with [[Halley's Comet]] nine months later, bringing an additional 14 instruments and cameras for that mission.

The multiaimed Soviet [[Vesta mission]], developed in cooperation with European countries for realisation in 1991–1994 but canceled due to the Soviet Union disbanding, included the delivery of balloons and a small lander to Venus, according to the first plan.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

===Orbiters===

====Venera 15 and 16====

In October 1983, ''[[Venera 15]]'' and ''[[Venera 16]]'' entered polar orbits around Venus. The images had a {{convert|1 – 2|km|mi}} resolution, comparable to those obtained by the best Earth radars. ''Venera 15'' analyzed and mapped the upper atmosphere with an infrared [[Fourier spectrometer]]. From November 11, 1983, to July 10, 1984, both satellites mapped the northern third of the planet with [[synthetic aperture radar]]. These results provided the first detailed understanding of the surface geology of Venus, including the discovery of unusual massive shield volcanoes such as coronae and [[Arachnoid (astrogeology)|arachnoids]]. Venus had no evidence of plate tectonics, unless the northern third of the planet happened to be a single plate. The altimetry data obtained by the Venera missions had a resolution four times better than ''Pioneer'''s.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

====Magellan====
[[File:PIA00233- Venus - 3D Perspective View of Eistla Regio.jpg|thumb|A portion of western Eistla Regio displayed in a three-dimensional perspective view acquired by the [[Magellan probe]]. The rise on the horizon is [[Gula Mons]].|left]]

On August 10, 1990, the American ''[[Magellan probe|Magellan]]'' probe, named after the explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]], arrived at its orbit around the planet and started a mission of detailed [[radar]] mapping at a frequency of 2.38&nbsp;GHz.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/90157 | doi=10.1109/5.90157 | title=Magellan imaging radar mission to Venus | year=1991 | last1=Johnson | first1=W.T.K. | journal=Proceedings of the IEEE | volume=79 | issue=6 | pages=777–790 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> Whereas previous probes had created low-resolution radar maps of continent-sized formations, ''Magellan'' mapped 98% of the surface with a resolution of approximately 100 m.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

[[File:Venus Topo 270 East, 775-,663,-112.jpg|thumb|Topography of Venus as revealed by more than a decade of radar investigations culminating in the 1990-1994 Magellan mission<ref>{{Cite web |title=Catalog Page for PIA00160 |url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00160 |access-date=2024-11-17 |website=photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov}}</ref>]]

The resulting maps were comparable to visible-light photographs of other planets, and are still the most detailed in existence. ''Magellan'' greatly improved scientific understanding of the [[geology of Venus]]: the probe found no signs of [[plate tectonics]], but the scarcity of impact craters suggested the surface was relatively young, and there were [[lava channel]]s thousands of kilometers long. After a four-year mission, ''Magellan'', as planned, plunged into the atmosphere on October 11, 1994, and partly vaporized; some sections are thought to have hit the planet's surface.

====Venus Express====
''[[Venus Express]]'' was a mission by the [[European Space Agency]] to study the atmosphere and surface characteristics of Venus from orbit. The design was based on ESA's ''[[Mars Express]]'' and ''[[Rosetta mission|Rosetta]]'' missions. The probe's main objective was the long-term observation of the Venusian atmosphere, which it is hoped will also contribute to an understanding of Earth's atmosphere and climate. It also made global maps of Venerean surface temperatures, and attempted to observe signs of life on Earth from a distance.

''Venus Express'' successfully assumed a polar orbit on April 11, 2006. The mission was originally planned to last for two Venusian years (about 500 Earth days), but was extended to the end of 2014 until its propellant was exhausted. Some of the first results emerging from ''Venus Express'' include evidence of past oceans, the discovery of a huge double [[polar vortex|atmospheric vortex]] at the south pole,<ref>{{cite web |title=500 days at Venus, and the surprises keep coming |url=https://www.esa.int/About_Us/ESOC/500_days_at_Venus_and_the_surprises_keep_coming |website=www.esa.int |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ESA Science & Technology - Venus Express: mission overview |url=https://sci.esa.int/web/venus-express/-/33010-summary |website=sci.esa.int |access-date=6 February 2025}}</ref> and the detection of [[hydroxyl radical|hydroxyl]] in the atmosphere.

====Akatsuki====
''[[Akatsuki (probe)|Akatsuki]]'' was launched on May 20, 2010, by [[JAXA]], and was planned to enter Venusian orbit in December 2010. However, the orbital insertion maneuver failed and the spacecraft was left in heliocentric orbit. It was placed on an alternative elliptical Venerian orbit on 7 December 2015 by firing its attitude control thrusters for 1,233 seconds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/2015/12060740-live-from-sagamihara.html|title = Live from Sagamihara: Akatsuki Orbit Insertion - Second Try}}</ref> The probe imaged the surface in ultraviolet, infrared, microwaves, and radio, and looked for evidence of lightning and volcanism on the planet. Astronomers working on the mission reported detecting a possible [[gravity wave]] that occurred on the planet [[Venus]] in December 2015.<ref name="NYT-20170116">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Venus Smiled, With a Mysterious Wave Across Its Atmosphere |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/16/science/venus-wave-akatsuki.html |date=16 January 2017 |work=[[New York Times]] |access-date=17 January 2017 }}</ref> ''Akatsuki'''s mission ended in 2024.

===Flybys===
[[File:MESSENGER - Venus 630 nm stretch.jpg|thumb|220px|Venus in 2007 by MESSENGER]]

Several space probes ''en route'' to other destinations have used flybys of Venus to increase their speed via the [[gravitational slingshot]] method. These include the ''[[Galileo spacecraft|Galileo]]'' mission to [[Jupiter]], and the ''[[Cassini–Huygens]]'' mission to [[Saturn]], which made two flybys. During ''Cassini'''s examination of the [[radio frequency]] emissions of Venus with its radio and plasma wave science instrument during both the 1998 and 1999 flybys, it reported no high-frequency radio waves (0.125 to 16&nbsp;MHz), which are commonly associated with lightning. This was in direct opposition to the findings of the Soviet ''Venera'' missions 20 years earlier. It was postulated that perhaps if Venus did have lightning, it might be some type of low-frequency electrical activity, because radio signals cannot penetrate the ionosphere at frequencies below about 1 megahertz. An examination of Venus's radio emissions by the ''Galileo'' spacecraft during its flyby in 1990 was interpreted at the time to be indicative of lightning. However, the ''Galileo'' probe was over 60 times further from Venus than ''Cassini'' was during its flyby, making its observations substantially less significant. In 2007, the ''[[Venus Express]]'' mission confirmed the presence of lightning on Venus, finding that it is more common on Venus than it is on Earth.<ref>
{{cite journal
 | last = Hand
 | first = Eric
 | date = 2007-11-27
 | title = European mission reports from Venus
 | journal = Nature
 | issue = 450
 | pages = 633–660
 | doi = 10.1038/news.2007.297
| s2cid = 129514118
 | doi-access = free
 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7117303.stm
 | title = Venus offers Earth climate clues
 | work = BBC News
 | access-date = 2007-11-29
| date=November 28, 2007
}}</ref>

''[[MESSENGER]]'' passed by Venus twice on its way to Mercury. The first time, it flew by on October 24, 2006, passing 3000&nbsp;km from [[Venus]]. As Earth was on the other side of the Sun, no data was recorded.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/news/display.cfm?News_ID=16655 | title = MESSENGER performs first flyby of Venus | work = NASA's Solar System Exploration: News & Events: News Archive | access-date = 2007-08-20 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081005123815/http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/news/display.cfm?News_ID=16655 | archive-date = 2008-10-05 }}</ref> The second flyby was on July 6, 2007, where the spacecraft passed only 325&nbsp;km from the cloudtops.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/news/display.cfm?News_ID=21335 | title = MESSENGER performs second flyby of Venus | work = NASA's Solar System Exploration: News & Events: News Archive | access-date = 2007-08-20 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081005102038/http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/news/display.cfm?News_ID=21335 | archive-date = 2008-10-05 }}</ref>

[[BepiColombo]] also flew by Venus twice on its way to Mercury, the first time on October 15, 2020. During its second flyby of Venus, on August 10, 2021, ''BepiColombo'' came 552 km near Venus's surface.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2021/08/BepiColombo_s_second_Venus_flyby_in_images|title=BepiColombo's second Venus flyby in images|publisher=European Space Agency|accessdate=8 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.space.com/bepicolombo-spacecraft-venus-flyby-selfie-photo|title=Mercury-bound spacecraft snaps selfie with Venus in close flyby (photo)|first=Tereza|last=Pultarova|publisher=Space.com|date=August 11, 2021|access-date=December 8, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=BepiColombo flies by Venus en route to Mercury |url=https://sci.esa.int/web/bepicolombo/-/bepicolombo-flies-by-venus-en-route-to-mercury |website=ESA |access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/esaoperations/status/1444250893373878272|title="A flawless, radiant, #Mercuryflyby" |website=Twitter|date=1 October 2021|access-date=8 December 2021}}</ref> While ''BepiColombo'' approached Venus before making its second flyby of the planet, two monitoring cameras and seven science instruments were switched on.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/bepicolombo-flyby/venus-flybys|title=BepColombo Venus Flybys|publisher=European Space Agency|accessdate=December 8, 2021}}</ref> Johannes Benkhoff, project scientist, believes BepiColombo's MERTIS (Mercury Radiometer and Thermal Infrared Spectrometer) could possibly detect phosphine, but "we do not know if our instrument is sensitive enough".<ref>{{cite news |last1=O'Callaghan |first1=Jonathan |title=In A Complete Fluke, A European Spacecraft Is About To Fly Past Venus – And Could Look For Signs Of Life |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jonathanocallaghan/2020/09/16/in-a-complete-fluke-a-european-spacecraft-is-about-to-fly-past-venus--and-could-look-for-signs-of-life/ |access-date=27 September 2020 |work=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

[[Parker Solar Probe]] has performed seven Venus flybys, which occurred on October 3, 2018, December 26, 2019, July 11, 2020, February 20, 2021, October 16, 2021, August 21, 2023, and November 6, 2024. Parker Solar Probe makes observations of the [[Sun]] and [[solar wind]], and these Venus encounters enable Parker Solar Probe to perform [[gravity assist]]s and travel closer to the Sun.<ref>{{cite web |title=Final Venus Flyby for NASA's Parker Solar Probe Queues Closest Sun Pass - NASA Science |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/heliophysics/final-venus-flyby-for-nasas-parker-solar-probe-queues-closest-sun-pass/ |publisher=NASA |access-date=5 February 2025 |date=4 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Brian E. |last2=Hess |first2=Phillip |last3=Lustig-Yaeger |first3=Jacob |last4=Gallagher |first4=Brendan |last5=Korwan |first5=Daniel |last6=Rich |first6=Nathan |last7=Stenborg |first7=Guillermo |last8=Thernisien |first8=Arnaud |last9=Qadri |first9=Syed N. |last10=Santiago |first10=Freddie |last11=Peralta |first11=Javier |last12=Arney |first12=Giada N. |last13=Izenberg |first13=Noam R. |last14=Vourlidas |first14=Angelos |last15=Linton |first15=Mark G. |last16=Howard |first16=Russell A. |last17=Raouafi |first17=Nour E. |title=Parker Solar Probe Imaging of the Night Side of Venus |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=16 February 2022 |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=e2021GL096302 |doi=10.1029/2021GL096302|pmid=35864851 |pmc=9286398 |bibcode=2022GeoRL..4996302W }}</ref>

=== Future missions ===
[[File:Venus Rover.jpg|220px|thumb|Artist's impression of a Stirling cooled Venus Rover]]
[[Image:Venus airplane.JPG|thumb|An older concept for a Venus aircraft]]
The ''[[Venera-D]]'' spacecraft was proposed to [[Russian Federal Space Agency|Roscosmos]] in 2003 and is proposed to be launched in 2031. Its prime purpose is to map Venus's surface using a powerful radar.<ref>{{cite web |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/venera-d-2021.html |title=New promise for the Venera-D project |work=RussianSpaceWeb |date=5 March 2021 |accessdate=7 March 2021}}</ref> The mission would also include a lander capable to function for a long duration on the surface.

India's [[ISRO]] is developing ''[[Venus Orbiter Mission]]'', an orbiter and an atmospheric probe with a balloon aerobot which is planned to launch in 2028.<ref name="ET_20230322">{{Cite news |date=2023-03-22 |title=ISRO discussing possible mission to moon with Japanese agency: S Somanath |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/isro-discussing-possible-mission-to-moon-with-japanese-agency-s-somanath/articleshow/98909884.cms |access-date=2024-01-16 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389 |quote=Somanath also said there is a good opportunity to launch a mission to explore planet Venus by 2028.}}</ref>

In June 2021, NASA announced the selection of two new Venus spacecraft, both part of its [[Discovery Program]]: [[VERITAS (spacecraft)|VERITAS]] and [[DAVINCI]].<ref name="davinci_veritas_selection">{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Alana |last2=Fox |first2=Karen |title=NASA Selects 2 Missions to Study 'Lost Habitable' World of Venus |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-2-missions-to-study-lost-habitable-world-of-venus/ |website=NASA |access-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213085701/https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-2-missions-to-study-lost-habitable-world-of-venus/ |archive-date=13 February 2024}}</ref> These spacecraft are the first NASA missions to focus on Venus since [[Magellan (spacecraft)|Magellan]] in 1990.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chang |first1=Kenneth |title=New NASA Missions Will Study Venus, a World Overlooked for Decades |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/02/science/nasa-neptune-venus.html |access-date=2 June 2021 |work=New York Times |date=2 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref> VERITAS, an orbiter, will map the surface of Venus in high resolution,<ref name="Veritas 2012">{{cite journal |bibcode=2012AGUFM.P33C1950H |title=VERITAS: A Mission Concept for the High Resolution Topographic Mapping and Imaging of Venus |last1=Hensley |first1=S. |last2=Smrekar |first2=S. E |journal=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting |year=2012 |volume=2012 |pages=P33C–1950 }}</ref> while DAVINCI will include an orbiter, which will map Venus in multiple wavelengths, and a descent probe that will study the chemistry of the [[Venusian atmosphere]] while taking photographs of the descent.<ref name="goddard-20210602">{{cite web |last1=Steigerwald |first1=William |last2=Jones |first2=Nancy Neal |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-to-explore-divergent-fate-of-earth-s-mysterious-twin-with-goddard-s-davinci |title=NASA to Explore Divergent Fate of Earth's Mysterious Twin with Goddard's DAVINCI+ |work=[[NASA]] |date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> DAVINCI and VERITAS were initially slated to launch in 2029 and 2028 respectively, but funding issues have pushed VERITAS's launch date back to at least 2029–2031.<ref name="Foust2029">{{cite web|last=Foust|first=Jeff|url=https://spacenews.com/veritas-mission-warns-of-risks-of-launch-delay/|title=VERITAS mission warns of risks of launch delay|publisher=SpaceNews|date=8 November 2023|access-date=6 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="verge-20210602">{{cite web |last=Roulette |first=Joey |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/6/2/22465588/nasa-mission-to-venus-davinci-veritas-discovery-program |title=NASA will send two missions to Venus for the first time in over 30 years |work=[[The Verge]] |date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref>

In June 2021, soon after NASA announced VERITAS and DAVINCI, [[ESA]] announced Venus orbiter [[EnVision]] as part of their [[Cosmic Vision]] program.<ref name="bbc-20210610">{{cite web|last=Amos |first=Jonathan|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-57416589|title=Europe will join the space party at Planet Venus|publisher=BBC News|date=10 June 2021|access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref> EnVision is planned to perform high-resolution radar mapping and atmospheric studies of Venus, and is planned to launch in 2031.<ref name="envision-launch">{{cite web|url=https://www.cosmos.esa.int/documents/5763359/5763378/EnVision_YB_final.pdf|title=EnVision: Understanding why Earth's closest neighbour is so different|work=[[European Space Agency|ESA]]|access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref><ref name='EnVision proposal'>[https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1703/1703.09010.pdf EnVision: Understanding why our most Earth-like neighbor is so different]. M5 proposal. Richard Ghail. arXiv.org</ref><ref name="doi.org">[https://www.doi.org/10.1007/s11214-023-00992-w Venus Evolution Through Time: Key Science Questions, Selected Mission Concepts and Future Investigations] T. Widemann, S. Smrekar, J. Garvin et al., Space Science Reviews, vol. 219, no 56, 3 octobre 2023 (DOI: 10.1007/s11214-023-00992-w)</ref>

On October 6, 2021, the [[United Arab Emirates]] announced its intention to send a probe to Venus as early as 2028. [[MBR Explorer]] would make observations of the planet while using it for a [[gravity assist]] to propel it to the [[asteroid belt]].<ref name="UAE Venus">{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/daring-new-mission-to-venus-and-the-asteroid-belt-announced-by-the-uae/|first=Jackson|last=Ryan|title=Daring mission to Venus and the asteroid belt announced by the UAE|website=cnet.com|date=October 6, 2021|accessdate=October 7, 2021}}</ref>

[[Rocket Lab]], a private aerospace manufacturer, hopes to launch the first private Venus mission in collaboration with [[MIT]].<ref name="foustVenusLifeFinder">{{cite web |last1=Foust |first1=Jeff |title=Rocket Lab plans launch of Venus mission as soon as late 2024 |url=https://spacenews.com/rocket-lab-plans-late-2024-launch-of-venus-mission/ |website=SpaceNews |access-date=7 February 2024 |date=31 October 2023}}</ref> The spacecraft, [[Venus Life Finder]], is to send a lightweight atmospheric probe into the Venusian atmosphere to search for signs of life.<ref name="FrenchVenusLifeFinder">{{cite journal |last1=French |first1=Richard |last2=Mandy |first2=Christophe |last3=Hunter |first3=Richard |last4=Mosleh |first4=Ehson |last5=Sinclair |first5=Doug |last6=Beck |first6=Peter |last7=Seager |first7=Sara |last8=Petkowski |first8=Janusz J. |last9=Carr |first9=Christopher E. |last10=Grinspoon |first10=David H. |last11=Baumgardner |first11=Darrel |title=Rocket Lab Mission to Venus |journal=Aerospace |date=16 August 2022 |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=7 |doi=10.3390/aerospace9080445 |doi-access=free |arxiv=2208.07724 |bibcode=2022Aeros...9..445F }}</ref>

=== Proposals ===
To overcome the high pressure and temperature at the surface, a team led by [[Geoffrey Landis]] of NASA's [[Glenn Research Center]] produced a concept in 2007 of a solar-powered aircraft that would control a resistant [[rover (space exploration)|surface rover]] on the ground. The aircraft would carry the mission's sensitive electronics in the relatively mild temperatures of Venus's upper atmosphere.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7354 | title = To conquer Venus, try a plane with a brain | work = NewScience | access-date = 2007-09-03}}</ref> Another concept from 2007 suggests to equip a rover with a [[Stirling cooler]] powered by a nuclear power source to keep an electronics package at an operational temperature of about {{convert|200|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal| journal =Acta Astronautica| volume= 61| issue= 11–12|date=December 2007| pages =995–1001| doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.12.031| title=Venus surface power and cooling systems| first=Geoffrey A.| last= Landis|author2=Kenneth C. Mellott|bibcode = 2007AcAau..61..995L |url=https://zenodo.org/record/895250}}</ref>

In 2020 NASA's JPL launched an open competition, titled "Exploring Hell: Avoiding Obstacles on a Clockwork Rover", to design a sensor that could work on Venus's surface.<ref>{{cite news |author=Holly Yan |title=Here's your chance to design equipment for NASA's proposed Venus rover and win $15,000 |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/23/world/nasa-venus-rover-design-competition-scn-trnd/index.html |access-date=24 February 2020 |work=CNN |date=2020}}</ref>

== Current missions == 
{{Main|List of missions to Venus}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Mission
! Launch
! Arrival
! Termination
! Objective
|-
| [[File:ESA logo simple.svg|20px|link=European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] [[File:NASA logo.svg|24px|link=National Aeronautics and Space Administration|National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA]] [[Solar Orbiter]] || February 9, 2020 || 26 December 2020<br><small>(1st flyby)</small> || ongoing || 8 flybys during gravity-assist maneuvers from 2020 to 2030
|}

== Planned missions ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Name
! Operator
! Proposed <br/>launch year 
! Type
! Status
! Reference
|- 
| [[Venus Life Finder]]
| {{flagicon|USA}}{{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]/[[Rocket Lab]]
| NET summer 2026
| Atmospheric probe 
| under development 
| <ref>{{cite web | title=Rocket Lab Mission to Venus | website=Venus Missions | url=https://www.morningstarmissions.space/rocketlabmissiontovenus | access-date=February 28, 2025}}</ref>
|-
| [[MBR Explorer]]
| {{flagicon|UAE}} [[UAESA]]
|2028
|Flyby
|under development 
|<Ref>{{cite web|first=Elizabeth|last=Howell|url=https://www.space.com/uae-asteroid-mission-details-landing-2034|title=UAE Asteroid Mission details|date=28 May 2023|publisher=Space.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Leonard|last=Davis|url=https://www.space.com/uae-asteroid-belt-mission-progress-2028-launch|title=UAE on track to launch bold 7-asteroid mission in 2028|publisher=Space.com|date=4 September 2024}}</ref>
|-
| [[Venus Orbiter Mission]]
| {{flagicon|India}} [[ISRO]]
| 29 March 2028<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-01 |title=Isro announces launch date of ambitious Venus Orbiter Mission |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/isro-announces-launch-date-of-ambitious-venus-orbiter-mission-lvm-3-2609443-2024-10-01 |access-date=2024-10-02 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>
| Orbiter/atmospheric probe
| under development
| <ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/india-approves-moon-sample-return-venus-orbiter-space-station-module-and-reusable-launcher/ |title=India approves moon sample return, Venus orbiter, space station module and reusable launcher |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=18 September 2024 |access-date=18 September 2024}}</ref>
|-
| [[VERITAS (spacecraft)|VERITAS]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[NASA]]
| 2031
| Orbiter
| under development
| <ref name="aas-20240325" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Howell |first=Elizabeth |url=https://www.space.com/nasa-problems-psyche-venus-probe-veritas-launch-delay |title=Problems with NASA asteroid mission Psyche delay Venus probe's launch to 2031 |work=[[Space.com]] |date=4 November 2022 |access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[DAVINCI]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} NASA
| 2031–2032
| Atmospheric probe
| under development
| <ref name="aas-20240325">{{cite web |last=Devarakonda |first=Yaswant |url=https://aas.org/posts/advocacy/2024/03/fy25-presidential-budget-request-nasa |title=The FY25 Presidential Budget Request for NASA |work=[[American Astronomical Society]] |date=25 March 2024 |access-date=29 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Neal Jones |first=Nancy |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/nasa-s-davinci-mission-to-take-the-plunge-through-massive-atmosphere-of-venus |title=NASA's DAVINCI Mission To Take the Plunge Through Massive Atmosphere of Venus |work=[[NASA]] |date=2 June 2022 |access-date=15 July 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[EnVision (spacecraft)|EnVision]]
| [[File:European_Space_Agency_logo.svg|23px]] [[ESA]]
|2031–2032
|Orbiter
|under development
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/ESA_selects_revolutionary_Venus_mission_EnVision|date=10 June 2021|title=ESA selects revolutionary Venus mission EnVision|work=[[ESA]]|access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref>
|}

== Impact ==
Research on the atmosphere of Venus has produced significant insights not only about its own state but also about the atmospheres of other [[planetary objects]], especially of Earth. It has helped to find and understand the [[Ozone depletion|depletion of Earth's ozone]] in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/what-venus-has-taught-us-about-protecting-the-ozone-layer-9200 |title=What Venus has taught us about protecting the ozone layer|date=September 15, 2012 |author=Frank Mills |website=theConversation.com |access-date=October 13, 2020}}</ref>

The [[First voyage of James Cook|voyage of James Cook and his crew of HMS ''Endeavour'' to observe the Venus transit of 1769]] brought about the claiming of [[Australia]] at [[Possession Island (Queensland)|Possession Island]] for [[European exploration of Australia#Colonisation|colonisation by Europeans]].

== See also ==
* [[Manned Venus flyby]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Widemann |first1=Thomas |last2=Smrekar |first2=Suzanne E. |last3=Garvin |first3=James B. |last4=Straume-Lindner |first4=Anne Grete |last5=Ocampo |first5=Adriana C. |last6=Schulte |first6=Mitchell D. |last7=Voirin |first7=Thomas |last8=Hensley |first8=Scott |last9=Dyar |first9=M. Darby |last10=Whitten |first10=Jennifer L. |last11=Nunes |first11=Daniel C. |last12=Getty |first12=Stephanie A. |last13=Arney |first13=Giada N. |last14=Johnson |first14=Natasha M. |last15=Kohler |first15=Erika |last16=Spohn |first16=Tilman |last17=O’Rourke |first17=Joseph G. |last18=Wilson |first18=Colin F. |last19=Way |first19=Michael J. |last20=Ostberg |first20=Colby |last21=Westall |first21=Frances |last22=Höning |first22=Dennis |last23=Jacobson |first23=Seth |last24=Salvador |first24=Arnaud |last25=Avice |first25=Guillaume |last26=Breuer |first26=Doris |last27=Carter |first27=Lynn |last28=Gilmore |first28=Martha S. |last29=Ghail |first29=Richard |last30=Helbert |first30=Jörn |last31=Byrne |first31=Paul |last32=Santos |first32=Alison R. |last33=Herrick |first33=Robert R. |last34=Izenberg |first34=Noam |last35=Marcq |first35=Emmanuel |last36=Rolf |first36=Tobias |last37=Weller |first37=Matt |last38=Gillmann |first38=Cedric |last39=Korablev |first39=Oleg |last40=Zelenyi |first40=Lev |last41=Zasova |first41=Ludmila |last42=Gorinov |first42=Dmitry |last43=Seth |first43=Gaurav |last44=Rao |first44=C. V. Narasimha |last45=Desai |first45=Nilesh |title=Venus Evolution Through Time: Key Science Questions, Selected Mission Concepts and Future Investigations |journal=Space Science Reviews |date=October 2023 |volume=219 |issue=7 |page=56 |doi=10.1007/s11214-023-00992-w |bibcode=2023SSRv..219...56W |display-authors=1|hdl=10852/109541 |hdl-access=free }}

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