View source for Nuclear power in Canada

{{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] -->
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Electricity generation in Canada}}
Nuclear power in [[Canada]] is provided by 19 commercial reactors with a net capacity of 13.5 [[gigawatt]] (GW), producing a total of 95.6 [[terawatt-hour]]s (TWh) of electricity, which accounted for 16.6% of the country's total electric energy generation in 2015. All but one of these reactors are located in [[Ontario]], where they produced 61% of the province's electricity in 2019 (90.4 TWh).<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ieso.ca/power-data/supply-overview/transmission-connected-generation|title=IESO Supply Overview|website=www.ieso.ca|publisher=[[Independent Electricity System Operator]]|access-date=September 15, 2017}}</ref> Seven smaller reactors are used for research and to produce [[radiopharmaceutical]]s for use in [[nuclear medicine]].

All currently operating Canadian nuclear reactors are a type of [[pressurized heavy-water reactor]] (PHWR) of domestic design, the [[CANDU reactor]]. CANDU reactors have been exported to [[Rajasthan Atomic Power Station|India]], [[Karachi Nuclear Power Complex|Pakistan]], [[Embalse Nuclear Power Station|Argentina]], [[Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant|South Korea]], [[Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant|Romania]], and [[Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant|China]]. While there are (as of 2022) no plans for new CANDUs in Canada or elsewhere, Canada remains a technology leader in heavy water reactors and natural uranium fueled reactors more broadly. The Indian [[IPHWR]]-line is an indigenized derivative of the CANDU while only a small number of pressurized heavy water reactors were built independent of the CANDU-line, mainly [[Atucha nuclear power plant]] in Argentina.

==History==
The nuclear industry (as distinct from the [[uranium]] industry) in Canada dates back to 1942 when a joint British-Canadian laboratory, the [[Montreal Laboratory]], was set up in [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], under the administration of the [[National Research Council of Canada]], to develop a design for a [[Heavy water|heavy-water]] nuclear reactor. This reactor was called the [[NRX|National Research Experimental]] (NRX) reactor and would be the most powerful [[research reactor]] in the world when completed.

=== Experimental reactors ===
[[File:ZEEP.jpg|thumb|[[ZEEP]] (left), [[NRX]] (right) and [[National Research Universal reactor|NRU]] (back) reactors at [[Chalk River Laboratories|Chalk River]], 1954]]
In 1944, approval was given to proceed with the construction of the smaller [[ZEEP]] (Zero Energy Experimental Pile) test reactor at [[Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories]] in [[Ontario]] and on September 5, 1945, at 3:45&nbsp;p.m., the 10-watt ZEEP achieved the first self-sustained [[nuclear reaction]] outside the United States.<ref>{{Citation|author=Canada Science and Technology Museum|title=ZEEP&nbsp;— Canada's First Nuclear Reactor|publisher=Canada Science and Technology Museum|location=Ottawa|url=http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/whatson/zeep.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306233719/http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/whatson/zeep.cfm |archive-date=March 6, 2014}}</ref>

In 1946, the Montreal Laboratory was closed, and the work continued at the [[Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories]]. Building partly on the experimental data obtained from ZEEP, the [[NRX|National Research Experimental]] (NRX)—a [[natural uranium]], [[heavy water]] moderated research reactor—started up on July 22, 1947. It operated for 43 years, producing [[radioisotope]]s, undertaking fuels and materials development work for CANDU reactors, and providing [[neutron]]s for physics experiments. It was eventually joined in 1957 by the larger 200 [[Watt|megawatt]] (MW) [[National Research Universal reactor]] (NRU).

From 1967 to 1970, Canada also developed an experimental ''miniature'' nuclear reactor named [[SLOWPOKE]] (acronym for Safe LOW-POwer Kritical Experiment). The first prototype was assembled at Chalk River and many SLOWPOKEs were built, mainly for research. Two SLOWPOKEs are still in use in Canada;  one in Kingston, Ontario; the one at [[École Polytechnique de Montréal]] has been running since 1976.

=== Nuclear power plants ===
In 1952, the [[Government of Canada|Canadian government]] formed [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]] (AECL), a [[Crown corporations of Canada|Crown corporation]] with the mandate to develop peaceful uses of nuclear energy. A partnership was formed between AECL, [[Ontario Hydro]] and [[Canadian General Electric]] to build Canada's first nuclear power plant, [[Nuclear Power Demonstration]] (NPD). The 20 MW<sub>e</sub> NPD started operation in June 1962 and demonstrated the unique concepts of on-power refuelling using [[natural uranium]] fuel, and heavy water [[Neutron moderator|moderator]] and coolant. These features formed the basis of a fleet of [[CANDU]] power reactors (CANDU is an acronym for CANada Deuterium Uranium) built and operated in Canada and elsewhere. Starting in 1961, AECL led the construction of 24 commercial CANDU reactors in [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], and [[New Brunswick]].

[[File:Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg|thumb|[[Bruce Nuclear Generating Station|Bruce B]] (front) and [[Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station|Douglas Point]] (white dome) [[nuclear power plant]]s]]

The first full-scale CANDU reactor entered service on September 26, 1968, at [[Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station|Douglas Point]] on the shore of [[Lake Huron]] in Ontario. Two years later a reactor of comparable power but of a different design became operational along the [[Saint Lawrence River]] in Quebec. [[Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station|Gentilly-1]] was a prototype CANDU-[[Boiling water reactor|BWR]] reactor with features intended to reduce its cost and complexity. After the equivalent of only 180 on-power days over nearly seven years (a 5.7% lifetime capacity factor), Gentilly-1 was closed in June 1977.<ref name="IAEA Gentility-1">{{cite web|title=PRIS - Reactor Details|url=https://www.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=47|website=www.iaea.org|publisher=[[International Atomic Energy Agency]]|access-date=September 16, 2017}}</ref> Douglas Point, also suffering from unreliability with a lifetime [[capacity factor]] of 55.6%, was deemed a financial failure and shut down in May 1984.<ref name="IAEA Douglas Point">{{cite web|title=PRIS - Reactor Details|url=https://www.iaea.org/pris/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=40|website=www.iaea.org|publisher=[[International Atomic Energy Agency]]|access-date=September 16, 2017}}</ref>

In August 1964, [[Ontario Hydro]] decided to build the first large-scale nuclear power plant in Canada at [[Pickering, Ontario|Pickering]] on [[Lake Ontario]], only 30 kilometres from downtown [[Toronto]] to save on transmission costs. To reduce cost the reactors share safety systems including [[Containment building|containment]] and the [[Nuclear reactor safety system|emergency core cooling system]]. [[Pickering Nuclear Generating Station|Pickering A station]] started operations in 1971 at a cost of $716 million (1965). It was followed by the [[Bruce Nuclear Generating Station|Bruce A station]], built in 1977 at a cost of $1.8 billion on the same site as the Douglas Point reactor. Beginning in 1983 four B reactors were added to the existing Pickering units, with all of them sharing the same common infrastructure as the A reactors. The final cost for these four new reactors was $3.84 billion (1986). Likewise for $6 billion, four new reactors were added to the Bruce site starting in 1984, but in a separate building with their own set of shared infrastructure for the new reactors. After a [[Loss-of-coolant accident|loss of coolant accident]] occurred at Pickering reactor A2 in August 1983, four of the reactors had their pressure tubes replaced between 1983 and 1993 at a cost of $1 billion (1983).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pembinafoundation.org/reports/appendix2.pdf|title=Ontario's Nuclear Generating Facilities: A History and Estimate of Unit Lifetimes and Refurbishment Costs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404155726/https://www.pembinafoundation.org/reports/appendix2.pdf|archive-date=April 4, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Centrale nucléaire Gentilly.jpg|left|thumb|[[Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station|Gentilly]]-1 (right) and 2 (left) nuclear reactors]]

As most of the development of nuclear energy was taking place in Ontario, [[Quebec nationalism|Quebec nationalists]] were eager to benefit from a promising technology. [[Hydro-Québec|Hydro-Quebec]] initially planned to build as many as 40 reactors in the province, but the government chose to pursue hydroelectric mega-projects instead (see the [[James Bay Project]]). At the end of the 1970s, public opinion about nuclear energy shifted, and only one new reactor at Gentilly was operational by 1983. The same year, another reactor began operation at [[Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station|Point Lepreau]], New Brunswick, a province longing to diversify its energy sources since the [[1973 oil crisis|oil crisis of 1973]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=L'option nucléaire|last=Babin|first=Ronald|publisher=Boréal Express|year=1984|isbn=2-89052-089-7|location=Montreal|pages=66–70|language=fr}}</ref>

In 1977, a new plant close to Toronto, [[Darlington Nuclear Generating Station|Darlington]], was approved for completion in 1988 at an estimated cost of $3.9 billion (1978). After much controversy the last unit came into service five years late. By then the cost had ballooned to $14.4 billion (1993).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thewalrus.ca/2006-09-energy/|title=Will CANDU Do?|last=Webster|first=Paul|date=September 12, 2012|website=thewalrus.ca|access-date=August 23, 2016}}</ref> In the wake of this cost, a Darlington B plant was cancelled. At this point, the operating Canadian reactors fleet consisted of eight units at the Pickering site, eight units at the Bruce site, four units at the Darlington site, one unit at Gentilly in Quebec, and one unit at Point Lepreau in New Brunswick for a 14.7 GW<sub>e</sub> net total operational installed capacity.

=== Refurbishment or closure ===
By 1995 the Pickering and Bruce A units needed refurbishment as after 25 years effective full power years of operation, the embrittled fuel channels face an increased risk of rupture and must be replaced. The first reactor to close was Bruce A unit 2 in November 1995 because of a maintenance accident.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.purepoint.ca/abouturanium/canada.php|title=Purepoint Uranium Group · Nuclear Power in Canada|website=www.purepoint.ca|access-date=August 17, 2016}}</ref> After criticism of Ontario Hydro plants management and a series of incidents,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/trouble-for-ontarios-candus|title=Trouble for Ontario's Candus|last=Ahluwalia|first=Raj|date=August 13, 1997|website=CBC Archives|access-date=August 18, 2016}}</ref> on December 31, 1997, the four A reactors at Pickering and unit 1 at Bruce A were abruptly shut down. They were followed by the remaining two Bruce A units three months later. Over 5 GW of Ontario's electric capacity was abruptly shut down, but at this point, the reactors were supposed to restart at six-month intervals starting in June 2000.<ref name=":0" />

In 1999, indebted Ontario Hydro was replaced by [[Ontario Power Generation]] (OPG). The next year, OPG leased its Bruce A and B nuclear stations to [[Bruce Power]], a consortium led by [[British Energy]]. Pickering's A4 and A1 reactors were refurbished from 1999 to 2003 and from 2004 to 2005, respectively. To prevent a power shortage while phasing out Ontario's [[Fossil-fuel power station|coal-burning plants]], Bruce A units 3 and 4 were returned to service in January 2004 and October 2003 respectively, and then units 1 and 2 were completely refurbished for $4.8 billion (2010).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-Refurbished_Bruce_approaching_full_strength-1810127.html|title=Refurbished Bruce approaching full strength|date=October 18, 2012|website=www.world-nuclear-news.org|access-date=August 20, 2016}}</ref> Of the eight units laid down, four were refurbished, two were restarted without refurbishment, and two (Pickering A2 and A3) were definitively shut down.

In April 2008, refurbishment began at Point Lepreau and had been estimated to be completed in September 2009 at a cost of $1.4 billion. Plagued by delays, the work was finalized three years late and largely over budget.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/point-lepreau-costs-could-hit-3-3b-pmo-memo-says-1.1344861|title=Point Lepreau costs could hit $3.3B, PMO memo says|website=cbc.ca|publisher=2013-07-11|access-date=August 17, 2016}}</ref> Hydro-Quebec had decided in August 2008 to similarly refurbish Gentilly-2 starting in 2011. Because of delays with the Point Lepreau rebuild, and for economic reasons in a province with [[Hydroelectricity in Canada|hydroelectricity]] surpluses, the plant was permanently shut down in December 2012.<ref name=":1" /> It should remain dormant 40 more years before being dismantled.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tvanouvelles.ca/2016/03/08/un-nouveau-permis-sera-recommande-pour-gentilly-2|title=Un nouveau permis sera recommandé pour Gentilly-2|date=March 8, 2016|website=www.tvanouvelles.ca|language=fr|access-date=August 20, 2016}}</ref>

Following the [[2011 Japanese nuclear accidents]], the [[Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission]] (CNSC) ordered all reactor operators to revisit their safety plans and report on potential improvements by the end of April 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/canadas-nuclear-plants-ordered-to-review-safety-after-disaster-in-japan/article573558/|title=Canada's nuclear plants ordered to review safety after disaster in Japan|date=March 21, 2011|website=The Globe and Mail|author=Shawn McCarthy}}</ref> The [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) later conducted a review of the CNSC's response to the events at Japan's [[Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant]], and concluded that it was "prompt, robust and comprehensive, and is a good practice that should be used by other regulatory bodies".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nuclearsafety.gc.ca/eng/mediacentre/releases/news_release.cfm?news_release_id=408l |title=IAEA report confirms the effectiveness of Canada's nuclear regulatory framework |author=Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission |date=March 5, 2012 |work=Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission }}</ref>

=== Massive refurbishments ===
As of 2022, OPG are planning to shut down the 2 Pickering A units by 2024 and keep the Pickering B units operating through to 2026. However, OPG reviewed its operational plan and decided that Pickering B could continue operations through to 2026 and are reassesing the feasibility of refurbishing the four Pickering B units and adding another 30 years of operation to their life.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ontario extends Pickering operations |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Ontario-extends-Pickering-operations |access-date=2024-12-12 |website=World Nuclear News |language=en}}</ref> Meanwhile, the Darlington reactors are gradually undergoing a $12.8 billion complete refurbishment currently underway on Units 1 and 3 while Unit 2 successfully completed its refurbishment in 2020. Bruce Power will follow the same plan for its 8 CANDU-750 units. This even more massive undertaking started in January 2020 and should cost $13 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/darlington-nuclear-refurbishment-1.3395696|title=Ontario unveils $12.8-billion Darlington nuclear refurbishment|date=January 11, 2016|website=www.cbc.ca|access-date=August 19, 2016}}</ref> The newly refurbished Darlington and Bruce reactors should then be operating until at least 2050 and through to 2064. To compensate for the programmed shut down of numerous reactors, the [[Government of Ontario]] decided in January 2016 to push the retirement date of the Pickering A plant to 2024 while reviewing the possibility of refurbishing Pickering B.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://www.nwmo.ca/~/media/Site/Reports/2015/12/07/09/50/2802_nwmotr201519_nuclear_fuel_waste_projections_201.ashx?la=en|title=Nuclear Fuel Waste Projections in Canada – 2015 Update|publisher=Nuclear Waste Management Organization|year=2015}}</ref>

==New reactor proposals==
Rising [[Price of petroleum|fossil fuel prices]], an aging reactors fleet, and new concerns about reducing [[greenhouse gas]] combined to promote the building of new reactors throughout Canada during the early 2000s. However, what was seen as a [[nuclear renaissance]] petered, no new construction has started.

===Ontario===
====Bruce site====
In August 2006, Bruce Power applied for a licence to prepare its Bruce site for the construction of up to four new nuclear power units. In July 2009, the plan was shelved as a declining demand for electricity did not justify expanding production capacity. Bruce Power prioritized refurbishing its A and B plants instead.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Canada, the Provinces, and the Global Nuclear Revival|last=Bratt|first=Duane|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-7735-4069-9|pages=132–141}}</ref>

====Darlington site====
In September 2006, OPG applied for a licence to prepare its Darlington site for the construction of up to four new nuclear power units. The reactor designs being first considered for this project were AECL's [[Advanced CANDU reactor|ACR-1000]], [[Westinghouse Electric Company|Westinghouse]]'s [[AP1000]] and [[Areva]]'s [[EPR (nuclear reactor)|EPR]]. In 2011, the Enhanced CANDU 6 entered the competition and soon became OPG's favourite.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestar.com/business/article/1168935--ontario-zeroes-in-on-two-nuclear-reactor-designs |title=Ontario zeroes in on two nuclear reactor designs |author=John Spears |date=April 26, 2012 |work=Toronto Star }}</ref> On August 17, 2012, after environmental assessments, OPG received a Licence to Prepare Site from the CNSC.<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.nuclearsafety.gc.ca/eng/mediacentre/releases/news_release.cfm?news_release_id=420 |title=CNSC Issues a Site Preparation Licence for OPG Darlington Nuclear Power Plant Project |author=Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission |date=August 17, 2012 |work=Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117182925/https://nuclearsafety.gc.ca/eng/resources/news-room/news-releases/index.cfm?news_release_id=420|archive-date=November 17, 2015}}</ref> In 2013, the project was put on hold as OPG decided to concentrate on refurbishing the existing Darlington units.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.durhamregion.com/news-story/4152250-new-nuclear-reactors-for-darlington-cancelled/|title=New nuclear reactors for Darlington cancelled|date=October 10, 2013|website=www.durhamregion.com|access-date=August 20, 2016}}</ref>

In October 2013, the Ontario government declared that the Darlington new build project would not be a part of Ontario's long term energy plan, citing the high capital cost estimates and energy surplus in the province at the time of the announcement.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://globalnews.ca/news/894709/ontario-nixes-building-two-nuclear-reactors/ |title="Ontario nixes building two nuclear reactors" - Global News |access-date=October 26, 2013}}</ref>

In November 2020, OPG resumed licensing activities, this time for the construction of one [[small modular reactor]] (SMR),<ref>{{Cite journal|date=November 16, 2020|title=OPG plans SMR construction at Darlington|url=https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/OPG-plans-SMR-construction-at-Darlington|journal=World Nuclear News}}</ref> later expanded to three additional [[BWRX-300]] SMR.<ref>{{cite web |last=Proctor |first=Darrell |date=7 July 2023 |title=Three More BWRX-300 SMRS Planned for Canada's Darlington Site |url=https://www.powermag.com/three-more-bwrx-300-smrs-planned-for-canadas-darlington-site/}}</ref>

===Alberta===
[[Energy Alberta Corporation]] announced August 27, 2007, that they had applied for a licence to build a new nuclear plant in [[Northern Alberta]] at Lac Cardinal (30&nbsp;km west of the town of [[Peace River, Alberta|Peace River]]), for two ACR-1000 reactors going online in 2017 as steam and electricity sources for the energy-intensive [[oil sands]] extraction process, which uses [[natural gas]].<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/company-begins-process-to-build-alberta-s-1st-nuclear-plant-1.642324 "Company begins process to build Alberta's 1st nuclear plant"], CBC News, August 28, 2007</ref> However, a parliamentary review suggested placing the development efforts on hold as it would be inadequate for oil sands extraction.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170110162426/http://uk.reuters.com/article/oilsands-nuclear-idUKN2838636320070328 "Canada wary of nuclear power for oil sands"], Reuters, March 28, 2007</ref>

Three months after the announcement, the company was purchased by Bruce Power<ref>[http://www.energyquest4nanticoke.ca/intent.htm "Bruce Power Signs Letter of Intent With Energy Alberta Corporation"], Marketwire, November 29, 2007</ref> who proposed expanding the plant to four units for a total 4 GW<sub>e</sub>.<ref>[http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/IT-Bruce_Power_to_make_important_announcement_130308.html "Bruce Power to prepare Alberta site"], ''World Nuclear News'', March 14, 2008</ref> These plans were upset and Bruce withdrew its application for the Lac Cardinal in January 2009, proposing instead a new site 30&nbsp;km north of Peace River.<ref>[http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/newsarticle.aspx?id=24286 "Bruce thinks again on Alberta site"], ''World Nuclear News'', January 9, 2009</ref> Finally, in December 2011, the controversial project was abandoned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/bruce-power-dropping-alberta-nuclear-plant-proposal-1.1046668|title=Bruce Power dropping Alberta nuclear plant proposal|date=December 12, 2011|website=cbc.ca}}</ref>

On January 15, 2024, Alberta's [[Capital Power Corporation]] entered an agreement with [[Ontario Power Generation]] to jointly assess the feasibility of deploying [[Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)]] in Alberta. Assessments will take place over 2 years, and includes assessing scalability, and ownership & operating structures.<ref>[https://www.capitalpower.com/media/media_releases/capital-power-and-ontario-power-generation-partner-to-advance-new-nuclear-in-alberta/ "Capital Power and Ontario Power Generation partner to advance new nuclear in Alberta"], Capital Power, January 15, 2024 </ref>

===Saskatchewan===
The Government of Saskatchewan was in talks with [[Hitachi]] Limited's Power Systems about building a small nuclear plant in the province involving a five-year study beginning in 2011.<ref name="cbc.ca">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/nuclear-reactor-research-part-of-10m-deal-1.1096704M cbc.ca] </ref>

A study in 2014 showed public support for nuclear power and highlighted a reliable supply of uranium ore in the province,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://globalnews.ca/news/1329114/survey-reveals-saskatchewan-attitudes-towards-nuclear-power/|title = Survey reveals Saskatchewan attitudes toward nuclear power &#124; Globalnews.ca}}</ref> but the province has not been eager moving forward and no site has been identified since 2011.<ref name="cbc.ca"/>

On June 27, 2022 [[SaskPower|Saskatchewan Power Corporation]] selected the BWRX-300 SMR for potential deployment in the mid-2030s<ref>{{Cite web |title=SaskPower Selects the GE-Hitachi BWRX-300 Small Modular Reactor Technology for Potential Deployment in Saskatchewan |url=https://www.saskpower.com/about-us/media-information/news-releases/2022/saskpower-selects-the-ge-hitachi-bwrx-300-smr-technology-for-potential-deployment-in-saskatchewan |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=www.saskpower.com}}</ref>

===New Brunswick===
In August 2007, a consortium named Team CANDU began a feasibility study regarding the installation of an [[Advanced CANDU reactor|Advanced CANDU Reactor]] at Point Lepreau, to supply power to the eastern seaboard. July 2010, the [[Government of New Brunswick]] and NB Power signed an agreement with Areva to study the feasibility of a new [[Light-water reactor|light water]] nuclear unit at Point Lepreau but a newly elected government two months later shelved the plan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN_New_Brunswick_deals_with_Areva_0907101.html|title=New Brunswick deals with Areva|date=July 9, 2010|website=www.world-nuclear-news.org|access-date=August 23, 2016}}</ref>

===Other technologies===
A number of Canadian [[Startup company|startups]] are developing new commercial nuclear reactor designs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.metronews.ca/news/canada/2016/02/22/canadian-start-ups-look-to-reimagined-nuclear-power-to-replace-fossil-fuels.html|title=Canadian startups bet on reimagined nuclear power to replace fossil fuels|last=Bickis|first=Ian|date=February 22, 2016|website=metronews.ca|access-date=August 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011442/https://www.thestar.com/?redirect=true|archive-date=February 12, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> In March 2016, the [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]], Ontario-based company [[Terrestrial Energy]] was awarded a $5.7 million grant by the Government of Canada to pursue development of its small [[IMSR]] [[Molten salt reactor|Molten Salt Reactor]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://terrestrialenergy.com/terrestrial-energy-awarded-5-7-million-grant-from-canadian-federal-government/|title=Terrestrial Energy Awarded $5.7 Million Grant From Canadian Federal Government|date=March 4, 2016|access-date=August 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510053127/http://terrestrialenergy.com/terrestrial-energy-awarded-5-7-million-grant-from-canadian-federal-government/|archive-date=May 10, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Thorium Power Canada Inc., from Toronto, is seeking regulatory approvals for a [[Thorium-based nuclear power|thorium-fuelled]] compact demonstration reactor to be built in [[Chile]] that could be used to power a 20 million-litre/day [[desalination plant]]. Since 2002, [[General Fusion]], from [[Burnaby]], British Columbia, has raised $300 million from public and private investors to build a [[Fusion power|fusion reactor]] prototype based on [[magnetized target fusion]] starting in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nextbigfuture.com./2015/05/malaysia-invests-27-million-in-canadas.html|title=Next Big Future: Malaysia invests $27-million in Canada's General Fusion startup who will begin building full scale prototype in 2017|date=May 19, 2015|website=www.nextbigfuture.com.|access-date=August 22, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.fusionindustryassociation.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/FIA%E2%80%932023-FINAL-1.pdf |title=The global fusion industry in 2023 |publisher=Fusion Industry Association |year=2023 |location=Washington, DC |pages=41}}</ref>

== Generation ==
{| class="wikitable"

|+Nuclear electricity production, nationally and by province, per year<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim/results/cansim-1270001-eng-2102838449794449070.csv|title=CANSIM Table 127-0001 Electric power statistics|website=statcan.gc.ca|access-date=September 11, 2016}} {{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

! rowspan="2" |

! colspan="2" |1980

! colspan="2" |1985

! colspan="2" |1990

! colspan="2" |1995<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nuclear sector Focus|publisher=EACL|year=1996|pages=F-18}}</ref>

! colspan="2" |2000<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=Nuclear sector Focus|publisher=EACL|year=2001|pages=131}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |2005
! colspan="2" |2010

! colspan="2" |2015<ref name=":2" />
! colspan="2" |2020<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/RDS-2-41_web.pdf |title=Nuclear Power Reactors in the World |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |year=2021 |isbn=978-92-0-124421-5 |edition=2021 |location=Vienna |pages=5 |language=English |issn=1011-2642}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/nr-rn/pdf/en/Publications/energy-sector-review-2020.pdf |title=2020 Energy Sector Review |publisher=Government of New Brunswick |year=2021 |pages=2 |language=English}}</ref>
|-

!TWh

!%total

!TWh

!%total

!TWh

!%total

!TWh

!%total

!TWh

!%total
!TWh
!%total
!TWh

!%total

!TWh

!%total
!TWh
!%total
|-

|{{Flag|Canada}}

|35.8

|9.8%

|57.1

|12.8%

|68.8

|14.8%

|92.3

|17.2%

|68.6

|11.8%
|86.8
|14.5%
|85.5

|14.5%

|95.6
|16.6%
|92.2
|14.6%
|-

|{{Flag|Ontario}}<ref name=":7" />

|35.8

|32.6%

|48.5

|40%

|59.3

|45.9%

|86.2

|58.5%

|59.8

|39%
|77.9
|49.2%
|82.9

|55%

|92.3

|60%
|87.8
|60%
|-

|{{Flag|Quebec}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mern.gouv.qc.ca/energie/statistiques/excel/2014/Tableau%207.3.2.1.xls|title=La production d'électricité disponible par source d'énergie (1986-2011)|website=mern.gouv.qc.ca|publisher=Energie et Ressources naturelles Quebec|access-date=September 1, 2016}}</ref>

|0

|0%

|3.21

|2.3%

|4.14

|3.1%

|4.51

|2.6%

|4.88

|2.7%
|4.48
|2.5%
|3.76

|2%

|0

|0%
|0
|0%
|-

|{{Flag|New Brunswick}}

|0

|0%

|5.43

|47.5%

|5.33

|32%

|1.57

|12.5%

|3.96

|21.1%
|4.37
|21.6%
|0

|0%

|3.3
|
|4.78
|41%
|}

==Power reactors==
{{See also|List of commercial nuclear reactors#Canada}}
{{Canada nuke plant map}}

Beginning in 1958, Canada built 25 nuclear power reactors over the course of 35 years, with only three of them located outside of Ontario. This made the [[Southern Ontario|southern part]] of the province one of the most nuclearized areas in the world with 12 to 20 operating reactors at any given time since 1987 inside a 120-kilometre radius.

All of the Canadian reactors are concentrated in only seven different sites, with two of them (Pickering and Bruce) being the [[List of nuclear power stations|largest nuclear generating stations]] in the world by total reactor count. The Bruce site, with eight active reactors and one shut down ([[Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station|Douglas Point]]) has been the [[List of largest power stations in the world|largest operating nuclear power station]] in the world by total reactor count, the number of operational reactors, and total output between 2012 and 2020.

All of the reactors are of the [[Pressurized heavy-water reactor|PHWR]] type. Because [[CANDU reactor]]s can be refuelled while operating, Pickering unit 3 achieved the then highest [[capacity factor]] in the world in 1977 and Pickering unit 7 held the world record for continuous operation without a shutdown (894 days) from 1994 to 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/nuctek/canhistory.html|title=Nuclear History|website=www.science.uwaterloo.ca|access-date=August 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218051827/http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/nuctek/canhistory.html|archive-date=February 18, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.candu.org/candu_reactors.html|title=CANDU Reactors|last=Kosarenko|first=Yulia|website=www.candu.org|access-date=August 22, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225220611/http://www.candu.org/candu_reactors.html|archive-date=February 25, 2012}}</ref> In 2021, a new world record (1106 days) was established by Darlington unit 1.<ref>{{cite news|date=February 8, 2021|title=German, Canadian reactors set new world records|work=World Nuclear News|url=https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/German-Canadian-reactors-set-new-world-records|access-date=June 23, 2021}}</ref> Overall, PHWR reactors had the best lifetime average load factor of all western [[generation II reactor]]s until being superseded by the [[Pressurized water reactor|PWR]] in the early 2000s.<ref name=":8" />

{{Clear}}

{{Graphical timeline of Canada's nuclear reactors}}

=== Active ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Active nuclear reactors in Canada<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/RDS_2-36_web.pdf|title=Nuclear Power Reactors in the World|publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency|date=May 2016|isbn=9789201037169|location=Vienna|pages=18;32–33;48|issn=1011-2642|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604140912/https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/RDS_2-36_web.pdf|archive-date=4 June 2016}}</ref>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Station<br />name</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Unit<br />name</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>No.{{efn|group=operating|Overall, among all reactors ever built in Canada}}</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Type</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Model</small>
! scope="col" colspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Capacity</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Operator</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Builder</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Construction<br />start<br />date</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Grid<br />connection<br />date</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Commercial<br />operation<br />date</small>
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Thermal (MW<sub>th</sub>)</small>
! colspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Electric (MW<sub>e</sub>)</small>
|-
! style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Gross</small>
! style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Net</small>
|-
| rowspan="8" | [[Bruce Nuclear Generating Station|Bruce]]
| A1
| 8
| rowspan="17" | [[Pressurized heavy-water reactor|PHWR]]
| rowspan="2" | [[CANDU reactor|CANDU]] 791
| 2620
| 830
| 760
| rowspan="8" | [[Bruce Power]]
| rowspan="16" | [[Ontario Hydro|OH]]/[[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited|AECL]]
| June 1971
| Jan 1977
| Sept 1977
|-
| A2
| 9
| 2620
| 830
| 760
| Dec 1970
| Sept 1976
| Sept 1977
|-
| A3
| 10
| rowspan="2" | CANDU 750A
| 2550
| 830
| 750
| July 1972
| Dec 1977
| Feb 1978
|-
| A4
| 11
| 2550
| 830
| 750
| Sept 1972
| Dec 1978
| Jan 1979
|-
| B5
| 18
| rowspan="4" | CANDU 750B
| 2832
| 872
| 817
| June 1978
| Dec 1984
| Mar 1985
|-
| B6
| 19
| 2690
| 891
| 817
| Jan 1978
| June 1984
| Sept 1984
|-
| B7
| 20
| 2832
| 872
| 817
| May 1979
| Feb 1986
| April 1986
|-
| B8
| 21
| 2690
| 872
| 817
| Aug 1979
| March 1987
| May 1987
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Darlington Nuclear Generating Station|Darlington]]
| 1
| 22
| rowspan="4" | CANDU 850
| 2776
| 934
| 878
| rowspan="4" | [[Ontario Power Generation|OPG]]
| April 1982
| Dec 1990
| Nov 1992
|-
| 2
| 23
| 2776
| 934
| 878
| Sept 1981
| Jan 1990
| Oct 1990
|-
| 3
| 24
| 2776
| 934
| 878
| Sept 1984
| Dec 1992
| Feb 1993
|-
| 4
| 25
| 2776
| 934
| 878
| July 1985
| April 1993
| June 1993
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Pickering Nuclear Generating Station|Pickering]]
| B5
| 13
| rowspan="4" | CANDU 500B
| 1744
| 540
| 516
| rowspan="4" |[[Ontario Power Generation|OPG]]
| Nov 1974
| Dec 1982
| May 1983
|-
| B6
| 14
| 1744
| 540
| 516
| Oct 1975
| Nov 1983
| Feb 1984
|-
| B7
| 15
| 1744
| 540
| 516
| Mar 1976
| Nov 1984
| Jan 1985
|-
| B8
| 16
| 1744
| 540
| 516
| Sept 1976
| Jan 1986
| Feb 1986
|-
| [[Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station|Point Lepreau]]
| 1
| 17
| CANDU&nbsp;6
| 2180
| 705
| 660
| [[NB Power]]
| [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited|AECL]]
| May 1975
| Sept 1982
| Feb 1983
|}

{{notelist|group=operating}}

===Permanently shut down===
{| class="wikitable"
|+Permanently shut down nuclear reactors in Canada<ref name=":2" />
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Station<br />name</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Unit<br />name</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>No.{{efn|group=shutdown|Overall, among all reactors ever built in Canada}}</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Type</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Model</small>
! scope="col" colspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Capacity</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Operator</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Builder</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Construction<br />start<br />date</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Grid<br />connection<br />date</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Commercial<br />operation<br />date</small>
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Shutdown<br />date</small>
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Thermal (MW<sub>th</sub>)</small>
! colspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Electric (MW<sub>e</sub>)</small>
|-
! style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Gross</small>
! style="background:#FFDEAD;" | <small>Net</small>
|-
| scope="row" rowspan="2" | [[Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station|Gentilly]]
| 1
| 3
| [[Steam-generating heavy water reactor|SGHWR]]
| [[CANDU reactor|CANDU]] BLW-250
| 792
| 266
| 250
| rowspan="2" | [[Hydro-Québec|HQ]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Hydro-Québec|HQ]]/[[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited|AECL]]
| Sept 1966
| Apr 1971
| May 1972
| June 1977
|-
| 2
| 12
| rowspan="7" | [[Pressurized heavy-water reactor|PHWR]]
| CANDU&nbsp;6
| 2156
| 675
| 635
| April 1974
| Dec 1982
| Oct 1983
| Dec 2012
|- 
| rowspan="4" | [[Pickering Nuclear Generating Station|Pickering]]
| A2
| 5
| rowspan="4" | CANDU 500A
| 1744
| 542
| 515
| rowspan="2" | [[Ontario Hydro|OH]]
| rowspan="5" | [[Ontario Hydro|OH]]/[[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited|AECL]]
| Sept 1966
| Oct 1971
| Dec 1971
| May 2007
|-
| A3
| 6
| 1744
| 542
| 515
| Dec 1967
| May 1972
| June 1972
| Oct 2008
|-
|A1
|4
|1744
|542
|515
| rowspan="2" |OH/[[Ontario Power Generation|OPG]]
|June 1966
|April 1971
|July 1971
|Sept 2024
|-
|A4
|7
|1744
|542
|515
|May 1968
|May 1973
|June 1973
|Dec 2024
|-
| [[Douglas Point]] 
| 1
| 2
| CANDU 200
| 704
| 218
| 206
| [[Ontario Hydro|OH]]
| Feb 1960
| Jan 1967
| Sept 1968
| May 1984
|-
| [[Nuclear Power Demonstrator|Nuclear Power Demonstration]]
| NPD
| 1
| CANDU prototype
| 92
| 25
| 22
| [[Ontario Hydro|OH]]
| [[Canadian General Electric|CGE]]
| Jan 1958
| June 1962
| Oct 1962
| Aug 1987
|}

{{notelist|group=shutdown}}

==Research reactors==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Research reactors in Canada<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nucleus.iaea.org/RRDB/RR/ReactorSearch.aspx|title=RRDB Search|website=nucleus.iaea.org|access-date=August 18, 2016}}</ref>
! scope="row" style="background:#7FFFD4;" |Place
! scope="row" style="background:#7FFFD4;width: 60px;" |Reactor name
! scope="row" style="background:#7FFFD4;" |Reactor type
! scope="col" style="background:#7FFFD4;width: 50px;"|Thermal power (kWt)
! style="background:#7FFFD4;" |Const. start
! scope="row" style="background:#7FFFD4;" |First critical
! style="background:#7FFFD4;" |Status
! style="background:#7FFFD4;" |Notes
|-
| scope="row" rowspan="8" |[[Chalk River Laboratories]] - [[Chalk River, Ontario]]
| scope="row" style="background:#FFBBBB;" |[[ZEEP]]
| style="background:#FFBBBB;" |Heavy Water
| style="background:#FFBBBB;" |0.001
| style="background:#FFBBBB;" |1945
| style="background:#FFBBBB;" |1945-09-05
| style="background:#FFBBBB;" |Decommissioned
1973
| style="background:#FFBBBB;" |First nuclear reactor in Canada, and first outside the United States.
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|[[NRX]]
|Heavy Water
|42 000
|1944
|1947-07-22
|Shut down
1993-03-30
|One of the highest [[Neutron flux|flux]] reactors in the world. Research and medical isotope production.
|-
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|[[National Research Universal Reactor|NRU]] 
|Heavy Water
|135 000
|1952
|1957-11-03
|Shut down
2018-03-31
|Research and medical isotope production.
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|[[Pool Test Reactor|PTR]]
|Pool
|0.1
|1956-05-01
|1957-11-29
|Shut down
1990-10-05
|Pool test reactor. Research.
|- 
|[[ZED-2]]
|Tank
|0.2
|1958-12-01
|1960-09-07
|Operational
|Zero-power research reactor
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|
|[[SLOWPOKE reactor|SLOWPOKE]]
|5
|
|1970
|Moved 1971
|Prototype. Moved to [[University of Toronto]].
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|[[Multipurpose Applied Physics Lattice Experiment|MAPLE]] I
| rowspan="2" |Tank in pool
| rowspan="2" |10 000
|1997-12-01
|2000
| rowspan="2" |Cancelled 2008
| rowspan="2" |Medical isotope production reactors. Program terminated before operations.
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|[[Multipurpose Applied Physics Lattice Experiment|MAPLE]] II
|
|2003
|-
|[[McMaster University]] - [[Hamilton, Ontario]]
|[[McMaster Nuclear Reactor|MNR]]
|MTR
|5 000
|1957-09-01
|1959-04-04
|Operational
|Operating at 3 MWt. The highest-flux research reactor in Canada since the closing of the National Research Universal (NRU) reactor in Chalk River in 2018.
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
| rowspan="2" |[[Whiteshell Laboratories]] - [[Pinawa, Manitoba]]
|[[WR-1]]
|[[CANDU reactor|CANDU]]
|60 000
|1962-11-01
|1965-11-01
|Shut down
1985-05-17
|Organic cooled prototype. Plant had coolant leak of 2,739 litres in November 1978.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/opinion/westview/manitobas-forgotten-nuclear-accident-118563039.html|title=Manitoba's forgotten nuclear accident|newspaper=Winnipeg Free Press|date=March 24, 2011|last1=Taylor|first1=Dave}}</ref>
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|[[SLOWPOKE reactor|SDR]]
|SLOWPOKE-3
|2 000
|1985
|1987-07-15
|Shut down 1989
|Slowpoke demonstration reactor for [[district heating]]
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|[[Tunney's Pasture]] - 20 Goldenrod Driveway, [[Ottawa]], Ontario
|
|SLOWPOKE
|20
|1970
|1971-05-14
|Shut down 1984
|Prototype
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
| rowspan="2" |[[University of Toronto]] Haultin Building - [[Toronto, Ontario]]
|
|SLOWPOKE
|5
|1971
|1971-06-05
|Dismantled 1976
|Power increased to 20kWt in 1973.
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|
|SLOWPOKE-2
|20
|1976
|1976
|Shut down 2001
|
|-
|[[École Polytechnique de Montréal]] - [[Montreal]], Quebec
|
|SLOWPOKE-2
|20
|1975
|1976-05-01
|Operational
|Converted to [[Enriched uranium|Low-enriched uranium]] (LEU) fuel
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|[[Dalhousie University]] Trace Analysis Research Centre - [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]]
|
|SLOWPOKE-2
|20
|1976-04-15
|1976-07-08
|Dismantled 2011
|
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|[[University of Alberta]] - [[Edmonton]]
|
|SLOWPOKE-2
|20
|1976
|1977-04-22
|Dismantled August 5, 2017
|
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;"
|[[Saskatchewan Research Council]] - [[Saskatoon]]
|
|SLOWPOKE-2
|16
|1980
|1981-03-01
|Shut down in December 2017
|Decommissioning was expected to be completed sometime in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatoon/slowpoke-reactor-sask-1.4965909|title='It was very unique': Saskatoon's SLOWPOKE-2 research reactor shutting down after 37 years|last=Shield|first=David|date=4 January 2019|work=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=29 November 2019}}</ref>
|- style="background:#FFBBBB;" 
|[[Kanata, Ontario|Kanata]] - original [[AECL]] and later [[MDS Inc.|MDS Nordion]]
|
|SLOWPOKE-2
|20
|1984-05-14
|1984-06-06
|Shut down 1989
|
|-
|[[Royal Military College of Canada|Royal Military College]] - [[Kingston, Ontario]]
|
|SLOWPOKE-2
|20
|1985-08-20
|1985-09-06
|Operational
|First low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuelled
|}

==Notable accidents==
{{See also|Nuclear power accidents by country#Canada}}

===Chalk River===
{{Main|NRX#Accident|National_Research_Universal_reactor#History}}
* On December 12, 1952, the world's first major nuclear reactor accident ([[International Nuclear Event Scale|INES level 5]]) happened at [[Chalk River Laboratories]], 180 kilometres north-west of [[Ottawa]]. A [[Criticality accident|power excursion]] and partial [[Loss-of-coolant accident|loss of coolant]] led to severe damages to the [[NRX]] reactor core resulting in [[Nuclear fission product|fission products]] being released through the reactor stack and 4.5 tonnes of [[Radioactive contamination|contaminated]] water collecting in the basement of the building. The future US president [[Jimmy Carter]], at the time a [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] lieutenant, was among the 1,202 people involved in the two-year-long clean-up;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cns-snc.ca/media/history/nrx.html|title=The NRX Incident|last=Jedicke|first=Peter|website=cns-snc.ca|access-date=August 22, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/three-president-carter/ |title = The American Experience: Meltdown at Three Mile Island |publisher = PBS |access-date = June 29, 2007 }}</ref>
* May 24, 1958, a [[Nuclear fuel|fuel rod]] caught fire and ruptured as it was being removed from the [[National Research Universal reactor|NRU]] reactor leading to the complete contamination of the building. As in 1952, the military was called in to aid and approximately 679 people were employed in the clean-up.<ref name="accide">{{cite web |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/a-closer-look-at-canada-s-nuclear-plants-1.1194756 |title=A closer look at Canada's nuclear plants |date=January 9, 2012 |work=CBC News }}</ref>

===Pinawa===
In November 1978 a loss of coolant accident affected the experimental [[WR-1]] reactor at [[Whiteshell Laboratories|Whitshell Laboratories]] in [[Pinawa]], Manitoba. 2,739 litres of coolant oil ([[terphenyl]] isomer) leaked, most of it into the [[Winnipeg River]], and three fuel elements broke with some fission products being released. The repair took several weeks for workers to complete.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/opinion/analysis/manitobas-forgotten-nuclear-accident-118563039.html|title=Manitoba's forgotten nuclear accident|last=Taylor|first=Dave|date=March 24, 2011|newspaper=Winnipeg Free Press|access-date=August 22, 2016}}</ref>

===Pickering===
{{Main|2020 Ontario nuclear incident alert}}
*On August 1, 1983, pressure tubes—which hold fuel rods—ruptured due to hydriding at the Pickering reactor 2. Some coolant escaped, but was recovered before it left the plant, and there was no release of radioactive material from the containment building. All four reactors were re-tubed with new materials ([[Zirconium|Zr]]-2.5%[[Niobium|Nb]]) over ten years;<ref name="accide" />
*On August 2, 1992, a heavy water leak at Pickering reactor 1 [[heat exchanger]] released 2.3 [[becquerel|petabecquerel]] (PBq) of radioactive [[tritium]] into Lake Ontario, resulting in increased levels of [[Tritium#Health risks|tritium]] in drinking water along the lake shoreline;<ref name=":0" />
*On December 10, 1994, a pipe break at Pickering reactor 2 resulted in a major loss of coolant accident and a spill of 185 tonnes of heavy water. The Emergency Core Cooling System had to be used to prevent a [[Nuclear meltdown|core meltdown]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sencanada.ca/content/sen/Committee/371/pdf/interim-enrg-e.pdf|title=Canada's nuclear reactors: How much safety is enough?|date=2001|page=11}}</ref> It has been called "the most serious nuclear accident in Canada" by The Standing Senate Committee on Energy, the Environment and Natural Resources in 2001.
*On January 12, 2020, a nuclear incident alert was sent out via the [[Alert Ready]] system at 07:23 EST (UTC -5), to all residents of Ontario. The alert stated that "An incident was reported at [[Pickering Nuclear Generating Station]]" and that "people near the Pickering Nuclear Generating Station DO NOT need to take any protective actions at this time." It was later revealed that, in a statement by MPP [[Sylvia Jones]], "The cause of the alert was revealed to be an error during a 'routine training exercise' being conducted by the Provincial Emergency Operations Center (PEOC)".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.opg.com/media_release/opg-statement-about-pickering-nuclear/|title=Ontario Power Generation: A statement regarding the alert about Pickering Nuclear.}}</ref>

===Darlington===
In 2009, more than 200,000 litres of water containing trace amounts of tritium and [[hydrazine]] spilled into Lake Ontario after workers accidentally filled the wrong tank with tritiated water. However the level of the isotope in the lake was not enough to pose harm to residents.<ref name="accide" /><ref name="StarPaper">{{cite web |url=https://www.thestar.com/article/742225 |title=Nuclear plant spills tritium into lake |website=[[Toronto Star]] |date=April 12, 2011 |access-date=March 27, 2012}}</ref>

===Point Lepreau===
On December 13, 2011, a radioactive spill happened at New Brunswick's Point Lepreau nuclear generating station during refurbishment. Up to six litres of heavy water splashed to the floor, forcing an evacuation of the reactor building and halt of operations. On December 14, [[NB Power]] issued a news release, admitting there had been another type of spill three weeks earlier.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/nuclear-commission-says-point-lepreau-leaks-unsettling-1.1195350 |title=Nuclear commission says Point Lepreau leaks 'unsettling' |author=Bobbi-Jean MacKinnon |date=January 9, 2012 |work=CBC News }}</ref>

==Fuel cycle==
{{Main|Nuclear industry in Canada}}
CANDU type reactors operating in Canada have the particularity of being able to use [[natural uranium]] as fuel because of their high [[neutron economy]]. Therefore, the costly [[Enriched uranium|fuel enrichment]] step required by the more prevalent [[light-water reactor]] types can be avoided. However this comes at the cost of [[heavy water]] usage which, for example, represented 11% ($1.5 billion) of the capital costs of the Darlington plant.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Feiveson|first=Harold|date=June 2011|title=Spent Fuel from Nuclear Power Reactors|url=http://fissilematerials.org/library/ipfm-spent-fuel-overview-june-2011.pdf|journal=The International Panel on Fissile Materials}}</ref>

The low [[uranium-235]] density in natural uranium (0.7% <sup>235</sup>U) compared with [[enriched uranium]] (3-5% <sup>235</sup>U) implies that less fuel can be consumed before the fission rate drops too low to sustain [[Critical mass|criticality]], explaining why fuel burn-up in CANDU reactors (7.5 to 9 GW.day/tonnes) is far lower than in [[Pressurized water reactor|PWR]] reactors (50 GW.d/t).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://canteach.candu.org/Content%20Library/20043404.pdf|title=Fuel Management in CANDU|last=Rouben|first=B.|date=1997|website=canteach.candu.org}}</ref> Therefore, a lot more fuel is used and consequently a lot more spent fuel is produced by CANDUs for a given quantity of energy produced (140 t.GWe/year for a CANDU vs 20 t.GWe/year for a PWR).<ref name=":5" /> Yet mined uranium utilization is lower by almost 30% in a CANDU because there is no wasteful enrichment step during the ore processing into fuel. Paradoxically heavy-water reactors in Canada use less uranium but produce more spent fuel than their light water counterparts.

===Uranium mining===
{{Main|Uranium mining in Canada}}In 2009, Canada had the 4th largest recoverable [[List of countries by uranium reserves|uranium reserves]] in the world (at a cost of less than 130 [[United States dollar|USD]]/kg)<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/TE_1629_web.pdf|title=World Distribution of Uranium Deposits (UDEPO) with Uranium Deposit Classification|publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency|year=2009|isbn=9789201105097|pages=11|issn=1011-4289}}</ref> and was up until that date the world's largest producer. The only currently active mines and most prominent uranium reserves are in the [[Athabasca Basin]] of northern [[Saskatchewan]]. [[Cameco]]'s [[McArthur River uranium mine|McArthur River mine]], opened in 2000, is both the largest high-grade uranium deposit and the largest producer in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cameco.com/annual_report/2013/mda/mineral-reserves-resources/reserves/|title=Mineral Reserves|date=2013|website=www.cameco.com|access-date=August 18, 2016}}</ref>

Approximately 15% of Canada's uranium production is used to fuel domestic reactors, the rest being exported.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/uranium-nuclear/7695|title=About Uranium|website=nrcan.gc.ca|access-date=August 21, 2016}}</ref>

===Fuel production===
[[File:CANDU fuel bundles.jpg|thumb|CANDU fuel bundles]]
Uranium ore concentrate ([[yellowcake]]) from mines in Canada and elsewhere is processed into [[uranium trioxide]] (UO<sub>3</sub>) at Cameco's [[Blind River, Ontario|Blind River]] plant, the world's largest commercial uranium refinery.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cameco.com/fuel_services/blind_river_refinery/|title=Blind River Refinery|website=www.cameco.com|access-date=August 22, 2016}}</ref> This purer form of uranium is the raw material for the next stage of processing happening in [[Port Hope, Ontario|Port Hope]], Ontario. There, Cameco's conversion facility produces [[uranium hexafluoride]] (UF<sub>6</sub>) for foreign uranium enrichment facilities and [[uranium dioxide]] (UO<sub>2</sub>) for local fuel manufacturers. Cameco's Port Hope and [[BWX Technologies|BWXT]]'s [[Peterborough, Ontario|Peterborough]] and Toronto<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://geh-canada.ca/ge-and-hitachi-alliance-announces-sale-of-ge-hitachi-nuclear-energy-canada/|title=GE and Hitachi Alliance Announces Sale of GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy Canada|website=geh-canada.ca|access-date=August 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021213936/http://geh-canada.ca/ge-and-hitachi-alliance-announces-sale-of-ge-hitachi-nuclear-energy-canada/|archive-date=October 21, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> fuel manufacturing facilities turns uranium dioxide powder into ceramic pellets before sealing these into zirconium tubes to form fuel rods assembled into bundles for CANDU reactors in Canada and elsewhere.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://geh-canada.ca/what-we-do/|title=What We Do|website=geh-canada.ca|access-date=August 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021214252/http://geh-canada.ca/what-we-do/|archive-date=October 21, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Waste disposal===
Like in the USA or [[Finland]], the policy of Canada is not to [[Nuclear reprocessing|reprocess]] spent nuclear fuel but to directly dispose of it for economic reasons.

In 1978, the government of Canada launched a nuclear fuel waste management program. In 1983, an underground laboratory was constructed at [[Whiteshell Laboratories]] in [[Manitoba]] to study the geological conditions associated with the storage of spent nuclear fuel. The 420-metre deep facility was decommissioned and deliberately flooded in 2010 to perform one final experiment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/breakingnews/whiteshell-labs-closes-underground-facility-forever-111511344.html|title=Whiteshell labs closes underground facility forever|date=August 12, 2010|website=www.winnipegfreepress.com|access-date=August 20, 2016}}</ref> In 2002 the [[Nuclear Waste Management Organization (Canada)|Nuclear Waste Management Organization]] (NWMO) was founded by the industry to develop a permanent waste strategy.

====Low- and intermediate-level waste====
Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (CNL) plans to build a 1 million m³ Near Surface Disposal Facility (NSDF) at the Chalk River site to dispose of its [[Low-level waste|low-level radioactive waste]] beginning in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Near Surface Disposal Facility|url=https://www.cnl.ca/en/home/environmental-stewardship/near-surface-disposal-facility/default.aspx|access-date=June 16, 2020|website=www.cnl.ca}}</ref>

Low-level and intermediate-level [[radioactive waste]] produced by the three Ontario nuclear power plants in operation are managed by the Western Waste Management Facility (WWMF) located at the Bruce nuclear site in [[Tiverton, Ontario|Tiverton]], Ontario. OPG proposed to build a deep geological repository adjacent to the WWMF to serve as a long-term storage solution for about 200,000 m³ of this waste.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.opg.com/generating-power/nuclear/nuclear-waste-management/Deep-Geologic-Repository/Pages/Deep-Geologic-Repository.aspx|title=Deep Geologic Repository|website=www.opg.com|access-date=August 20, 2016}}</ref> However, the project was not approved in a vote by the [[Saugeen First Nation|Saugeen Ojibway Nation]] in January 2020. OPG had previously promised not to proceed without the nation's approval. The project was cancelled in June 2020. OPG will look for alternative waste disposal solutions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bayshorebroadcasting.ca/news_item.php?NewsID=115063|title=Saugeen Ojibway Nation Votes Down Deep Geologic Repository Proposal|website=www.bayshorebroadcasting.ca|access-date=May 19, 2020}}</ref><ref name=nei-20200629>{{cite news |url=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsopg-cancels-plans-for-nuclear-waste-store-7999577 |title=OPG cancels plans for nuclear waste store |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International |date=June 29, 2020 |access-date=June 29, 2020}}</ref>

====Spent fuel====
As of June 2019, Canadian reactors had produced 2.9 million [[Spent nuclear fuel|spent fuel]] bundles or around 52,000 tonnes of [[high-level waste]], the second largest amount in the world behind the US.<ref name=":5" /> This number could grow to 5.5 million bundles (103,000 tonnes) at the end of the planned life of the current reactors fleet.

Spent fuel is stored at each reactor sites either in [[Spent fuel pool|fuel pools]] (58% of the total) or [[Dry cask storage|dry cask]] storage (42%) when it is cool enough.<ref name=":3" /> Although more spent fuel is produced by CANDU reactors, dry storage costs for a given electricity production are comparable with costs for PWR reactors because the spent fuel is more easily handled (no fuel [[Criticality accident|criticality]]). The same is true with the cost and space requirements for the permanent disposal of the waste.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Allan|first1=C.J.|last2=Dormuth|first2=K.W.|date=1999|title=The Back End of the Fuel Cycle and CANDU|url=http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/csp_006c/PDF-Files/paper-10.pdf|journal=International Atomic Energy Agency|issue=IAEA-SM-357/10}}</ref>

In 2005, the NWMO decided to build a [[Deep geological repository|deep repository]] dedicated to store the spent nuclear fuel underground. The $24 billion price tag of this 500- to 1000-metre underground vault is to be paid by a [[Trust law|trust fund]] backed by the nuclear production companies. The spent fuel bundles would be placed in steel baskets wrapped together 3 by 3 (324 fuel bundles total) in corrosion resistant [[copper]] to form containers designed to last at least a 100,000 years. The containers would be encased in the tunnels of the repository by swelling [[Bentonite|bentonite clay]] but remain retrievable for approximately 240 years.<ref>{{Citation|last=Nuclear Waste Management Organization|title=Designing the Process for Selecting a Site|date=July 2, 2009|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cT9i6Y2CQHs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404185145/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cT9i6Y2CQHs&feature=youtu.be |archive-date=2017-04-04 |url-status=dead|access-date=August 20, 2016}}</ref>

The process of identifying a proper place for such a long-term facility started in 2010. Out of 22 interested communities, two, located around [[Ignace, Ontario|Ignace]] in [[Northwestern Ontario]] and [[South Bruce, Ontario|South Bruce]] in [[Southwestern Ontario]], were being studied as potential sites.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/canada-narrows-list-of-possible-locations-for-nuclear-waste-facility-1.2604160|title=Canada narrows list of possible locations for nuclear waste facility|last=MacInnes-Rae|first=Rick|website=cbc.ca|publisher=2014-04-09|access-date=August 23, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Study Areas|url=https://www.nwmo.ca/en/Site-selection/Study-Areas|access-date=June 16, 2020|website=www.nwmo.ca}}</ref>

In 2024, the NWMO selected an [[intrusive rock]] formation known as the Revell [[Batholith]], located about 35 kilometres west of Ignace (between Ignace and [[Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation]]) as the site for a spent nuclear fuel repository.<ref>{{cite web |date=November 29, 2021 |title=The NWMO reaches key milestone by completing borehole drilling in Ignace area |url=https://www.nwmo.ca/News/The-NWMO-reaches-key-milestone-by-completing-borehole-drilling-in-Ignace-area |access-date=November 30, 2024 |publisher=[[Nuclear Waste Management Organization (Canada)|Nuclear Waste Management Organization]]}}</ref> Construction is expected to begin in the mid 2030s and become operational in the early 2040s.<ref>{{cite news |last=Law |first=Sarah |date=November 30, 2024 |title=Northwestern Ontario communities chosen for Canada's nuclear waste storage site |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/thunder-bay/nuclear-waste-storage-site-chosen-1.7395660 |access-date=November 30, 2024 |publisher=[[CBC News]]}}</ref>

==Public opinion==
According to a 2012 poll by Innovative Research Group, on behalf of the [[Canadian Nuclear Association]], 37% of Canadians are in favour of nuclear power, while 53% oppose it. Both of these figures represent a drop from 2011 (38% and 56% respectively), and the population that neither supports nor opposes or did not know their opinion has grown to 9%. Support ranges from a high of 54% in Ontario to a low of 12% in Quebec. Other notable demographic details include men being generally more supportive of nuclear power than women, and older populations being slightly more supportive than younger populations. There was not a significant change in opposition to nuclear power in Canada following the March 2011 events at Japan's [[Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant|Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station]] (from 54% to 56%), and the issue was followed at least somewhat closely by 70% of Canadians polled.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cna.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012NuclearAttitudeReport.pdf |title=2012 Public Opinion Research: National Nuclear Attitude Survey |author=Innovative Research Group |date=July 9, 2012 |work=Canadian Nuclear Association }}</ref>

===Anti-nuclear movement===
{{Main|Anti-nuclear movement in Canada}}
Canada has an active [[anti-nuclear movement]], which includes major campaigning organizations like [[Greenpeace]] and the [[Sierra Club]]. Greenpeace was founded in [[Vancouver]] by former Sierra Club members to protest [[nuclear weapon]]s tests on [[Amchitka|Amchitka Island]]. Over 300 public interest groups across Canada have endorsed the mandate of the [[Sortir du nucléaire (Canada)|Campaign for Nuclear Phaseout]] (CNP). Some environmental organizations such as [[Energy Probe]], the [[Pembina Institute]] and the [[Gordon Edwards (scientist)|Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility]] (CCNR) are reported to have developed considerable expertise on [[nuclear power]] and energy issues. There is also a long-standing tradition of indigenous opposition to [[uranium mining]].<ref name=mez>Lutz Mez, [[Mycle Schneider]] and [[Stephen Thomas (economist)|Steve Thomas]] (Eds.) (2009). ''International Perspectives of Energy Policy and the Role of Nuclear Power'', Multi-Science Publishing Co. Ltd, p. 257.</ref><ref name=schneider>Lutz Mez, Mycle Schneider and Steve Thomas (Eds.) (2009). ''International Perspectives of Energy Policy and the Role of Nuclear Power'', Multi-Science Publishing Co. Ltd, p. 279.</ref>

The province of British Columbia firmly maintains a strict no-nuclear policy. The Crown corporation, [[BC Hydro]], upholds this principle by "rejecting consideration of nuclear power in implementing B.C.'s clean energy strategy."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bchydro.com/news/articles/press_releases/2010/new_act_powers_bc_forward.html |title=Page or File Not Found |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201213730/http://www.bchydro.com/news/articles/press_releases/2010/new_act_powers_bc_forward.html |archive-date=February 1, 2012 }}</ref>

===Pro-nuclear movement===
{{empty section|date=November 2020}}

==See also==
{{portal|Energy|Nuclear technology|Canada}}
{{div col}}
*[[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]]
*[[Canadian Nuclear Association]]
*[[Electricity sector in Canada]]
*[[Energy Alberta Corporation]]
*[[Energy policy of Canada]]
*[[List of nuclear reactors]]
*[[List of nuclear waste storage facilities in Canada]]
*[[List of nuclear fuel storage facilities in Canada]]
*[[Multipurpose Applied Physics Lattice Experiment]]
*[[Nuclear industry in Canada]]
*[[Nuclear power accidents by country]]
*[[Pembina Institute]]
*[[Science and technology in Canada]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{citation |last =Steed  |first = Roger G|year =2007 |title =Nuclear Power in Canada and Beyond |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq_3A95k1u8C&q=Nuclear%20power%20in%20Canada&pg=PP1|publisher= General Store Pub. House|isbn=978-1-897113-51-6 }}
*{{citation |last = Atomic Energy Canada
 |first =Limited  |year =1997 |title =Canada enters the nuclear age |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=SkrVDKMconIC&q=Nuclear%20power%20in%20Canada&pg=PP1 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=0-7735-1601-8 }}
*{{cite book|author=Brian Buckley|title=Canada's early nuclear policy: fate, chance and character|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GouLewdvRkUC&pg=PP1|year=2000|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press&nbsp;– MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-2077-6}}
*{{cite book|author1=G. Bruce Doern|author2=Robert W. Morrison|author3=Arslan Dorman|title=Canadian nuclear energy policy: changing ideas, institutions, and interests|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qUsjUono_3AC&pg=PP1|year=2001|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-4788-5}}
*{{cite book|author1=Gordon, H. E. Sims|title=The anti-nuclear game|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ff1RAAAAMAAJ|year=1990|publisher=University of Ottawa Press|isbn=0-7766-0285-3}}
*{{cite book|author1=Gordon, H. E. Sims|title=A history of the Atomic Energy Control Board|year=1980|publisher=Canadian Govt Publishing Centre|isbn=0-660-10812-7}}

==External links==
*[https://www.nuclearfaq.ca/ The Canadian Nuclear FAQ]
*[https://www.cns-snc.ca/ The Canadian Nuclear Society]
*[https://www.nuclearheritage.com/ The Society for the Preservation of Canada's Nuclear Heritage, Inc.]
*[https://legionmagazine.com/en/2003/09/entering-the-nuclear-age/ "Entering the Nuclear Age" (Legion Magazine, Sept/Oct 2003)]
*[https://www.pembina.org/reports/Nuclear_web.pdf "Nuclear Power in Canada: An Examination of Risks, Impacts and Sustainability" (Pembina Institute, 2006)]
*[http://www.cns-snc.ca/OntarioElectricity "Where is my Electricity Coming From at this Hour? (if I lived in Ontario)" (Canadian Nuclear Society, with data from IESO)]

{{Nuclear power in Canada}}
{{Nuclear power by country}}

[[Category:Nuclear power in Canada| ]]
[[Category:Lists of power stations in Canada|Nuclear]]