View source for Northern Adelbert languages

{{Short description|Family of Languages}}
{{Infobox language family
|name=Northern Adelbert
|altname= Adelbert Range &ndash; Isumrud Strait <br> Pihom–Isumrud
|region=[[Adelbert Range]], [[Madang Province]], [[Papua New Guinea]]
|familycolor=Papuan
|fam1=Northeast New Guinea?
|fam2=[[Madang languages|Madang]]
|fam3=Central Madang
|glotto=grea1298
|glottoname=Greater Northern Adelbert
|glottorefname=Greater Northern Adelbert
|glotto2=croi1234
|glottoname2=Croisilles 
}}

The '''Northern Adelbert''' or '''Pihom–Isumrud''' languages are a [[language family|family]] of twenty languages in the [[Madang languages|Madang]] stock of New Guinea. The occupy the coastal northern [[Adelbert Range]] of mountains directly opposite [[Karkar Island]], as opposed to the [[Southern Adelbert languages]], another branch of Madang.

[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]] posited a "[[linkage (linguistics)|linkage]]" connecting the Northern Adelbert languages with the [[Mabuso languages]], and named this group '''Croisilles''' {{IPAc-en|k|r|oi|'|s|I|l|z}},<ref name=pick/> as the two families bracket [[Cape Croisilles]] (Northern Adelbert to the north, Mabuso to the south). However, Ross never claimed Croisilles was an actual language family, and other researchers have rejected the connection.

==Languages==
There are approximately 20 Northern Adelbert languages.

Below is a comparison of Northern Adelbert language names in Pick (2020)<ref name="Pick 2020">{{cite thesis |type=PhD dissertation |last=Pick |first=Andrew |date=2020 |title=A reconstruction of Proto-Northern Adelbert phonology and lexicon |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa |url=http://ling.hawaii.edu/wp-content/uploads/PickDissertation.pdf}}</ref> and [[John Z'graggen|Z'graggen]] (1980).<ref>Z'graggen, J.A. ''A comparative word list of the Northern Adelbert Range languages, Madang Province, Papua New Guinea''. D-31, xvi + 194 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1980. {{doi|10.15144/PL-D31}}</ref> A few alternate names from Capell (1952) are also given.<ref>Capell, Arthur. 1952. Languages of the Bogia District, New Guinea. ''Oceania'' 22(2), 130-147; 22(3), 178-207.</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Pick (2020) !! Z'graggen (1980) !! [[ISO 639-3]]
|-
| [[Amako language|Amako]] || [[Korak language|Korak]] || [[ISO 639:koz|koz]]
|-
| [[Barem language|Barem]] || [[Bunabun language|Bunabun]] (Z'graggen 1980), [[Bunubun language|Bunubun]] (Capell 1952) || [[ISO 639:buq|buq]]
|-
| [[Bargam language|Bargam]] || [[Mugil language|Mugil]] || [[ISO 639:mlp|mlp]]
|-
| [[Bepour language|Bepour]] || [[Bepour language|Bepour]] || [[ISO 639:bie|bie]]
|-
| [[Gavak language|Gavak]] || [[Dimir language|Dimir]] || [[ISO 639:dmc|dmc]]
|-
| [[Hember Avu language|Hember Avu]] || [[Musar language|Musar]] (Z'graggen 1980),<br/>[[Amben language|Amben]] (Petir et al 1996<ref>Petir, Amova, Dum Materem, Pakong Yapong, Sakel Mukarek, Moyang Okira, & Tim Platts-Mills. 1996. ''Useful Plants of Salembem Village, Madang Province, Papua New Guinea''. Madang: Kristen Pres.</ref>),<br/>[[Vanembere language|Vanembere]] (Capell 1952) || [[ISO 639:mmi|mmi]]
|-
| [[Karian language|Karian]] || [[Bilakura language|Bilakura]] || [[ISO 639:bql|bql]]
|-
| [[Kobol language|Kobol]] || [[Koguman language|Koguman]] || [[ISO 639:kgu|kgu]]
|-
| [[Kowaki language|Kowaki]] || [[Kowaki language|Kowaki]] || [[ISO 639:xow|xow]]
|-
| [[Maia language|Maia]] || [[Maia language|Pila]],<br/>[[Saki language|Saki]] || [[ISO 639:sks|sks]]
|-
| [[Maiani language|Maiani]] || [[Maiani language|Tani]] || [[ISO 639:tnh|tnh]]
|-
| [[Mala language|Mala]] || [[Pay language|Pay]] || [[ISO 639:ped|ped]]
|-
| [[Miani language|Miani]] || [[Tani language (Papuan)|Tani]] (Z'graggen 1980),<br/>[[Banar language|Banar]] (Capell 1952) || [[ISO 639:pla|pla]]
|-
| [[Manep language|Manep]] || [[Malas language|Malas]] || [[ISO 639:mkr|mkr]]
|-
| [[Mauwake language|Mauwake]] || [[Ulingan language|Ulingan]] || [[ISO 639:mhl|mhl]]
|-
| [[Mawak language|Mawak]] || [[Mawak language|Mawak]] || [[ISO 639:mjj|mjj]]
|-
| [[Moere language|Moere]] || [[Moere language|Moere]] || [[ISO 639:mvq|mvq]]
|-
| [[Mokati language|Mokati]] || [[Wanambre language|Wanambre]] || [[ISO 639:wnb|wnb]]
|-
| [[Pal language|Pal]] || [[Abasakur language|Abasakur]] || [[ISO 639:abw|abw]]
|-
| [[Pamosu language|Pamosu]] || [[Hinihon language|Hinihon]] || [[ISO 639:hih|hih]]
|-
| [[Parawen language|Parawen]] || [[Parawen language|Parawen]] || [[ISO 639:prw|prw]]
|-
| [[Ukuriguma language|Ukuriguma]] || [[Ukuriguma language|Ukuriguma]] || [[ISO 639:ukg|ukg]]
|-
| [[Usan language|Usan]] || [[Wanuma language|Wanuma]] || [[ISO 639:wnu|wnu]]
|-
| [[Waskia language|Waskia]] || [[Waskia language|Waskia]] || [[ISO 639:wsk|wsk]]
|-
| [[Yaben language|Yaben]] || [[Yaben language|Yaben]] || [[ISO 639:ybm|ybm]]
|-
| [[Yarawata language|Yarawata]] || [[Yarawata language|Yarawata]] || [[ISO 639:yrw|yrw]]
|}

==Classification==
Croisilles was first posited by Malcolm Ross (1995), not as an actual language family, but as a [[linkage (linguistics)|linkage]]. It was a merger of Wurm's Pihom-Isumrud-Mugil and [[Mabuso languages|Mabuso]] stocks, each of which contained 25–30 languages. Pick (2017, 2020) and Usher reject the merger, and provisionally the inclusion of Mugil (Bargam), though Pick retains the name. Usher disambiguates the (non-Mabuso) family as 'Adelbert Range'.

===Usher (2020)===
Timothy Usher classifies the languages as follows.<ref>Usher, Timothy. 2020. [https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/madang-upper-yuat-river/madang/central-madang/adelbert-range-isumrud-strait Adelbert Range &ndash; Isumrud Strait] (NewGuineaWorld)</ref>

{{tree list}}
*'''Adelbert Range &ndash; Isumrud Strait'''
**'''[[Kowan languages|Kowan]]''' (Isumrud Strait): [[Waskia language|Waskia]], [[Korak language|Korak]] (Amako)
**(North) Adelbert Range
***[[Yamben language|Yamben]]
***'''Omosan''' (Omosa River): [[Pal language|Pal]] (Abasakur), [[Kobol language|Kobol]] (Koguman)
***'''[[Gilagil River]]''' (old Isumrud proper)
**** [[Dimir language|Dimir]] (Gavak)
**** [old Mabuan]: [[Brem language|Brem]] (Bunabun), [[Malas language|Malas]] (Manep)
***Northwest Adelbert Range ([[Mount Pihom]])
****'''[[Kaukombar River]]''': [[Mala language|Mala]] (Pay), [[Miani language|Miani]] (Maiani, Tani), [[Maia language|Maia]] (Pila, Saki)
****Kumil–Timper
*****'''[[Kumil River]]''': [[Bepour language|Bepour]], [[Mauwake language|Mauwake]] (Ulingan), [[Moere language|Moere]]
*****'''[[Tiboran River]]''' ('''[[Timper River]]'''): [[Musar language|Musar]]; [[Wanambre language|Wanambre]]; [[Kowaki language|Kowaki]], [[Mawak language|Mawak]], [[Pamosu language|Pamosu]] (Hinihon)
***Mabulap–Numugen
**** '''''[[Amaimon language|Amaimon]]''''' (Mabulap) isolate
****'''[[Numugen languages|Numugen River]]''' (see)
{{tree list/end}}

===Pick (2020)===
Below is Andrew Pick's (2020) classification of the Northern Adelbert languages.<ref name="Pick 2020"/>{{rp|14}}

{{tree list}}
*'''Northern Adelbert languages'''
**'''[[Manep–Barem languages]]''': [[Manep language|Manep]], [[Barem language|Barem]]
**'''[[Kumil–Tibor languages]]'''
***'''[[Kumil languages]]''': [[Mauwake language|Mauwake]], [[Bepour language|Bepour]], [[Moere language|Moere]]
***'''[[Tibor languages]]''': [[Pamosu language|Pamosu]], [[Hember Avu language|Hember Avu]], [[Mokati language|Mokati]], [[Mawak language|Mawak]], [[Kowaki language|Kowaki]]
**'''[[Numugen languages]]''': [[Usan language|Usan]], [[Karian language|Karian]], [[Yaben language|Yaben]], [[Yarawata language|Yarawata]], [[Parawen language|Parawen]], [[Ukuriguma language|Ukuriguma]]
**'''[[Kaukombar languages]]''': [[Maia language|Maia]], [[Mala language|Mala]], [[Miani language|Miani]], [[Maiani language|Maiani]]
**[[Gavak language|Gavak]]
{{tree list/end}}

===Pick (2017)===
A quite similar internal classification was worked out independently by Pick (2017).<ref name=pick>{{cite journal |last=Pick |first=Andrew |date=2017 |title=A Reconstruction of Proto-Croiselles Phonology and Lexicon |url=https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/extras/ichl/pick-reconstruction-of-proto-croiselles.php |journal=23rd International Conference on Historical Linguistics |location=San Antonio, Texas, US}} ([https://utexas.app.box.com/v/pick-reconstruction-of-proto-c video])</ref> Pick could not establish regular sound correspondences with Kobol–Pal (Omosan) or Amaimon (Mabulap), and thus leaves them out of the family. 

{{tree list}}
*'''Northern Adelbert'''<!--revised to 2020 w forthcoming proceedings paper-->
**Kumil–Tibor (*t- > s, *p- > f, *ŋ > zero)
***Tibor [*-n > zero, *a > e] 
****[[Mokati language|Mokati]] (Wanambre)
****(*k- > h, *C- > [−voice]) [[Kowaki language|Kowaki]], [[Mawak language|Mawak]], [[Pamosu language|Pamosu]], [[Hember Avu language|Hember Avu]] (Musar)
***[[Kumil languages|Kumil]] [*k- *t- > , *C- > [−voice], *-k > zero]: [[Bepour language|Bepour]], [[Mauwake language|Mauwake]], [[Moere language|Moere]]
**[[Kaukombar languages|Kaukombar]] [*k- *ŋ *-n > zero]: [[Mala language|Mala]], [[Miani language|Miani]], [[Maiani language|Maiani]], [[Maia language|Maia]]
**Manep–Barem [*-ŋ > n, *-g > ŋ, *wV > u]
***[[Manep language|Manep]] (Malas)
***[[Barem language|Barem]] (Brem)
**[[Gabak language|Gabak]] (Dimir)
**[[Numugen languages|Numugen]] (*ŋ > n, 6 languages)
**[[Kowan languages|Amako–Waskia]]: [[Waskia language|Waskia]], [[Korak language|Korak]]
{{tree list/end}}

Pick notes that Barem and Malas share pronominal markers on the verbs 'to teach' and 'to show' that are unique to those two verbs.

==Proto-language==<!---[[Proto-Northern Adelbert]] redirects here--->
{{Infobox proto-language
| name             = Proto-Northern Adelbert
| familycolor      = Papuan
| ancestor         = 
| child1 = 
| target          = Northern Adelbert languages
}}

A [[phonological reconstruction]] of Proto-Northern Adelbert has been proposed by Pick (2020).<ref name="Pick 2020"/>

===Phonology===
Pick (2020) reconstructs the phonemes of Proto-Northern Adelbert as:<ref name="Pick 2020"/>

{| class="wikitable"
!  !! labial !! alveolar !! palatal !! velar
|-
! unvoiced stops
| *p || *t ||  || *k
|-
! voiced stops
| *b || *d ||  || *g
|-
! nasals
| *m || *n ||  || *ŋ
|-
! fricatives
|  || *s ||  || 
|-
! laterals
|  || *l ||  || 
|-
! rhotics
|  || *r ||  || 
|-
! glides
| *w ||  || *y || 
|}

Four vowels are reconstructed by Pick (2020): *a, *e, *i, *u. Although Northern Adelbert languages usually have the five vowels /a e i o u/, Pick (2020) does not consider *o to be reconstructable.

===Pronouns===
The Proto-Northern Adelbert pronouns are:<ref name="Pick 2020"/>{{rp|471}}

{| class="wikitable"
!  !! SG !! PL
|-
! 1
| *ye || *yin
|-
! 2
| *ne || *nin
|-
! 3
| *we || *win
|}

===Lexicon===
Selected lexical reconstructions from Pick (2020) are listed below.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Animal names
! gloss !! Proto-Northern Adelbert
|-
| [[ant]] || *mudir
|-
| [[ant]] sp. || *susur
|-
| bird || *muga(n/ŋ)
|-
| bird || *nebek
|-
| [[centipede]] || *wisir
|-
| [[chicken]] || *teteri
|-
| [[crayfish]] || *areker
|-
| [[crocodile]] || *tuar
|-
| [[eel]] || *melik
|-
| fly (insect) || *kuduruk
|-
| [[flying fox]] || *kepak
|-
| [[flying fox]] || *malabuŋ
|-
| [[frog]] || *idik
|-
| [[grasshopper]] || *takaw
|-
| [[grasshopper]] || *usa
|-
| [[hornbill]] || *baram
|-
| [[leech]] || *udir(a/e)m
|-
| [[louse]] || *gun
|-
| [[mosquito]] || *kasin
|-
| night bird || *mum
|-
| night bird of prey || *kilal
|-
| [[palm cockatoo]] || *k(a/e)kawin
|-
| [[pig]] || *buruk
|-
| [[pig]], [[marsupial]] game animal || *wa
|-
| [[pitpit]] || *pia
|-
| [[snake]] || *duag
|-
| [[sunfly]]<!-- sic; sandfly? --> || *sisimur
|-
| [[Victoria crowned pigeon]] || *maur
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Plant names
! gloss !! Proto-Northern Adelbert
|-
| [[aibika]] greens || *iruar
|-
| [[aibika]] greens || *maiw
|-
| [[bamboo]] || *bik
|-
| [[banana]] || *kudi
|-
| [[betel pepper]] vine || *kupi
|-
| [[breadfruit]] || *kidar
|-
| [[coconut]] || *keta
|-
| [[firefly]] || *magam
|-
| [[mango]] || *pai
|-
| [[mushroom]] || *mutar
|-
| [[sago]] || *kamar
|-
| [[stinging nettle]] ([[Tok Pisin]]: ''salat'') || *k(u/a)bum
|-
| [[sugarcane]] || *kai
|-
| [[taro]] || *mam
|-
| tree || *ŋam
|-
| tree sp. ([[Tok Pisin]]: ''mangas'') || *teber
|-
| [[tulip tree]] || *kuari
|-
| type of greens || *muduru
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Material culture
! gloss !! Proto-Northern Adelbert
|-
| [[adze]]/[[axe]] || *ben
|-
| [[Bow and arrow|bow]] || *kemi
|-
| [[canoe]] || *wag
|-
| [[hand drum]] || *wag
|-
| house post || *bugaŋ
|-
| [[kundu drum]] || *kibem
|-
| [[loincloth]] || *siruw
|-
| platform, bed || *badim
|-
| [[signal drum]], [[ironwood tree]] || *baner
|-
| [[spear]] || *uyaw
|-
| village || *kuaw
|}

===Comparisons===
Below is a list of Proto-Northern Adelbert forms that are descended from [[Proto-Trans–New Guinea language|Proto-Trans–New Guinea]].<ref name="Pick 2020"/>{{rp|470}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Proto-Northern Adelbert !! [[Proto-Trans–New Guinea language|Proto-Trans–New Guinea]]
|-
| arm, hand || *waben || *mbena
|-
| older brother || *bab || *[mb]amba
|-
| blood || *ked || *ke(nj,s)a
|-
| heart || *gemaŋ || *kamu
|-
| neck, nape || *kumaŋ || *kuma(n, ŋ)
|-
| mosquito || *kasin || *kasin
|-
| die || *um- || *kumV-
|-
| sleep || *in- || *kin(i,u)[m]-
|-
| know, hear, see || *ag- 'see' || *nVŋg-
|-
| NEG || *me (+verb) || *ma- (+verb)
|-
| water || *yag || *ok[V]
|-
| leaf || *tak || *sasak
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has a list of reconstructed forms at '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Northern Adelbert reconstructions|Appendix:Proto-Northern Adelbert reconstructions]]'''''}}
*[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross, Malcolm]]. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-croisilles Proto-Croisilles]. ''TransNewGuinea.org''.
*[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross, Malcolm]]. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-mabuso Proto-Mabuso]. ''TransNewGuinea.org''.
*[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross, Malcolm]]. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-north-adelbert Proto-North-Adelbert]. ''TransNewGuinea.org''.
*[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross, Malcolm]]. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-isumrud Proto-Isumrud]. ''TransNewGuinea.org''.
*[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross, Malcolm]]. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-pihom Proto-Pihom]. ''TransNewGuinea.org''.
*[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross, Malcolm]]. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-tibor-omosa Proto-Tibor-Omosa]. ''TransNewGuinea.org''.
*[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross, Malcolm]]. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-kaukombar Proto-Kaukombar]. ''TransNewGuinea.org''.
*[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross, Malcolm]]. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-kumil Proto-Kumil]. ''TransNewGuinea.org''.
*[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross, Malcolm]]. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-numugen Proto-Numugen]. ''TransNewGuinea.org''.

==External links==
*[https://andrewnpick.wordpress.com/research/ Current research on the Madang languages by Andrew Pick]

{{Madang languages}}
[[Category:Northern Adelbert languages| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Papua New Guinea]]
[[Category:Adelbert languages]]