View source for Nile

{{Short description|Major river in northeast Africa}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Featured article}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use American English|date=December 2025}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Nile
| map = File:Nile basin map.png
| map_alt = A map of northeast Africa; the Nile River is a wiggly line running from a large lake at the bottom, to the Mediterranean Sea at the top.
| mapframe = no
| image = Nile 3rd Cataract Left.jpg
| image_caption = The [[Cataracts of the Nile|Third Cataract]] of the Nile
| image_alt = A wide, calm river, under a blue sky, with many bushes on its sandy banks.
| subdivision_type1 = Countries
| subdivision_name1 = [[Burundi]], [[DR Congo]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Rwanda]], [[South Sudan]], [[Sudan]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]]{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}}
| subdivision_type2 = Major cities
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bahir Dar]], [[Cairo]], [[Khartoum]], [[Jinja, Uganda|Jinja]], [[Juba]]
| length = {{cvt|7,088|km|mi|sp=us}}{{sfn|Liu|2009}}{{efn|
name=longest|
The 7,088 km value for the length of the Nile is based on the {{harvnb|Liu|2009}} study. This study measured ten rivers around the world using the same methodology: the length was measured along the centerline of the river using satellite imagery.  The imagery was collected during the years 1999 to 2002.{{sfn|Liu|2009}}  The lengths of all rivers vary over time, as the river changes course, sources are refined, deltas change size, or new measurement methodologies are developed.{{sfn|Liu|2009|p=81}}   The title of longest river is somewhat controversial.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|McCoy|2023}}.
|{{harvnb|Liu|2009|pp=80-81}}.
}}</ref>  Sources stating that the Nile is the longest river include 
{{harvnb|Liu|2009}};
{{harvnb|Fierro|Nyer|2007|p=5.35}};
{{harvnb|Talbot|Williams  |2009|p=39}};
{{harvnb|Dumont |2009|p=1}}; and 
{{harvnb|Sutcliffe |2009|p=336}}.  
}}
| basin_size = 2,927,843 km{{super|2}}<ref name=basinSize>Size from {{harvnb|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}}.  Ten percent from {{harvnb|Shahin|2002|p=272}}.  According to {{harvnb|Hughes|1992|p=97}}, authorities report a variety of values for the size of the Nile Basin because the flat, waterless deserts of Egypt make it difficult to establish a boundary in the northern regions.</ref>
| discharge1_location = [[Aswan]], Egypt
| discharge1_avg = 2,757 m{{sup|3}}/sec{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc= Table 4}}{{efn| name=discharge |
Discharge rate is 2,757 m{{sup|3}}/sec (87 km{{sup|3}}/yr) at Aswan.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc= Table 4}} Between Aswan and the Mediterranean, Egypt withdraws large amounts of water for irrigation, leading to lower discharge values downstream.  Near Cairo, the discharge is  1,251 m{{sup|3}}/sec (40 km{{sup|3}}/yr).{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc= Table 4}}  The discharge from the delta into the Mediterranean Sea is only 150 m{{sup|3}}/sec (5 km{{sup|3}}/yr).{{sfn|''Water Accounting in the Nile River Basin'', United Nations|p=1}}  These values were measured before construction of the [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]].}}
| source1 = [[Rukarara River]], Rwanda<ref name=SourceCite/>{{efn |name=sourceNote}}
| source1_coordinates = {{Coord|2|19|35|S|29|21|30|E|display=inline}}{{sfn|Liu|2009}}
| source1_elevation = {{cvt|2,539|m|ft|sp=us}}{{sfn|Liu|2009}}
| mouth = [[Mediterranean Sea]]
| mouth_location = 
| mouth_coordinates = {{Coord|30|10|21|N|31|8|24|E|type:river|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation = {{cvt|0|m|ft|sp=us}}
}}
The '''Nile''' is a major north-flowing [[river]] in northeast [[Africa]] which empties into the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. At {{convert|7,088| km|mi|sp=us}} long, it is the [[longest river in the world]],{{efn|name=longest}} although the volume of water it carries is [[List of rivers by discharge|much smaller than other major rivers]] such as the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] or the [[Congo River|Congo]]. The Nile has played a central role in the environmental, economic, and cultural history of Africa for millennia.

The Nile has two major [[tributaries]]: the [[White Nile]] and the [[Blue Nile]]. The White Nile is longer and is considered to be the [[headwaters]], yet the Blue Nile contributes over twice the volume of the White Nile. The White Nile begins near [[Lake Victoria]] and flows through Uganda and South Sudan; while  the Blue Nile begins near [[Lake Tana]] in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet at the Sudanese capital of [[Khartoum]]. From there, the Nile flows north through the [[Nubian Desert]] to Egypt's capital, [[Cairo]], and finally empties into the Mediterranean Sea near [[Alexandria]], where it has formed [[Nile Delta|a large river delta]].

Geologically, the Nile is a young river and has followed its present course for about 15,000 years. [[Nile Basin|Its drainage basin]] extends across eleven countries. Most of the water in the Nile comes from rainfall in the upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], and [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries{{snd}}[[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], and [[South Sudan]]{{snd}}are primarily desert and withdraw river water for irrigation. Other countries that lie wholly or partly in the Nile Basin are [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], and [[Rwanda]].

The Nile was the foundation of the [[Ancient Egyptian civilization]], which relied on the river for nearly every aspect of life. The [[Flooding of the Nile|annual flooding]] of the river deposited nutrient-rich silt along the riverbanks. This soil supported crops that enabled a sophisticated society to thrive in an otherwise inhospitable desert. The Nile facilitated trade, communication, transportation, and governance. South (upstream) of the second Nile cataract lay [[Nubia]], the historical home of the ancient [[Kerma culture]] and the [[Kushite Empire]]. Many Europeans were fascinated by the Nile, and their explorations around Lake Victoria in the late 19th century located the source of the river. Among the cultures that live along the Nile in the modern era are the [[Nilotic peoples]], semi-nomadic cattle herders who practice [[nomadic pastoralism]], moving their cattle seasonally in response to the Nile's floods. 

In the modern era, the Nile plays a critical role in the economies of Egypt and Sudan, which rely on it to irrigate extensive croplands. Since the late 20th century, over a dozen dams have been built in the Nile Basin to provide for irrigation and to [[Hydropower|generate electricity]]. The dams have altered the river's annual flood cycle and restricted the transport of silt downstream, causing the Nile Delta to shrink. Some dams{{snd}}such as the Aswan High Dam and Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam{{snd}}have been the source of international political disputes about [[water scarcity]], safety, [[food security]], and [[Development-induced displacement|forced displacement of peoples]].

== Names and etymology ==

The English word "Nile" is derived from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|Nilus}} and the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|Νεῖλος}} (Neilos), which possibly originated from the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] term ''naḥal'', meaning 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}
{{Quote box|align=right|width=30|[[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] for {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}},<br>the word for 'river' or 'Nile':{{sfn|Gardiner|1964|pp=43,623}}{{efn|Other hieroglyphs for 'river' are presented in {{harvnb|Faulkner|1964|p=33}} and {{harvnb|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}}.
}}  <hiero>M17-X1:D21-G43-N35:N35:N35</hiero>
}}
In the ancient [[Egyptian language]], the same word was used for 'Nile' and 'river': {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}}.{{sfn|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}} Egyptians called their country {{lang|egy-latn|kmt}} meaning 'black',  in reference to the dark color of the Nile floodwaters as they carried sediment from upriver.{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=339, 470}} The English name "Blue Nile" is a translation of the Arabic name ''Al-Baḥr Al-Azraq''.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}<!--
{{efn|The waters of the Blue Nile are very dark during the winter flood season, as they carry vast amounts of sediment downstream.{{sfn|Ghabbour|2009|pp=503-504}} 
}} -->

In the modern era, the river goes by several names within the Nile Basin. In Egypt, it is referred to as ''Al-Nīl'', ''Baḥr Al-Nīl'' or ''Nahr Al-Nīl''.<ref name=Barh>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Badawi|2003 |p=717}}.
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
}}</ref><!--
{{efn|''Bahr'' is 'sea'; ''Nahr'' is 'river'.<ref name=Barh/>
}} --> In South Sudan, it is sometimes referred to by the Arabic ''Baḥr el-Jebel'', {{lang|ar|بحر الجبل}}, literally 'Mountain River'.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}} In Uganda, the speakers of [[Luganda]] use the name ''Kiyira''.{{sfn|Hamilton |2016|p=66}} Some Nubian peoples of Egypt and Sudan use the [[Nobiin language|Nobiin]] name ''Áman Dawū'' ('Great Water').{{sfn|Murray| 1923|p=8}}

Several [[tributaries]] (smaller rivers that merge into the Nile) and segments of the river incorporate "Nile" in their names, including: 
* Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of the White Nile flowing north from [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]] to [[Nimule]]<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|pp=5,6,40}}.
|{{harvnb| Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}}.
}}</ref>
* Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name for the [[Atbarah River]]<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Haupt|1926|p=305}}.
|{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|p=24}}.
}}</ref>
* [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of the two major tributaries of the Nile 
* Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Kyoga]] to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}}
* Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of the Nile downstream from the [[confluence]] of Blue Nile and White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} 
* [[Mountain Nile]]{{snd}}Segment of the White Nile from the mountains of Uganda to the plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- 
{{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic.
}} -->
* Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}}
* [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of the two major tributaries of the Nile 
* Yellow Nile{{snd}}The [[Wadi Howar]], remnant of an ancient tributary that dried up several thousand years ago{{sfn| Dumont|2009|p=4}}

== Sources ==
[[File:Nile River Sources.svg|thumb|alt= A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is visible as a meandering blue line, running vertically. The river starts at the bottom in green forested area, and goes upward then ends in a blue sea at the top.| The Nile has six [[Nile cataracts|cataracts]]{{efn| Some of the cataracts have been submerged by human-made reservoirs.}} and several sources.  ]]
<!--
SAVE THIS LOCATION lat/long data for posterity:

| label1 = Furthest Source 
  | pos1 = left
  | marksize1 = 20
  | background1 = white
  | coordinates1 = {{coord| 2|19|35|S|29|21|30|E }}

| label2 = Highest source 
  | pos2 = left
  | marksize2 = 12
  | background2 = white
  | coordinates2 = {{coord|0.3598|N|29.9329|E }}

| label3 = Southernmost source  
  | pos3 = bottom
  | marksize3 = 24
  | background3 = white
  | coordinates3 = {{coord|3|54|54|S| 29|50|16|E }}

| label4 = Lake Victoria outflow  
  | pos4 = right
  | marksize4 = 12
  | background4 = white
  | coordinates4 = {{coord|0.4258|N|33.1946|E }}

 | label5 = Blue Nile Source 
  | pos5 = bottom
  | marksize5 = 12
  | background5 = white
  | coordinates5 = {{coord|10.9702|N|37.1987|E }}
}}
-->
The source of the Nile is a tributary of the [[Rukarara River]], in [[Nyungwe National Park]], Rwanda, at {{Coord|2|19|35|S|29|21|30|E}}, at an elevation of {{convert|2,539|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name=SourceCite>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Liu|2009}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=277–278}}.
}}</ref>{{efn |name=sourceNote|An approximate source location was initially determined in 1969 by a group of researchers from [[Waseda University]].<ref name=SourceCite/>  In 2006, a group of adventurers rediscovered that location, and placed a marker on a nearby tree ({{Coord|2|16|56|S|29|19|53|E|display=inline}}) which is now a minor tourist sight.<ref name=SourceCite/>  In 2009, academics used satellite imagery to refine the location of the source, placing it at a spring ({{Coord|2|19|35|S|29|21|30|E|display=inline}}) several km from the 1969/2006 location.<ref name=SourceCite/>}}{{efn|name=sourceRivSequence}} The source is defined as the starting point of the longest year-round watercourse in the [[Nile Basin|Nile's drainage basin]].<ref name=SourceCite/> From this source, the river runs {{convert|7,088|km|mi|sp=us}} to its mouth at the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref name=SourceCite/>{{efn|name=longest}} The distance was measured in 2009 along the centerline of the river using satellite imagery.<ref name=SourceCite/>

The highest sources of the Nile are on the slopes of the [[Rwenzori Mountains]] in [[Uganda]].<ref name=Rwenz/><!--
{{efn|Some have described these high sources as the "true source" of the Nile.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340–341}}
}} --> The legendary [[Mountains of the Moon (Africa)|Mountains of the Moon]], described by the Greek astronomer [[Ptolemy]], have been associated with Rwenzori.<ref name=Rwenz>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Eggermont|2009|pp=243–246}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=282}}.
}}</ref>

The southernmost source of the Nile is in [[Burundi]] at one of the heads of the [[Ruvyironza River]], which feeds into the [[Kagera River]].<ref name=southSource/> A monument was erected nearby in 1937 by [[Burkhart Waldecker]] close to the town of [[Rutovu]], near [[Mount Kikizi]].<ref name=southSource>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-29}}.  
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=300–301}}.    
|{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}.  
|{{harvnb|Warburg|2007|pp=475,483-484}}.  
|{{harvnb|"Source Du Nil", ''Google Maps''}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|The monument erected by Waldecker for the southernmost source is at {{Coord|3|54|54.0|S|29|50|16.5|E}}.{{sfn|"Source Du Nil", ''Google Maps''}} 
}}

[[Lake Victoria]]{{snd}}shared by Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya{{snd}}is sometimes informally described as the source, because it feeds the White Nile from its outflow at [[Jinja, Uganda]].{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=6}}{{efn|The Nile exits Lake Victoria at the town of [[Jinja, Uganda|Jinja]], which hosts several tourist sights named "source of the Nile" including the [[Source of the Nile Bridge]].{{Sfn|Walubiri|2018}}}} However, some have suggested that the genuine source of the Nile is the rain clouds that are often found above Lake Victoria, because they contribute the vast majority of the lake's water.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340-341}}.
|{{harvnb|Camberlin|2009|pp=312-314}}. Map of rainfall intensity over Lake Victoria.
}}</ref>

The source of the [[Blue Nile]] tributary is near the town of [[Gish Abay]], south of [[Lake Tana]].{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}}{{efn|The source of the Blue Nile is about 75 km south of [[Lake Tana]], at {{Coord|10.9699|N|37.1986|E|format=dms}}.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}} }}{{clear}}

== Geography==
[[File:Nile River Landmarks.svg|thumb|The waters of the Nile originate as rainfall in the mountains in the south and east regions of the Nile Basin.|alt=A map of northeast Africa, showing the location of several cities and tourist sights on the river]]

The Nile is a major river in northeast Africa which flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile Basin is [[drainage basin|all land that drains]] into the Nile, and it covers  2,927,843&nbsp;km{{super|2}}{{snd}}about 10% of the African continent (see adjacent map).<ref name=basinSize/>  Eleven countries are wholly or partially within the basin:  Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.{{sfn|Allan|2009|p=753}}{{efn| In 2011, [[2011 South Sudanese independence referendum|South Sudan broke away from Sudan]], becoming the eleventh country in the Nile Basin.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=18}}}} The basin covers a wide variety of climates, ecosystems, and topographies{{snd}}ranging from arid, sandy deserts in the north, to flat, swampy wetlands in the middle, to rainy, forested mountains in the south.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=335-340}}.
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=5}}.
}}</ref>

The basin can be divided into seven regions; five of these regions encompass the longest course of the Nile. Proceeding in a downstream sequence, these five regions are: the [[African Great Lakes]], the [[Mountain Nile]], the [[White Nile]], the main Nile, and the [[Nile Delta]]. Two additional regions encompass major tributaries: the [[Blue Nile]] and the [[Atbarah River]].{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}<!-- 
{{efn|There are other ways to divide the Nile Basin into regions; a  division based on geological principles is found in {{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|page= 761|loc=Section 5 "Segments of the Nile System"}}.
}} --> 

===African Great Lakes===

The African Great Lakes region contains the source of the Nile as well as several large lakes that are part of the Nile River system: [[Lake Victoria]], [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]], [[Lake George (Uganda)|Lake George]], and [[Lake Edward]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Eggermont |2009|p=255}}.
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-46}}.  Overview of African Great Lakes.
}}</ref> The source of the Nile is the [[Rukarara River]] within Rwanda's Nyungwe National Park,<ref name=SourceCite/> and it leads to the [[Kagera River]] which drains into Lake Victoria.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}{{efn|name=sourceRivSequence|The source of the Nile leads to the [[Rukarara River]], then to the [[Mwogo River]], which joins with the [[Mbirurume River]] to form the [[Nyabarongo River]], which leads to the [[Kagera River]], which drains into Lake Victoria.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=260,263,277–278}}.  Furthest source.
|{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}.  Southernmost source.
}}</ref>
}} Although it is a large lake{{snd}}the [[List of lakes by area|second-largest freshwater lake]] in the world{{efn|Measured by area, not volume.}}{{snd}} Lake Victoria is relatively shallow, with an average depth of {{convert|40|m|ft|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=214}} The Nile River first assumes the name "Nile" where Lake Victoria empties on its north side: the stretch from there to Lake Albert is called the Victoria Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} A pair of waterfalls{{snd}} [[Ripon Falls]] and [[Owen Falls]]{{snd}} were located where the Nile exits Lake Victoria, but have both been submerged by the construction of the [[Nalubaale dam]]. After [[Bujagali Falls]] and [[Bujagali Power Station]], the Victoria Nile empties into [[Lake Kyoga]]. After exiting Lake Kyoga, the river is joined by the [[River Kafu]] tributary, then passes over [[Murchison Falls]] and flows into Lake Albert. Unlike Lake Victoria, Lake Albert is a deep lake surrounded by mountains. The river exits Lake Albert on its north shore, where it is called the [[Albert Nile]]; this stretch of the river is relatively flat and broad, and suitable for navigation by [[steamboat]]s.<ref name=phys>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=336–339}}.
}}</ref>

===Mountain Nile===

The second region of the Nile Basin, proceeding downstream, is the Mountain Nile ({{langx|ar-latn|Bahr al Jabal}}).<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5. Arabic translation.}}
}}</ref> This region begins near the town of [[Nimule]], extends to [[Lake No]], and is entirely within South Sudan. After passing through Nimule, the river goes through the [[Fula Rapids]] and on to [[Juba]]{{snd}}the capital of South Sudan. After Juba, the Nile passes through the town of [[Bor, South Sudan|Bor]], then enters the [[Sudd]], a large swamp located in a flat plain.<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=47-69}}. Overview of Sudd.</ref> The [[Grade (slope)|incline]] of the ground in the Sudd is only 1:13,000 [[rise over run]], so the river slows down and widens. Lush vegetation, including [[sedge]]s, [[cyperus papyrus|papyrus]], and [[Pontederia crassipes|common water hyacinth]] (an [[invasive species]]) clog the waterways and make navigation difficult. At the north edge of the Sudd swamp, the Nile passes through Lake No, a small lake where the Nile is joined by the [[Bahr el Ghazal River]] (Arabic: 'gazelle river'){{snd}}a tributary from the west.<ref name=phys/>
 
A major tributary in the Mountain Nile region is [[Bahr el Ghazal River|Bahr el Ghazal]] which arrives from west Sudan and joins the White Nile at Lake No. The drainage basin of the Bahr el Ghazal River is large{{snd}}about 860,000 square km{{sfn|"Baḥr al-Ghazāl" ''Britannica''}}{{snd}}and receives a relatively large amount of rain, but its contribution to the Nile is small compared to other tributaries.{{efn|Most precipitation in the Bahr el Ghazal basin is lost to evaporation before reaching the Nile.<ref name=Ghazal/>}} Its basin includes [[Lake Kundi]] and [[Lake Keilak]]. The Bahr el Ghazal passes through the city of [[Wau, South Sudan|Wau]], South Sudan: it is a permanent stream east of Wau, but a [[Intermittent river|seasonal stream]] to the west.<ref name=Ghazal>{{multiref
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=352–354}}.
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=6}}.
}}</ref>

===White Nile region===
[[File:Whiteandblueniles.jpg|thumb|alt=Aerial photograph of Khartoum, showing two rivers joining, each with a distinct coloration of its water|The distinct colors of the [[White Nile]] (left) and the [[Blue Nile]] (right) are visible where they merge to form the main Nile (top left).]]
Continuing downstream, the third region of the Nile Basin is the White Nile region{{efn|The White Nile region, as defined here, contains only a small portion of the much larger [[White Nile]] River.}} which includes an {{convert|800 |km|mi|sp=us}} stretch of river from near [[Malakal]] to [[Khartoum]], the capital of Sudan. There it is joined by the Blue Nile. This portion of the river is a wide, calm stream with a fringe of swamps on both banks. The river here is shallow and undergoes significant losses due to evaporation.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}

Where the White Nile merges with the Blue Nile, they are noticeably distinct colors. The White Nile is a lighter shade because the sediment it carries includes a significant amount of [[quartz]] and [[feldspar]]. This is in contrast to the Blue Nile which carries dark clay sediments originating from  Ethiopia's [[basaltic rock]]s.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=44-45}}
 
The [[Sobat River]] is a tributary which joins the White Nile near the town of [[Malakal]] (after the Bahr el Ghazal confluence, before the Blue Nile). Its basin{{snd}}which includes the [[Machar Marshes]]{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}}{{snd}}covers about 225,000 square km.{{sfn|Shahin|2002|p=276}} The Sobat floods between July and December.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}

===Main Nile===
[[File:Assuan-Hochdamm 15.JPG|thumb|The [[Aswan High Dam]] is located on the main Nile near the border between Egypt and Sudan. Its electrical generators have the capacity to produce 2.1 [[gigawatt]]s.{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009| p= 149}}|alt=A large concrete building next to a placid lake.  Many large power transmission towers are next to the building.]]
The fourth region of the Nile Basin{{snd}}the main Nile{{efn|The segment of the Nile between the Blue/White confluence and the Mediterranean is called the main Nile or the Saharan Nile.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=360}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2009|p=62}}.
}}</ref>
}}{{snd}}extends from Khartoum to Cairo, the capital of Egypt.<ref name=phys/> This stretch has a relatively uniform width and depth: about {{convert|500|m|ft|sp=us}} wide and {{convert|10|m|ft|sp=us}}  deep at its deepest point (when not in flood).{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=45}} Soon after leaving Khartoum, the river enters the [[Sabaloka Game Reserve]] and goes through large, powerful [[rapids]] that are impassable by boat. This is the sixth (and furthest upstream) of the six [[cataracts of the Nile]]. The [[Atbarah River]]{{snd}}a major tributary{{snd}}joins the Nile, which then follows a large S-shaped curve to the west. Four more [[waterfall|cataracts]] (numbered 5, 4, 3, and 2) are encountered in this large S-curve, which render the river unnavigable; although ships may travel in certain calm stretches between the cataracts. The river then enters a reservoir: [[Lake Nasser]].<!--
{{efn|[[Lake Nasser]] is called "Lake Nubia" in Sudan.{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=125}}
}} -->  This lake{{snd}} the world's second-largest human-made lake{{snd}}was formed when the [[Aswan High Dam]] was built in Egypt, and inundates more than {{convert|480 |km|mi|sp=us}} of the Nile. The [[Aswan Low Dam]]{{snd}}older and smaller than the High Dam{{snd}} lies beneath the Aswan High Dam, near the location of the first Nile cataract (now submerged). From these dams, the Nile flows about {{convert|800|km|mi|sp=us}} through a limestone plateau, bordered by large amounts of irrigated farmland, until it reaches Cairo.<ref name=phys/>

===Nile Delta===
{{main|Nile Delta}}

[[File:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|thumb|The [[Nile Delta]] is the large triangular vegetated region at the top of this photograph, where the river empties into the [[Mediterranean Sea]].|alt=A photograph of north Egypt, taken from space.  The Nile terminates by flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a large, triangular area of land.]]
The fifth, and final, region encompassing the Nile River is the Nile Delta, a large triangular [[river delta]] (about 22,000&nbsp;km{{super|2}}){{sfn|Hamza|2009|p=75}} that extends from Cairo to the Mediterranean Sea.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} The river splits into two major [[distributaries]] (channels) within the delta: the Rosetta branch and the Damietta branch.<!--
{{efn|Historically, there were four or more distributaries, including the [[Pelusium|Pelusiac branch]] and the [[Canopus, Egypt|Canopic branch]] which disappeared in the 8th to 9th centuries.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=50}}
}} -->   The total volume of the delta (including the submerged portions) is about 150,000&nbsp;km{{super|3}}. The delta was created over several million years, built-up from sediment carried down the river from upstream.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
|{{harvnb|Talbot|Williams|2009|pp=37–40, 57}}.
}}</ref> Since the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1970, the delta has begun to shrink because of erosion from currents in the Mediterranean Sea. In the past, erosion was balanced by new soils arriving in the form of sediment carried by the river; but the dam traps sediment in its reservoir, preventing new soil from reaching the delta.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=93}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=45-46}}.
}}</ref><!--
{{efn|Most of the sediment is deposited at the south end of Lake Nasser, where the Nile enters the reservoir.{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=125}}
}} -->

=== Blue Nile tributary ===
{{main|Blue Nile}}
 
[[File:Lower Aber river and tributaries.png|thumb|The source of the [[Blue Nile]] is [[Gish Abay]] at the bottom of the bright line. The river flows north from there to [[Lake Tana]] at the top.|alt=A map of Ethiopia, showing a part of the Blue Nile and Lake Tana.]]

The longest course of the Nile{{snd}}which includes the White Nile tributary{{snd}}has several other tributaries. The drainage basins of the Blue Nile and the Atbarah comprise the final two regions of the Nile Basin.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}

The Blue Nile springs from hills in Ethiopia where it originates as a stream named ''Abay'' near the town of [[Gish Abay]]: {{lang|am|Gish}} is an [[Amharic]] word meaning 'source', and Abay is the name of the stream.<ref>{{multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}}.
|{{harvnb|McKenna|2025}}.
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=88-104}}. Overview of Blue Nile.
}}</ref> Gish Abay flows into [[Lake Tana]], a large, shallow lake, which has a single outflow where it adopts the "Blue Nile" name. The river then makes a wide loop: first south, then west through a spectacular gorge {{convert|2 |km|ft|sp=us}} deep, then north passing through South Sudan into Sudan, where it joins with the White Nile at Khartoum to form the main Nile.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|McKenna|2025}}.
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009}}.
}}</ref> Along its course, the Blue Nile generates electricity at several hydropower plants, including the [[Tis Abay hydropower project]] at the [[Blue Nile Falls]], the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam near the border between Ethiopia and South Sudan, the [[Roseires Dam]] near the town of [[Ad Damazin]], and the [[Sennar Dam]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=274, 339}}. Blue Nile Falls.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=116,135}}. Roseires Dam.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=341}}. Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=118, 131, 348}}. Sennar Dam.
}}</ref> The size of the Blue Nile's drainage basin is over 306,000 square km.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 3}}

=== Atbarah tributary===
{{main|Atbarah River}}

The Atbarah River is a tributary of the Nile which arises in northern Ethiopia, and joins the Nile about {{convert|320|km|mi|sp=us}} north of Khartoum.<ref name=Atbarah/> Its drainage basin covers over 204,000 square km.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 3}} The Atbarah has a heavy flow during and following the [[monsoon]] season in Ethiopia (summer and fall), but can dry up in the winter and spring. Despite the intermittent nature of the river, it provides more than 10% of the total annual flow of the Nile.<ref name=Atbarah>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=7}}.
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=339}}.
}}</ref> Dams on the Atbarah include the [[Khashm el-Girba Dam]], the [[Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex]], and the [[Tekezé Dam]] (on the [[Tekezé River]] tributary).<ref>{{multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=321,336–337}}. Tekezé Dam.
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}}. Khashm el-Girba Dam.
|{{harvnb|Hafez |2024}}. Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex.
}}</ref>

==Hydrology==
{{Nile River routemap}}
[[File:Monthly variations of the flow of the Nile River.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Chart showing monthly flow of the Nile in cubic meters per second. Values (January to December) are  1285.7, 1006.0, 831.3, 881.7, 	828.7, 845.2, 1930.3, 	  6984.0, 7866.5, 	  4895.2,   2510.8, 1596.9.|The flow of the Nile River varies widely throughout the year. Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) measured at [[Dongola]] on the main Nile.{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}}{{efn|name=exclGERD}} ]]
<!-- {{Image frame
|align=right
|caption = The flow of the Nile varies widely throughout the year.<br>Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) measured at [[Dongola]] on the main Nile.<br>Data collected before construction of [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]].{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}} 
|content= 
{{ #invoke:Chart | bar-chart
| group 1 = 1285.7 : 1006.0 : 831.3 : 881.7 : 	828.7: 845.2 : 1930.3 	: 6984.0 	: 7866.5 	: 4895.2 : 2510.8 : 1596.9  
| colors = lightblue
| group names = Flow 
| x legends = J : F: M:A:M:J:J:A:S:O:N:D
}}
}} -->

===Flow and floods===
{{further|Flooding of the Nile}}
Although the Nile is the [[List of river systems by length|longest river in the world]], it does not have [[List of rivers by discharge|the largest discharge]]. Its flow{{snd}}about 87&nbsp;km{{super|3}} per year{{efn| name=discharge}}{{snd}}is small compared to other major rivers. The Nile's discharge is only about 1% of the [[Amazon River|Amazon]], 6% of the [[Congo River|Congo]], and 12% of the [[Yangtze]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=4}}.
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=340}}. 
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=11}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Comparisons are using discharge of the Nile as measured at Aswan.  The Nile's discharge into the Mediterranean Sea is far less.{{efn| name=discharge}} }}
 
The annual contributions to the main Nile from the three primary tributaries are: 54% from the Blue Nile, 32% from the White Nile (including contributions from the Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat tributaries), and 14% from the Atbarah.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc= Table 4. Based on annual discharge figures: Blue Nile 48 km{{sup|3}}; White Nile 28 km{{sup|3}}; Atbarah 12 km{{sup|3}} }} 
<!--
Thus, the proportion of water from the Ethiopian Highlands is about 68% (the Blue Nile and Atbarah arise in Ethiopia), and the proportion from the African Great Lakes region (source of most of the White Nile) is about 32%.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc= Table 4. Based on annual discharge figures: Blue Nile 48 km{{sup|3}}; White Nile 28 km{{sup|3}}; Atbarah 12 km{{sup|3}} }}{{efn|The discharge varies widely from year to year.  These data were published in 2014.  Another source from 1994 states 80% to 85% of the Nile's water originates in Ethiopia (the Blue Nile, Atbarah, and Sobat tributaries combined), and the remaining 15% to 20% is from the Great Lakes region and western South Sudan (the [[Mountain Nile]] and  [[Bahr el Ghazal River|Bahr el Ghazal]] tributaries).{{sfn|Okidi|1994|pp=321,325,330,341}}  Another source from 2009 states that at the confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile at  Khartoum, the Blue Nile provides two thirds of the water.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=339}}  }}
-->The highlands of the White Nile and Blue Nile both experience seasonal rain, but the White Nile's flow into the main Nile is much more constant than the Blue Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} This is due to the many lakes and wetlands on the White Nile, which moderate the cyclic effects of seasonal rainfall.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=357}} As the White Nile passes through the [[Sudd]] swamps about half the water is lost to evaporation.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=346}}

In contrast, the flow of the Blue Nile varies widely through the year: it floods between July and October, due to [[summer monsoon]] rains.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} The waters of the Blue Nile are so substantial during the summer that the White Nile backs up during this time at the [[confluence]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5}}.
|{{harvnb|Ghabbour|2009|pp=503–504}}.
}}</ref> During the summer floods, the contributions to the main Nile are about 70% from the Blue Nile, about 20% from the Atbarah, and about 10% from the White Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} At the peak of the flood, the daily flow into [[Lake Nasser]] is about 0.71&nbsp;km{{sup|3}}, about three times the annual daily average of 0.23&nbsp;km{{sup|3}} per day.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. Summer flood: 25.1 billion ft{{sup|3}} per day, or 0.71 km{{sup|3}} per day.
|{{harvnb|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 4}}. Annual mean measured at [[Dongola]] station: 83 km{{sup|3}} per year, or 0.23 km{{sup|3}} per day.
}}</ref>{{
efn|name=exclGERD}}{{
efn|
As the Blue Nile flow diminishes in the winter, the pent-up waters of the White Nile increase their flow past Khartoum.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=5}} In April and May, the White Nile supplies about 80% of the main Nile's water. Thus, the areas downstream of Khartoum receive a steady (not to say constant) flow that made irrigation possible year-round.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=5}}
}}

Prior to the construction of dams on the Nile, the flow of the Nile in Egypt varied seasonally: higher in the summer/fall; lower in the winter/spring.{{efn|
The magnitude of the annual Nile flood can vary widely from year to year. Low-flood periods can last for decades or centuries.{{sfn|Collins|2002|pp=20-26}}
}} However, following the construction of the [[Aswan High Dam]]{{snd}}which created a reservoir that can hold about two years of river flow{{snd}} the flow downstream from that dam is now more constant year-round.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=125}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=45}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|The annual flow of the river at [[Aswan]] is about 84 cubic km; and the capacity of the Aswan High Dam's reservoir is about 160 cubic km.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=125}}.
|{{harvnb|Senay|2014|p= 8644 |loc=section 3.5.4}}.
}}</ref>
}}

=== Sediment transport ===

The Nile carries sediment downstream. The [[Sediment transport|movement of sediment]] is classified as [[suspended load|suspended sediment]] (particles suspended in the water) or [[bed load|bedload]] (sediment on the river bottom that rolls or tumbles downstream).{{sfn|Lemma |2019|p=1}} Ninety-seven percent of the transported sediment carried by the Nile comes from the Atbarah and Blue Nile, both of which originate in Ethiopia.{{sfn|Talbot|Williams|2009|p=38}} The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian [[Wet season|rainy season]] when rainfall is especially high in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]]; the rest of the year, the major rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile have a weaker flow.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} The soil in the Nile Delta originated as rocks in Ethiopia. The cumulative amount of rock eroded in the past 30 million years from the Ethiopia headwaters of the Nile is about 102,000&nbsp;km{{super|3}}, which is roughly comparable to the volume of the soil in the Nile Delta (including the underwater portion) which is about 150,000&nbsp;km{{super|3}}.{{sfn|Talbot|Williams|2009|p=37}}

Sediment carried by a river into a reservoir can settle in the reservoir and reduce its storage capacity. Sediment accumulated behind the Sennar Dam, [[Roseires Dam]] (on the Blue Nile), and [[Khashm el Girba Dam]] (on the Atbarah) has significantly reduced the storage capacity of their reservoirs since they were built.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}}

Annual sediment transport measured at several locations are listed below.{{sfn|Lemma|2019|p=11}}{{efn|The sediment transport data was gathered over a wide range of years, spanning from 1997 to 2019. Every measurement site had unique collection time spans, specified in {{harvnb|Lemma|2019|p=11}} and {{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}}.}} The bedload percentages are the ratio of bedload sediment to total (bedload and suspended) sediment. This data was collected before the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, which has a significant impact on sediment loads downstream of the dam.{{sfn|Lemma|2019|p=11}}
* [[Gilgel Abay]], Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 0.7% of bedload
* [[El Deim]] (at the border of Ethiopia and Sudan): 140 million tonnes{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}}
* [[Aswan]], Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 28% of bedload
* [[Beni Sweif]], Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 20% of bedload
* [[Qena]], Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 27% of bedload
* [[Sohag]], Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 13% of bedload

===Water sources and sinks===

[[File:Surface water cycle.svg|thumb|right| [[Water balance]] in the [[Nile Basin]] is analyzed using [[hydrology]]: water input from rain is balanced by water output to the soil, evaporation, and streams.|alt=A schematic diagram shows water movements around a piece of ground.  Arrows show water moving upward due to evaporation and transpiration; other arrows show water moving downward into groundwater recharge.]]

As the river moves downstream, it gains volume in some regions and loses volume in other regions. A region is a "source" if the region contributes water; conversely, a region is a "sink" if the region removes water.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8631|loc= Equation (4)}}{{efn|The technical definitions of source and sink used by scientists are more complicated than presented here. For clarity, the definitions of source and sink have been simplified.}} Identifying sources and sinks is important to scientists who study water movement ([[hydrology]]), as well as policy makers who negotiate water sharing issues.<ref name=policy>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Senay|2014|p=8648|loc=Section 4}}.
|{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|p=19}}.
|{{harvnb|Okidi|1994|p=341}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Sources and sinks are useful to policy makers when negotiating international water-sharing issues, such as dam construction.<ref name=policy/>   In the 21st century, Egypt and Sudan continue to rely on extracting large amounts of water from  the Nile for their existence.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=43-44,61}}  Some experts predict that the Nile Basin may experience a [[water scarcity]] problem in the future, if population growth, agricultural needs, and climate change combine to create a scenario where the water demands exceed the amount of water available.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=70}}
}}

The regions of the Nile Basin that are water sources are the upstream areas including the [[Ethiopian Highland]]s and the [[Great Lakes (Africa)|African Great Lakes]] region. The water sink areas are generally found in the downstream regions, including South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt.{{sfn|Senay|2014|pp=8641,8648|loc=Figure 7; Sections 3.5.5, 4; Tables 3,4,5 and 6}}{{efn|name=exclGERD}}

The [[water balance]] methodology is employed to determine which regions are sources and which are sinks. Water balance is a hydrological principle that states that the water entering a region is balanced by the water leaving a region.{{sfn|Healy|2007|pp=5-6}} <!--
{{efn|Another term for the "water balance" principle is "water budget".{{sfn|Healy|2007|pp=5-6}}
}}  --> For a given region, hydrologists measure (or estimate) [[precipitation]], [[evaporation]], [[transpiration]], [[groundwater recharge]], lake-filling rate, and [[streamflow|net streamflow]]. Evaluating these values will indicate if a region is a source or a sink. Generally, a region is a source if the net streamflow is positive; conversely, a region is a sink if the net streamflow is negative.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Healy|2007|pp=5–6}}.
|{{harvnb|Senay|2014|p=8631|loc= Equation (4)}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|The water balance of a region can be represented by  equation. There are many water balance equations.{{sfn|Healy|2007|pp=5-6}} A relatively simple equation is:
:<math>P = ET + \Delta S + D + Q</math>
In this formula,  the  [[precipitation]] (''P'') received is equal to the sum of the water losses:  [[evaporation]] and [[transpiration]] (''ET''), [[groundwater recharge]] (<math>\Delta S</math>), lake-filling (''D''), and [[streamflow|net streamflow]] (''Q'').{{sfn|Healy|2007|pp=5-6}}
}}

====Sources and sinks: countries====
The following table summarizes water balance measurements for countries within the Nile Basin. Portions of countries outside the Nile Basin are excluded from the values.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Key for "Source/Sink" columns
|-
| {{D-P|Source}} || The country is a significant water source
|-
| {{D-N|Sink}} || The country is a significant water sink
|-
| {{D-W|Neutral}} || The country is not a significant source or sink
|}
<!--
The data includes the following:
* Per-basin data: land surface area, [[precipitation]], [[evapotranspiration]], [[surface runoff]]
* Per-station data: [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]]
-->
Most of the per-basin data is presented as annual measurements (usually in km{{sup|3}}); but some data is also presented as an equivalent "depth" value (millimeters per year, covering the entire basin).{{sfn|Senay|2014}} {{Table alignment}}
{| class= "wikitable  mw-collapsible nowrap  defaultright col1left sortable"  style="font-size: 85%;"
|+ Country water balance (annual){{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}}{{efn|name=exclGERD|Data does not include impacts of the [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]], completed in 2025}}{{efn|name=TableLegend}}
! scope="col" | Country
! scope="col" |   Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}})
! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}}{{efn|Basin area is the Nile Basin within the country.}}
! scope="col" |  Precip km{{sup|3}}
! scope="col" |  Evap km{{sup|3}}
! scope="col" |  Runoff km{{sup|3}}
|-
! scope="row" |  [[Burundi]]
|  {{D-W|Neutral}} (2)  ||  13,240|| 14  || 13    || 3
|-
! scope="row" |[[DR Congo]]
|  {{D-W|Neutral}}  (0) ||  19,919|| 23 || 23     || 0
|-
! scope="row" |[[Egypt]]
| {{D-N|Sink}} (−39)  || 235,108 || 4   || 44    || 0
|-
! scope="row" | [[Eritrea]]
|  {{D-W|Neutral}} (2) ||  24,427 || 14   || 12  || 0
|-
! scope="row" |[[Ethiopia]]
|  {{D-P|Source}}  (164) ||  363,775 || 459   || 295 || 138
|-
! scope="row" |[[Kenya]]
| {{D-P|Source}} (27) ||    49,513 || 76  || 49   || 23
|-
! scope="row" | [[Rwanda]]
|  {{D-W|Neutral}} (1) ||   20,676 || 21 || 20   || 4
|-
! scope="row" |[[South Sudan]]
| {{D-N|Sink}} (−146)  ||  617,256 ||  612   || 757  ||92
|-
! scope="row" |[[Sudan]]
|  {{D-N|Sink}} (−81)  ||   1,226,660 || 364   || 445    ||23
|-
! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]]
| {{D-P|Source}} (38) ||    120,506 || 160   || 122   || 18
|-
! scope="row" | [[Uganda]]
| {{D-P|Source}} (25) ||  236,763 || 301  || 276   ||22
|-
! scope="row" | Total
| || 2,927,843 ||    2,048   || 2,056   || 324

|}

====Sources and sinks: geographic basins====
[[File:Nile River discharge flow gauge locations.svg|thumb|The water balance tables of this article contain water flow information measured at the twelve stations shown in this map.<ref name=HydroData/>{{efn|name=StnNames}}|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river]]

Another way of analyzing the water balance of the Nile is to partition the basin geographically (and ignore national boundaries). The following table splits the Nile Basin into twelve smaller basins, and summarizes the water balance data of each of the smaller basins. The data is based on measurements made at a dozen [[Stream gauge|river measurement stations]].{{sfn|Senay|2014}}{{efn|name=StnNames|For clarity, the names of some stations have been changed to use the names of nearby major geographic features. For example, the Kilo3 station is presented here as "Mouth of the [[Atbarah River]]". The Paara station is presented here as "[[Murchison Falls]]". The "Owen Reservoir" station  is presented here as "[[Lake Victoria]] outlet".}} The stations, shown in the adjacent map, divide the Nile Basin into smaller basins. These basins are each named after their downstream station. For example, the Murchison Falls station (2) is downstream of the Lake Victoria outlet station (1), so the basin between them is named the Murchison Falls basin.{{sfn|Senay|2014|pp=8629-8630|loc=Sec. 2.2}}{{efn|name=StnNames}}{{efn|The measuring stations are listed in the following table proceeding from upstream to downstream. The discharge "rate" data is an average of the entire year. The basin data in the table is for each individual basin; it is not cumulative. For example, the runoff of the second basin (Murchison Falls) does not include the runoff of the upstream basin (Lake Victoria outlet).}}

{|   class= "wikitable  mw-collapsible  mw-uncollapsed nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;"
|+ Geographic basin water balance (annual)<ref name=HydroData>{{harvnb|Senay|2014|loc=Tables 3,4,5 and 6;  Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink)}}.</ref>{{efn|name=exclGERD}}{{efn|name=TableLegend|Hydrology Table Legend:{{sfn|Senay|2014}}
* ''Precip'' - Precipitation (P)
* ''Evap''- Evapotranspiration (ET)
* ''Water Bal'' - Precip-ET
* ''Discharge'' - River flow at measuring station (average of the entire year)
* ''Source or Sink '' - Is basin a significant source or sink of water?
}}
! scope="col" | Basin's<br />downstream<br />station
! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}})
! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}}
! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}}
! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}}
! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}}
|-
! scope="row" | 1 [[Lake Victoria]] outlet{{efn|Measured at [[Nalubaale dam]].{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}}}}
  |  {{D-P|Source}} (74) || 264,259 || 353   || 279   || 57
|-

! scope="row" | 2 [[Murchison Falls]]{{efn|Measured at [[Paara (Uganda)]], slightly downstream from Murchison Falls.{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}}}}
  |  {{D-P|Source}} (15) || 85,513 || 109   || 94     || 9
|-

! scope="row" |3 [[Mongalla, South Sudan|Mongalla]]{{efn|Measured at [[Mongalla, South Sudan]], about 40 km downstream (north) of [[Juba]].{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}}}}
  |  {{D-W|Neutral}} (1) || 131,691 || 159 || 158    || 5
|-

! scope="row" | 4 [[Malakal]]{{efn|Malakal is after the confluence of the White Nile and Sobat. It includes both [[Bahr el Ghazal River|Bahr el Ghazal]] and [[Sobat River]] tributaries.{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}}}}
  | {{D-N|Sink}} (−159)  || 925,160|| 798   || 957   || 150
|-

! scope="row" |5 [[Khartoum]]{{efn|Measured at [[Al Mogran]] before the Blue Nile confluence (includes only the White Nile).{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}}}}
  |{{D-N|Sink}} (−40) || 257,130 || 134   || 174   || 14
|-

! scope="row" | 6 [[Roseires Dam|Dam]]{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}}
| {{D-P|Source}} (105) ||  188,296|| 246  || 142 || 70
|-

! scope="row" |7 [[Khartoum]]{{efn|Includes only Blue Nile (excludes White Nile).{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}}}}
| {{D-W|Neutral}} (10) || 118,651|| 96  || 72   || 9
|-

! scope="row" |8 [[Khashm el Girba]]{{efn|Roughly at the midpoint of the Atbarah river.{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}}}}
 | {{D-P|Source}} (30) ||  100,318|| 95   || 66  || 10
|-

! scope="row" | 9 Mouth of [[Atbarah River]]{{efn |Measured at the Kilo3 station, where the Atbarah joins the Nile.{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}}}}
 |  {{D-W|Neutral}} (−3) || 104,051 || 22  || 25 || 1
|-

! scope="row" | 11 [[Aswan Dam]]{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}}
  | {{D-N|Sink}} (−10) ||  188,011||2 || 13  || 0
|-
! scope="row" |12 [[Cairo]]/[[Nile Delta|Delta]]{{efn|Station is El Ekhsase, near Cairo. Basin data includes the Nile Delta, even though the delta is downstream of the station.{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2, Sec 2.2.5}}}}
  | {{D-N|Sink}} (−10) ||  145,293||3  || 12  || 0
|}

===Nilometers===
<!--
[[File:Nilometer, Cairo; built in 861 during reign of Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil (18).jpg|thumb|This [[Nilometer]] on [[Roda Island]] was used to measure the level of the Nile.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340,361}}|alt=The interior of a large human-made stone structure.  Many steps lead downward to the lower levels.]]
-->
Measurements of the Nile's flow have always been essential in helping Egyptians manage their safety and irrigation. Simple [[Stream gauge|gauges]], called [[nilometer]]s, have been used for thousands of years to measure the level of the Nile.<ref name=nilometer>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340,361}}.
|{{harvnb|Talling|2009|p=25}}. 
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=68}}.
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=15-20}}.
}}</ref> An ideal flood in Egypt{{snd}}not too high and not too low{{snd}} was a {{convert|6|m|ft|sp=us|adj=on}} rise over the non-flood water level.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=45}} Any higher and disastrous floods may damage the river communities; any lower, and fertile silt would not be deposited on the  croplands.<ref name=nilometer/> An important nilometer has been in use on [[Roda Island]] since at least 622 CE; Egyptians kept records of maximum and minimum river levels from that gauge until 1921.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340,361}} Modern gauges to measure the river level began to be installed in the 1860s, and gauges that also measure the river's [[Current (hydrology)|current]]{{snd}}which provide more accurate flow information{{snd}}were installed beginning in 1900.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340,361}}

== Ecology ==

===Animals===
{{Easy CSS image crop
|image =Hippos in their Natural Habitat in Kazinga Channel 10.jpg
|desired_width = 260
|crop_left_perc = 20
|crop_right_perc = 0
|crop_top_perc = 10
|crop_bottom_perc = 0
|align = right
 |alt= A hippopotamus standing on the grassy shore of a lake, with bushes in the background.
|caption= A ''[[Hippopotamus amphibius]]'' near [[Lake Edward]], one of the lakes that feed the Nile
}}

The total number of fish species found in the Nile Basin is estimated at over 800. In the river alone, 128 species are found, belonging to 27 families.<ref name=fish/> The majority of species belong to the four families: [[Cichlidae]] (cichlids), [[Cyprinidae]] (carp), [[Mormyridae]] (elephantfish), and [[Mochokidae]] (catfish).{{sfn|Witte|2009|p=647 }} A number of Cichlid species are found in the African Great Lakes.<ref name=fish>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Witte|2009|pp=647, 651–652 }}.
|{{harvnb| Green|2009|p=205}}.
}}</ref>

In addition to fish, animals that sometimes reside in the Nile's waters include [[hippo]]s, [[Nile crocodile|crocodiles]], and [[African buffalo]]. Other water dwellers include [[mollusc]]s, [[Potamonautes|crab]]s, and [[Caridina nilotica|shrimp]].<ref name=animals/> Many animals live in the ecosystems along the riverbanks, including [[African elephant|elephants]], [[antelope]], and [[giraffe]]s.<ref name=animals/> Snails found in Nile lakes carry [[Schistosoma|parasitic flatworms]]{{snd}}known as blood flukes{{snd}} which are responsible for [[schistosomiasis]] that afflicts livestock and humans.{{sfn| Green|2009|p=205}}

Birds that live on or near the Nile include [[heron]]s, [[kingfisher]]s, [[osprey]]s, and various kinds of [[stork]]s{{snd}}including [[shoebill]]s.<ref name=animals>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=189}}.
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
|{{harvnb|Van Damme|Bocxlaer |2009|pp=585}}.
|{{harvnb|Dumont |2009|pp=10–11}}.
|{{harvnb|Green|El-Moghraby|2009|pp=193,196–197,201–202}}.
}}</ref> Some of the bird species are [[endemic]] to the Nile Basin (such as [[Cyanochen cyanopterus|blue-winged goose]]), while other species have a [[cosmopolitan distribution]] (including [[Gallinula chloropus|moorhen]] and [[Pandion haliaetus|osprey]]).{{sfn|Green|2009a|p=705}} Several species of heron, ducks, geese, and egrets live in the basin year-round, and 14 species of ducks and geese arrive only for winter residence.{{sfn|Green|2009a|p=705}} Of the [[gull]]s and [[tern]]s in the basin, the vast majority are migratory. During the past thousand years, the ranges of some species have been reduced due to human encroachment on their habitat.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Green|2009a|p=705}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=53-55,58,70}}.
}}</ref>

===Plants===
[[File:Nymphaea lotus1XMATT.jpg|thumb|alt= A white flower and green leaves floating on the top of water.|The [[Nymphaea lotus|white Egyptian lotus]] is native to still waters of the Nile Basin.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb| Green|2009|pp=205,207}}.
|{{harvnb| Vijverberg|2009|p=166}}.
}}</ref>]]
The [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes]] region of the Nile Basin includes plants such as the [[Nymphaea|water lily]], [[Cyperus papyrus|papyrus]], and [[Eichhornia|water hyacinth]]. The water hyacinth is an invasive species, and has adversely impacted the populations of native species in Lake Kyoga.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb| Green|2009|p=205}}.
|{{harvnb| Dumont|2009|p=13}}.
}}</ref> Plants common in the Sudd swamp include species that thrive in deep flooding such as [[Vossia (plant)|Vossia]], [[Echinochloa stagnina|hippo grass]], [[reed mace]], [[ambatch]], and papyrus. The Sudd also hosts species that thrive in shallow flooding, for example [[Oryza]], [[Echinochloa pyramidalis|antelope grass]], and [[Phragmites]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=350}}.
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
}}</ref>

===Pollution===

Historically, the water of the Nile was noted for being drinkable, but in the late 20th century, it became less healthy in certain areas.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=18}}.
|{{harvnb|Talling|2009a|p=368}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Jack Talling wrote "Two characteristics of water from the Lower Nile long attracted attention{{snd}}that it was of excellent quality for drinking and irrigation, and that it seasonally contained high concentration of silt."{{sfn|Talling|2009a|p=368}} }} Pollution is most pronounced in Lake Tana, near major cities, and in the Nile Delta.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=18}}.
|{{harvnb|El-Sheekh|2009|pp=395–396}}.
}}</ref>

Sources of pollution in the Nile include agricultural, industrial, and household waste. There are 36 industries that discharge their pollution sources directly into the Nile, and 41 into irrigation canals. These types of industries are: chemical, electrical, engineering, fertilizers, food, metal, mining, oil and soap, pulp and paper, textile and wood. There are over 90 agricultural drains that discharge into the Nile that also include [[industrial wastewater treatment|industrial wastewater]].{{sfn|"Nile Basin National Water Quality", ''Nile Basin Initiative''|pp=12-22}}
 
River pollution is most pronounced between Aswan and the Mediterranean Sea. The pollution there comes from human activities, agricultural runoff, and industrial waste.  Concentrations of pollutants increase as the river flows downstream, due to the cumulative effects of pollution sources.<ref name=delta>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hegab|2025}}.
|{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=75}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=53,59,69}}.
}}</ref> The delta is susceptible to accumulated concentrations because of poor flushing actions, exacerbated by a flat topography and heavy silting in the riverbed.{{sfn|Abotalib|2023}}<!--
{{efn|The northeast region of the delta is the most polluted part of the river in Egypt, and has a high incidence of [[pancreatic cancer]], which may be related to high levels of heavy metals and [[Organochlorine chemistry|organochlorine]] [[pesticides]] found in the soil and water.{{Sfn|Soliman|2006}} 
The river delta contains Egypt's primary oil and gas production facilities, and the chemical industry in the delta is the single largest contributor of toxic waste to the Nile.<ref name=delta/> 
The Nile Delta has relatively high levels of [[Toxic heavy metal|heavy metal]] concentrations.{{sfn|Abotalib|2023}} 
}} --> 

In the late 20th century, Lake Victoria experienced increased [[eutrophication]] (excess nutrients in the lake which cause the growth of plants and algae that deplete the oxygen in the water). The eutrophication is due to human activity, deforestation, and poor agricultural practices, and has caused [[algal bloom]]s and a rapid proliferation of water hyacinth, which have disrupted the ecosystem.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Witte|2009a|p=733}}.
|{{harvnb|El-Sheekh|2009|p=395}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=18}}.
}}</ref>

===Conservation and human impact ===
[[File:Murchison Falls, Uganda (23475021234).jpg|thumb|[[Murchison Falls]] on the White Nile|alt=A large waterfall, with dense foliage on both sides.]]
The Nile Basin was [[African humid period|relatively wet and humid]] from 15 thousand years ago (kya) to 5 kya, which enabled the start of large-scale agriculture in the Nile Basin around 5 kya.<ref name=Humid/> The growth of agriculture has had an increasing impact on the environment since then, leading to widespread deforestation and soil erosion.{{sfn|Williams |2009a|p=771}} The impacts were worsened by [[4.2-kiloyear event|drier conditions]] in Africa that  [[Holocene#Africa|started about 4 kya]]. These arid conditions led to famines, social disruption, and environmental degradation.{{sfn|Williams |2009a|p=771}}

Several species of animals have become extinct in the Nile Basin due to human activity. The [[sacred ibis]] was important in the ancient Egyptian religion, and millions of the ibis were ritually sacrificed.  The species became locally extinct in Egypt in the late 19th century, but remains common in central and southern Africa.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Green|2009a|p=718 }}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=53,55}}
}}</ref>  In Egypt, overpopulation and the construction of the Aswan High Dam  have led to the extinction or near-extinction of a large number of plant and animal species.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=53-55,58,70}}

The [[Nile perch]] was native to several places in Africa, including the Congo, but was not present in the Nile or its lakes until it was surreptitiously introduced to Lake Victoria in the 1950s to create a fishing stock.<ref name=perch/>{{efn|The Nile perch was introduced to Lake Victoria by Ugandan authorities in a clandestine effort to create a new fishery; but this has never been acknowledged by Uganda.<ref name=perch/>}} The Nile perch caused the extinction of over 500 species of cichlids in Lake Victoria, which the scientist [[Les Kaufman]] described as the first mass extinction of vertebrates that scientists have had the opportunity to observe.<ref name=perch>{{multiref
|{{harvnb|Marshall|2018|pp=1542–1543,1546–1548}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=216}}.
|{{harvnb|Lehman|2009|p=227 }}.
|{{harvnb|Green|2009a|p=718}}.
}}</ref><!-- {{efn|There were small signs of cichlid recovery around the year 2000.{{sfn|Lehman|2009|pp=228,231}}
}} -->  The Nile perch also led to increased deforestation, because firewood was required to process the fish.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|p=735}}

The satellite lakes of Lake Kyoga are potentially important for future conservation efforts, because they contain at least 60 species of haplochromines, and have not yet been invaded by the Nile perch.{{sfn|Green|2009|p=205}}

===Climate and climate change===
{{further|Climate change in Egypt}}

{{Easy CSS image crop
|image =Climate Africa Koppen with legend.svg
|desired_width = 360
|crop_left_perc = 36
|crop_right_perc = 13
|crop_top_perc = 11
|crop_bottom_perc = 38
|align = right
 |alt=Map of northeast Africa, dividing the land into various regions, each with climate indicators.
|caption=This map shows the [[Köppen climate classification]] zones in the Nile Basin and the surrounding region.  The northern part of the basin is a hot, dry desert (Bwh) while the south is cooler and wetter (C and A zones).{{sfn|Beck|2018}}
}}
The climate of the Nile Basin is characterized by a gradient, transitioning from very dry in the north to wetter to the south.{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|p=307}} The basin can be divided into nine distinct rainfall regions: the northern regions (Egypt and Sudan) are very dry all year; the middle regions (including Ethiopia) have strong peaks of rainfall in the summer; and the southern regions (around Lake Victoria) have two rainfall peaks{{snd}}in spring and fall.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Camberlin|2009|pp=314-315}}.
|{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=339}}.
}}</ref> The majority of the rainfall in the Nile Basin is associated with the summer [[monsoon]].{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|pp=307-310}}

The Nile Basin is experiencing climate changes related to the increasing prevalence of [[greenhouse gas]]es in the atmosphere.{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|pp=307,327-329}} Some projections for the 21st century predict a temperature increase of 2 to 4&nbsp;°C.{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|pp=307,327-329}} <!--
{{
efn|
The Blue Nile basin in Ethiopia has been experiencing significant changes in temperature and precipitation since the 1970s. In a review published in 2024, scientists predicted that temperatures would continue to rise. Rainfall is fluctuating and impacting crop production, but future trends are uncertain.{{Sfn|Wedajo|2024}}
}} -->  Models of the future climate in the North Africa and Middle East region predict an increase in the frequency and severity of droughts, and increasing variability of precipitation.{{sfn|Driouech |2020}} The Nile Delta is particularly vulnerable, and the combined action of [[sea level rise]] and lack of sediment replenishment (due to dams on the Nile) may cause one third of the surface area of the Nile Delta to disappear within the next century.<ref>{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=52–53}}. The value "one third" is from the UN [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]].</ref>

== Geological history==
{{see|East African Rift}}
[[File:Geological map of Egypt accessible.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt= A map of northeast Africa, where various areas are shaded different colors indicating the geological ages of rocks  found in each region. | Geological data, as seen in this map of northeast Africa, are used by geologists to reconstruct ancient topography and water flows.{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|p=743}}]]
 
The Nile{{snd}}like most rivers{{snd}}evolved from ancestral river systems that followed significantly different courses. Over millions of years, [[tectonic]] and environmental forces shifted, separated, and merged rivers. The river assumed its current form relatively recently, about 15,000 years ago.<ref name=geologOverview>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|p=742}}.
|{{harvnb| Embabi|2018|pp=39–40}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=4}}.  Young river. 
|{{harvnb| Said|1993|pp=32–52}}.
}}</ref> One hypothesis describes the Nile's geological history as a sequence of five evolutionary periods.{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,768|loc=Figures 30A, 30B, 30C, 30D}}{{efn|These five periods were proposed by {{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018}}  based on major environmental and  tectonic events that impacted the Nile.{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|p=768}} Other scientists hypothesize a different set of evolutionary periods; for example, geologist [[Rushdi Said]] hypothesized eight periods in their book {{harvnb| Said|1993}}.{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|p=761}}
}}

* Around 20 million years ago (mya), the west flank of the [[East African Rift System]] began to [[tectonic uplift|uplift]], separating the African Great Lakes region from the Congo basin. About 6 mya, the ancestral Nile in Egypt was a relatively short river, originating near the modern [[Wadi Howar]] and flowing north  into the Mediterranean Sea. Lake Victoria did not exist, and the rivers in the Ethiopian and Ugandan highlands did not flow north or connect to the Egyptian Nile.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,768-770|loc=Figure 30A }}. 
|{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|pp=77–78}}. 
}}</ref>

* From 6 to 5.4 mya, Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands was formed, and a large [[paleolake]]{{snd}}[[Lake Obweruka|Obweruka]]{{snd}}existed where the modern Lake Albert and Lake Edward are.{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,770|loc=Figure 30B }} The [[Messinian salinity crisis]] happened in this period: the Mediterranean Sea became disconnected from the [[Atlantic Ocean]], so the sea completely evaporated. The empty Mediterranean caused the ancestral Nile to cut a deep gorge in Egypt, called the Eonile.<!-- {{efn|The prefix ''eo'' of Eonile is Greek for 'early'.}} --> The river waters flowing through the gorge eroded a canyon several hundred meters below world ocean level at Aswan, and {{convert|2,400|m|ft|sp=us}} below at Cairo. After the Mediterranean Sea [[Zanclean flood|once again connected]] to the ocean, the sea refilled and the Eonile became a gulf which eventually filled with sediment.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,763-764,770|loc=Figure 30B }}
|{{harvnb|Talbot|Williams|2009|pp=39–40}}.
|{{harvnb|Warren| 2006 | p =352  }}.
|{{harvnb|El Mahmoudi |Gabr|2008  |pp = 53–67 }}.
|{{harvnb|Embabi   |2018  |pp=39–45  }}.
}}</ref>

*  About 2.5 mya{{snd}}for the first time{{snd}}the Ethiopian waters flowed north and connected to the ancestral Egyptian Nile. The Rwenzori Mountains [[Tectonic uplift|uplifted]] causing paleolake Obweruka to begin draining to the east (before, it drained to the west) and to start forming Lake Victoria.{{efn|Obweruka existed from about 7.5 mya to 2.5 mya.{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|p=749}}
}} The waters forming Lake Victoria did not yet drain northward into Sudan or Egypt.{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,770|loc=Figure 30C }}

* Around 0.5 mya, Lake Victoria  assumed roughly its modern shape, and the great lakes plateau tilted northward and began intermittently draining into Sudan and connecting to the ancestral Nile in Egypt, forming a series of rivers that approximately traced the course of the modern White Nile. Paleolakes formed in the area of the modern Sudd swamps.{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,770|loc=Figure 30D }}

* Fifteen kya, the African Great Lakes assumed their current shapes, and the flow from those lakes north to Sudan was no longer intermittent. Some paleolakes dried out in South Sudan and in Egypt near the [[Toshka Lakes]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,770}}.
|{{harvnb|Van Damme|Bocxlaer|2009|p=606}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2009|pp=61,70}}.  
}}</ref> During this period, the [[summer monsoon]] shifted and substantially increased rainfall in the area of Lake Victoria and Lake Albert.{{sfn|Williams|2009|pp=61,70}} The high water levels of both the Blue Nile and White Nile fluctuated widely during this period, with unusually high water levels occurring several times.{{sfn|Williams|2009|p=70}} The present-day course of the Nile was established early in this period.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=767,770}}. Between 15,000 and 12,000 kya.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=346}}. Slightly more than 15,000 kya.
|{{harvnb|Van Damme|Bocxlaer|2009|p=606}}. Around 12,000 kya.
}}</ref>

==Human history==

===Prehistory===
[[File:The Nile River flows into the Mediterranean Sea (iss071e405499).jpg | thumb | The Nile (bottom) flows through Egypt's desert, which was much wetter during the [[African humid period]].<ref name=Humid/> |alt=A satellite photo of Egypt, showing mostly sandy ground, with a dark, meandering river flowing through the sand, emptying into a sea. ]]
Early ancestors of the human species lived near the Nile Basin.  The [[Australopithecus afarensis]] fossil [[Lucy (hominid)|Lucy]] was found  slightly east of the basin's boundary. [[Olduvai Gorge]]{{snd}}site of the  first [[Homo habilis]] fossils{{snd}}is located just south of the basin.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=246,346}}  Within the Nile Basin, the [[Nyayanga]] archaeological site on the east shore of Lake Victoria has [[Oldowan]] tools dating back 2.6 million years.{{Sfn|Plummer |2023 }}{{efn|
The Nile and Lake Victoria did not exist in their  current forms during the times of [[Australopithecus afarensis]], [[Homo habilis]], or the [[Oldowan|Oldowan industry]].{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,768|loc=Figures 30A, 30B, 30C, 30D}}
}} Human settlements on the banks of the Nile have been dated to between 12,000 and 20,000 years ago in a settlement near the modern town of [[Qurta]] (Egypt). These humans carved [[petroglyphs]] into rock, depicting [[auroch]]s, birds, [[hippopotamid]]s, gazelle, [[hartebeest]], and fish. Some scholars have hypothesized that these peoples, or other peoples that resided nearby, may have domesticated sheep, goats, or cattle.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p= 53}}.
|{{harvnb|Huyge|2011}}.
|{{harvnb|Leplongeon |2017}}.
}}</ref> The eastern Sahara{{snd}}including Egypt and Sudan{{snd}}was much wetter during the [[African humid period]] which lasted from about 10,000 to 5,000 years ago. Pastoral  herding cultures developed during that period, but when the climate became drier around 3,900 BCE, people were forced to migrate to the Nile valley to survive. This was the origin of the [[Nubians|Nubian cultures]] in Sudan and the Ancient Egyptian civilization.<ref name=Humid>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Kuper |Kröpelin|2006 |pp=803–807}}.  Egyptian culture.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023 |pp=47,57}}. Egyptian culture.
|{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc=Articles: "Culture of the Nile", "History of the Nile", "History of Egypt: Ancient", "History of Sudan: Ancient Kush and Nubia", "Atbara River"}}. Nubian (Sudanese) culture in Sudan.
}}</ref>

===Ancient Egyptian civilization ===
{{See also|Ancient Egyptian agriculture}}
[[File:Journey to Abydos, Tomb of Pairy MET DT10886.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=A painting on a wall of a boat on a river, with Ancient Egyptians rowing it|Ancient Egyptians used boats extensively for transport. This image is from the [[TT139|Tomb of Pairy]].<ref name=ancientTransport/>]]

The Nile was central to every facet of Egyptian life:  it provided food through the crops it watered, and it caused death when droughts led to crop failures and famine. The Nile encouraged the growth of science and government: irrigation, flood predictions and taxation all required new mathematical and administrative skills. Weather prediction and astronomy also developed as a consequence of the Egyptians' need to understand the river and its floods.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=9–10}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023 |pp=49,63,69}}.
}}</ref>

The [[Egyptian calendar|ancient Egyptian calendar]] was based on the flood cycle of the Nile. The year was divided into three seasons, each consisting of four months of thirty days each. The seasons were [[Season of the Inundation|Akhet]] (literally, 'inundation'), [[Season of the Emergence|Peret]] ('growing'), and [[Season of the Harvest|Shemu]] ('harvest'). Akhet was the time of the year when the Nile flooded, leaving a new layer of fertile soil behind; Peret was the growing season; and Shemu was the harvest season when there were no rains.<ref name="Seasons">{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Allen|2000|p=103}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021 |p=355}}. Footnote 10.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023 |p=62}}.
}}</ref> The Nile influenced their language: compass directions were based on a person facing upstream: the same word could be used for both ''up'' and ''south''; another word for ''left'' and ''east''; and another for ''right'' and ''west''.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Allen|2000|p=21}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=61}}.
}}</ref> They sometimes referred to rain as "Nile in the sky".{{sfn|Assmann |2001 |p=59}} 
 
Ancient Egypt consisted of two regions: [[Lower Egypt]] (the Nile Delta) and [[Upper Egypt]] (the Nile Valley, roughly between [[Giza]] and the first cataract). The Nile played a role in determining the unique character of each region, because the ever-shifting waterways in Lower Egypt meant that transportation routes, settlements, and administrative regions were often forced to relocate. The Lower and Upper regions were each represented by a unique Nile plant: [[Cyperus papyrus|papyrus]] and  [[Cyperaceae|sedge]], respectively.<ref>{{multiref
|{{harvnb|Redford|2001|pp=17,305-306|loc=Articles: "Geography", "Lower Egypt"}}.
|{{harvnb|Redford|2001a|pp=464-466|loc=Article: "Upper Egypt"}}.
}}</ref>

Ancient Egypt's southern boundary was{{snd}}informally{{snd}}at the river's first cataract (near [[Elephantine Island]]) because transportation beyond those rapids was difficult.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=82,92-93}} The Egyptians were familiar with the course of the Nile upstream to the sixth cataract (present-day Khartoum), but were not familiar with the river's course (nor its source) beyond that.<ref name=unknown>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Assmann |2001 |pp= 54–55}}.
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=6}}.
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|The ancient Egyptians were familiar with the Blue Nile's course up to Lake Tana.<ref name=unknown/>}} The Nile led the Egyptians to build the world's earliest known major dam{{snd}}now known as the ''[[Sadd el-Kafara]]''{{snd}}circa 2600 BCE in an attempt to control flooding.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=11-12}}{{efn|The [[Sadd el-Kafara]] failed before it was completed, and never functioned as a dam.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=11-12}}}}

===Nubian, Ethiopian, and Nilotic cultures===
[[File:Rulers of Kush, Kerma Museum.jpg|thumb|The [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt]] was led by [[Kushites|Kushite]] kings, also known as the Black Pharaohs.<ref name=Kushite/>|alt=A photograph of seven stone statues of individual men, in a standing posture.]]
South of the second Nile cataract lies [[Nubia]], home to a series of cultures along the Nile (in what is now modern Sudan) that started development at the end of the African humid period.<ref name=Kerma/>{{efn|Some authorities place the northern limit of Nubia   at the First Cataract;{{sfn|Appiah|Gates|2005|pp=1447}} others at the Second Cataract.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=93}}
}} These Nubian cultures developed in parallel with the Egyptian civilization to the north, but they had little contact with each other until the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt]] around 3,000 BCE.{{sfn|Shoup|2017|loc=Article: "Culture of the Nile"}} An early Nubian civilization was the [[Kerma culture]], extant from about 2600 BCE to 1500 BCE. Kerma culture was originally pastoral and cattle-oriented, but gradually shifted to agriculture as the Sahara dried at the end of the African humid period.<ref name=Kerma>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=92–95}}.
|{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc=Articles: "Culture of the Nile", "History of the Nile",  "History of Egypt: Ancient", "History of Sudan: Ancient Kush and Nubia", "Atbara River"}}. Little contact between Egypt and Sudan: "Culture of the Nile".
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=39-42}}. Collins focuses on language groups, and refers to the Kerma as "Cushitic people" based on their use of  [[Cushitic languages]].
}}</ref> Around 780 BCE, the [[Kushite Empire]] arose along the banks of the Nile, including the Atbarah tributary. The Kushite Empire conquered much of Egypt under the rule of its [[Black Pharaoh]]s,{{efn|Also called "Kushite Pharaohs".{{sfn|Shoup|2017|loc=Article:   "History of Egypt: Ancient"}}
}} who led the empire from the cities [[Napata]] and [[Meroë]] on the banks of the Nile.<ref name=Kushite>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=92–95}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=60}}.
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=107-115}}.
|{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc=Articles: "History of the Nile",  "History of Egypt: Ancient", "History of Sudan: Ancient Kush and Nubia", "Atbara River", "Meroe"}}.
}}</ref> After the rise of Christianity,  Christian kingdoms in Nubia (including [[Nobatia]], [[Makuria]], and [[Alodia]]) developed along the Nile.{{sfn|Shoup|2017|loc=Article: "History of Sudan: Arrival of Christianity and Islam"}}

In the area occupied by modern [[Eritrea]] and northern [[Ethiopia]], the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] flourished from  the 1st century to 960 CE. Aksum primarily used the Red Sea for transport, but the Atbarah and Blue Nile were also within its realm.{{sfn|Shoup|2017|loc=Article: "Ethiopia (Abyssinia)"}} The [[Funj Sultanate]] (1504 to 1821) ruled over the area approximately covered by modern Sudan.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=102}}.
|{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc=Articles: 
"Blue Nile River", "History of Sudan: Arrival of Christianity and Islam", "History of Sudan: Modern Period"}}.
}}</ref> The [[Ethiopian Empire]] (1270–1974) occupied the areas of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea.{{sfn|Shoup|2017|loc=Article: "Ethiopia (Abyssinia)"}}

The Nile Basin is home to the [[Nilotic peoples]], a broad group of communities which originated near the Nile in what is now South Sudan, and migrated south and east into present-day Uganda and Kenya.{{sfn| Stokes|2009 |pp=499-500|loc=Article: "Nilotes"}} Nilotic peoples include the [[Dinka people|Dinka]] and [[Nuer people|Nuer]], who are South Sudan's largest ethnic groups; both are semi-nomadic [[pastoralism|cattle herders]] who practice [[nomadic pastoralism]], moving their cattle seasonally in response to the Nile's floods.<ref>
{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=138–144}}.
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=70-77}}.
|{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc=Articles: "Sudd", "Dinka", "Nuer"}} 
}}</ref>

===Egypt from Roman era to colonial era===
[[File:Mahmoudiyah Canal.jpg|thumb|The [[Mahmoudiyah Canal]] was built by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] (ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1848) to support irrigation and transportation.<ref name=ali/>|alt=A photograph of a river, lined with trees on both banks, and a boat docked on the side.]]

The Nile was a major factor in the growth of the [[Roman Empire]], which [[Roman Egypt|ruled Egypt]] for several centuries. The Romans imported vast amounts of grain from Egypt, grown with the Nile's floodwaters.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=19-20}} In the first century, emperor [[Trajan]] constructed [[Suez Canal#Cairo to the Red Sea|a canal]] connecting the Nile to the [[Red Sea]].{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=50}} Between 945 and 977 CE, the Nile floods were exceptionally low; the resulting crop failures caused political instability which led to the rise of the  [[Fatimid Caliphate]].{{sfn|Collins|2002|p=21}}{{efn|Around 642 CE, Arab conquerors had brought Islam to Egypt, supplanting the Ancient Egyptian religion.{{sfn|Collins|2002|p=21}}}} Canals in Egypt continued to be built and maintained by the Fatimids (10th and 11th centuries), [[Mamluk Sultanate]] (13th to 16th centuries), and [[Ottoman Egypt]] (16th to 19th centuries).{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=50-52}} Canals were used for agricultural purposes, and also for trade and for military purposes.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=50-52}} Although Egyptian civilizations were proficient at canal-building, they did not successfully build dams or reservoirs  on the Nile until the 19th century, when cotton{{snd}}irrigated with Nile waters{{snd}}became an important cash crop for Egypt.<ref name=ali>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=52}}.
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=15}}.
}}</ref> These early dams were built during the rule of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] (ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1848). The first small dams were constructed in the Nile Delta and near Cairo, and acted to extend the growing season of crops. Ali also built canals including the [[Mahmoudiyah Canal]], started in 1818.<ref name=ali/><!-- {{
efn|
Ali's son, [[Mohamed Sa'id Pasha]], worked with [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] on other canals in Egypt, such as the [[Suez Canal]], begun in 1859.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=42-43}}
}} --><nowiki> </nowiki>[[Ismail Pasha]] (Viceroy of Egypt, 1863–1879) built the [[Ibrahimiya Canal]]{{snd}}completed in 1873{{snd}}that runs parallel to the Nile and is used for irrigation.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaumont|1993|p=249}}.
|{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc=Article: "Khedive Isma'il 1830-1895"}}.
}}</ref>

=== Search for the source of the Nile===
{{further|European exploration of Africa}}
[[File:Abyssinia 1619 map by Jodocus Hondius.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=An engraved map of central Africa. The map shows numerous towns and rivers through the continent.  The map contains some geographic inaccuracies, indicating it is old and prepared before the modern era.|Seventeenth century European map of central Africa. The Nile is labeled ''Nilus fl.'' Many features in the map are speculative or fanciful.{{sfn|"Abyssinia", ''Library of Congress''}}{{efn|The map was engraved  by [[Jodocus Hondius]] or one of his followers, and published around 1619.{{sfn|"Abyssinia", ''Library of Congress''}}}}]] 
 
Since the time of the ancient Greeks, Europeans have been curious about the source of the Nile and the origin of its floods.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=2}}.
|{{harvnb|Warburg|2007|p=475}}.
}}
</ref> [[Herodotus]] was a Greek historian who visited Egypt in 457 BCE and traveled up the Nile to Aswan; he was puzzled by the Nile floods, which began in the summer{{snd}}a season when Egypt had no rainfall.{{sfn|Williams|2009|p=70}} Geographers in Europe, Africa, and Arabia{{snd}}dating back to [[Eratosthenes]] in the second century BCE{{snd}}speculated that the source was a collection of lakes in central Africa.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=177-179}}.
}}</ref><!-- 
{{efn|Other Europeans that inquired or speculated about the source of the Nile included [[Ptolemy]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Emperor Nero]], and [[Pedro Tafur]].{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=177-179}}
}} --> Many early maps of Africa showed the Nile originating in large lakes in Africa's interior but until the 1600s they were all speculative and not based on firm scientific knowledge.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=177-179}}{{efn|An example of an early map that shows the Nile and its source is from the 12th century, when the Arabian geographer [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] published a book ''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]''  which showed the Nile flowing from a large lake in Africa's interior.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=178}}
}}
  
The source of the Blue Nile was established as a result of Portuguese interest in Ethiopia: the [[Jesuits|Jesuit missionary]] [[Pedro Páez]] visited the source{{snd}}[[Gish Abay]]{{snd}}in the early 17th century, and wrote ''[[História da Ethiópia]]'' describing his time in Ethiopia. His accounts do not contain a specific date for his visit to Gish Abay.  Later European explorers who reached Ethiopia in the 17th and 18th centuries{{snd}}including [[Jerónimo Lobo]] and [[James Bruce]]{{snd}}publicized Páez's writings and estimated that he visited the source between 1613 and 1618.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=324}}<!-- 
{{efn|Another European scholar that analyzed Páez's visit to the source of the Blue Nile was [[Athanasius Kircher]].{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=324}}
}} --> 

The source of the White Nile proved to be more difficult to establish than that of the Blue Nile. Lake Victoria was not definitively established as a major source of the White Nile until 260 years after Gish Abay was identified as the Blue Nile's source.<ref>{{Multiref
|Source of Blue Nile:  1613-1618. {{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=324}}.  
| Source of White Nile: 1874.  {{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp= 174–175}}.
}}</ref> In 1858, [[John Hanning Speke]] was the first European to see Lake Victoria, and he later found a river flowing out from the north side of the lake which he concluded was the Nile. <!-- 
{{
efn|
In 1857, [[John Hanning Speke]] and [[Richard Francis Burton]] started a search for the Nile's source by departing from Zanzibar on the east coast of Africa{{snd}}rather than traveling upriver from Egypt{{snd}}and headed westward to the interior of Africa. They reached [[Lake Tanganyika]] and determined it was not the source.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=173-174}}  During this first trip to Africa, Speke made a side trip on which he briefly saw Lake Victoria in 1858, but was unable to perform any measurements or draw conclusions about whether it was the source.  Speke made a second journey to Lake Victoria that started in 1860; in 1862 he saw a river (now known to be the Nile) flowing out of Lake Victoria at modern [[Jinja, Uganda|Jinja]]. But he did not follow that river north to [[Gondokoro]] (the southernmost location of the known Nile) so there were some{{snd}}including Burton{{snd}}who disputed Speke's conclusion about the source.{{sfn|Burton|1864|pp = 6–14 }} 
}}  -->  He did not follow that river from Lake Victoria to Sudan, leading some to doubt his conclusion that the lake's outflow was the Nile.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=173-174}}.
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=36}}.
}}</ref> <!--
{{
efn|
In 1864, [[Samuel Baker]] became the first European to follow the Nile upstream from the Mediterranean Sea to [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]].{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=175}} Baker gave Lake Albert its name.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=175}}   In 1874, [[Henry Morton Stanley]] circumnavigated Lake Victoria, and determined that the outflowing river that Speke had identified was the only river leaving the lake. That fact{{snd}}in conjunction with the research from Baker and others{{snd}}confirmed that Lake Victoria was the source of the Nile.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp= 174-175}}
}} --> 

Efforts to precisely pinpoint the farthest source of the White Nile began in the early 20th century when [[Richard Kandt]] suggested that the source was a tributary of the [[Kagera River]] in the [[Nyungwe Forest]]{{snd}}the Kagera feeds into Lake Victoria.<ref name=SourceCite/> The source location was refined in 1969 when a group of researchers from [[Waseda University]] identified a specific tributary of the Kagera.<ref name=SourceCite/> In 2006, a group of adventurers rediscovered the 1969 location, and placed a large marker on a nearby tree.<ref name=SourceCite/> In 2009, academics used satellite imagery to further refine the location of the source, placing it at a spring several km from the 1969/2006 source.<ref name=SourceCite/>{{efn |name=sourceNote}}

== Water politics in the modern era==
{{Further|Water politics in the Nile Basin }}

The Nile crosses several international borders, making it a [[transboundary river]] and the subject of political tensions.{{sfn|Allan|2009|pp=749-751}}

===Colonial era===

After [[History of Egypt under the British|British colonial rule of Egypt]] commenced in 1882,{{efn|European powers divided up Africa during a process called the [[Scramble for Africa]], formalized in the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885.  Under that agreement, Britain received most of the Nile Basin.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=176–177,317}}.
|{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc= Article: "Geography of the Nile"}}.
}}</ref> 
}} they started additional water projects to enhance cotton production and support the rapidly growing Egyptian population.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=15}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=59–64}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=52}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|name=EgyptIndep}} The first major dam built on the Nile was the [[Aswan Low Dam]], completed in 1902. Its height was raised twice: in 1912 and 1933.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=15}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=62–63}}.
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
}}</ref> Other dams built under the colonial regime include the Sennar Dam, built between 1914 and 1925 on the Blue Nile in Sudan, and the [[Jebel Aulia Dam]], completed in 1937 near Khartoum.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p= 22}} The primary purpose of the dams built in the 20th century was to support irrigation; [[hydropower]] generation was only a secondary goal.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=17}}

In 1929, an agreement between Egypt and [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] was reached.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=63–64}}.
|{{harvnb|Roach|2025|p=5}}.
}}</ref> <!-- 
{{efn|The 1929 agreement was an exchange of letters between [[Mohamed Mahmoud Pasha]] (prime minister of Egypt) and the [[British High Commission]] of Egypt (representing  Sudan).  No other countries from the Nile Basin were involved in the agreement.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p= 22}}   The 1929 agreement was not the first treaty governing Nile waters:  in 1891 Britain and Italy signed an agreement prohibiting dams on Ethiopian rivers;{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp =305-306}} and in 1902 a treaty between Britain, Ethiopia and Egypt was signed, prohibiting dams on the Blue Nile.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021| p =329}} 
}} 
--> The agreement provided that Egypt and Sudan utilize 48 and 4 billion cubic meters of the Nile flow per year, respectively. Egypt reserved the right to monitor the Nile flow in the upstream countries, to undertake river-related projects without the consent of upriver nations, and to veto any construction projects that would adversely affect Egypt.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|p= 22}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=63–64}}. 
|{{harvnb|Roach|2025|p=5}}.
}}</ref>

===Post-colonial era===
[[File:Großer Tempel (Abu Simbel) 31.jpg|thumb|The [[Abu Simbel|Abu Simbel temples]] were relocated to higher ground when the [[Aswan High Dam]] was built and submerged their original location.{{sfn|Fleming  |Lothian |1997 |pp=135-136}} 
|alt=A huge rock sculpture of four kings sitting on thrones.]]
Egypt and Sudan became independent from Britain in the mid-1950s.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|pp=22-23}}{{efn|name=EgyptIndep|Egypt became nominally independent in 1922, but Britain maintained control of foreign policy and kept armed forces near the Suez Canal.  Full independence was achieved in 1957 after the [[Suez Crisis]].{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=63-68}}}} In 1959 Egypt and Sudan updated the 1929 water-sharing agreement. The new agreement allocated the water to be shared between Egypt and Sudan at 55.5 and 18.5 billion cubic meters respectively.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=122–123}}.
|{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|pp=22–24}}.
}}</ref> Upstream countries within the Nile Basin were excluded from the 1959 agreement{{snd}}including Ethiopia, which is the source of over two-thirds of the Nile's water.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=24}}

The 1959 agreement included terms permitting Egypt and Sudan to build dams, which they did: Egypt built the [[Aswan High Dam]] (completed 1970); Sudan built the [[Khashm el-Girba Dam]] (1964), [[Roseires Dam]] (1966), [[Merowe Dam]] (2009), and [[Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex]] (2017).{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=24}}{{efn|The 1959 agreement also provided for financial compensation paid from Egypt to Sudan for the displacement of [[Nubians]] as a result of the new reservoir behind the Aswan High Dam.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|pp=22-24}}}}

In 1960, Egypt started building the Aswan High Dam which stores roughly two years' flow of the Nile.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|pp=15–16}}.
|{{harvnb|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=125}}.
|{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=52}}.
}}</ref> The dam effectively turned the downstream stretch of the Nile (from the dam to the sea) into a large irrigation canal.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=16}} The dam has positive impacts: more water is available for irrigation, and  hydropower has provided more electricity for Egyptian manufacturing. Negative impacts of the dam include poorer water quality, reduced fertility of soil due to lack of new sediment deposited by floods, increased [[Soil salinity#Salinity due to irrigation|salinity of soil]], schistosomiasis, habitat loss for native flora and fauna, and displacement of Nubians.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|El-Shabrawy|2009|pp=148–151}}.
|{{harvnb|Talling|2009|p=29}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=132–133}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=46,53,69}}.
}}</ref>

The Aswan High Dam flooded a large area of the Nile Valley, and would have submerged several important historical monuments. An [[International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia|international campaign]] to save some monuments from becoming submerged by the new reservoir successfully saved some monuments, including the [[Abu Simbel|Abu Simbel temples]].{{sfn|Fleming  |Lothian |1997 |pp=135-136}} The Aswan High Dam also forced the relocation of many [[Nubians]] that lived in the valley inundated by the new reservoir. The Nubians were removed from their ancestral homelands, and many were forced to migrate to cities in Egypt and Sudan.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hassan|2007}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=132–133}}.
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=187-189}}.
}}</ref>

=== Late 20th century disagreements and negotiations===
<!--
{{Easy CSS image crop
|image = Slope of Nile.png
|desired_width = 260
|crop_left_perc = 0
|crop_right_perc = 0
|crop_top_perc = 0
|crop_bottom_perc = 28
|align = right
 |alt= A line graph of the steepness of the river, showing steep sections in Uganda, and flatter sections in Egypt.
|caption= The gradient of the Nile is generally steeper in the upstream regions (left, in this graph), providing more opportunities for hydropower generation.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=336}}
}}
-->
Throughout the 20th century, there was a marked imbalance in political power within the Nile Basin: Egypt and Sudan in the north wielded more power than the other ten nations to the south.<ref name=powerShift/> After Egypt and Sudan created the 1959 agreement, several of the upstream nations (including Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia) began to voice objections to the terms of the agreement, and argued that they were not bound by the agreement because they were not parties to it.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|pp=24-25}} The arguments of the upstream nations were that the dams built by Egypt and Sudan protected those two countries from drought, famine, and floods, yet upstream countries such as Ethiopia were still subject to droughts and famine.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=71, 339-344}}{{efn|According to [[Sundeep Waslekar]], Nile Basin droughts in the 20th century affected around 170 million people and killed half a million people.{{Sfn|Waslekar|2009|p=2}}  From the 70 incidents of drought which took place between 1900 and 2012, 55 incidents took place in Ethiopia, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania.{{Sfn|Waslekar|2009|p=2}}}} For example, the Aswan High Dam generated about 10 billion kilowatt-hours per year; and enabled Egyptian farmers to cultivate three harvests per year, compared to a single harvest before the dam.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=70}} Egyptian leaders often stated that they were willing to employ military force to protect their rights under the 1959 agreement.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|pp=24–25}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=82}}.
}}</ref>

In the late 20th century, African nations participated in several efforts to establish water-sharing policies{{snd}}including the [[Undugu Commission]] (active from 1983 to 1993) and [[TECCONILE]] (active 1993 to 1998){{snd}} but were not successful in creating long-term agreements.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|pp=26-27}} In 1999, nine of the ten{{efn| South Sudan was not yet a country in 1999, but joined the [[Nile Basin Initiative]] in 2012.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=18}}  Eritrea has declined to participate in the Nile Basin Initiative.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=312}} }} Nile Basin countries{{snd}}Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda{{snd}}established the [[Nile Basin Initiative]] to promote peaceful dialogue regarding issues related to the Nile Basin.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|"The Nile Basin Trust Fund", ''World Bank Group''}}.
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=16}}.
}}</ref>

=== Power shift to upstream nations ===
{{further|Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam}}
[[File:GERD 3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]], completed in 2025, generates over 5 gigawatts.{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}}|alt=A photograph of large concrete dam and the reservoir it creates.  The photo is taken from an aerial viewpoint, looking down from above.  Large plumes of white water spray over a spillway.]]

At the start of the 21st century, power shifted to the upstream nations as they began to build dams without the consent of Egypt or Sudan.<ref name=powerShift>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|pp=20–21,25,32–33}}. 
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=336–337, 341–342}}. 
|{{harvnb|Allan|2009|pp=760–768}}.
}}
</ref> In 2008, Ethiopia built the [[Tekezé Dam]] without seeking permission from Egypt or Sudan.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=336-337}} In 2010, five upstream countries{{snd}}Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Kenya{{efn|Kenya was not one of the initial signatories, but signed it soon after it was created.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=244-245}}  
}}{{snd}}signed a new agreement{{snd}}the [[Cooperative Framework Agreement]]{{snd}}which aimed to allocate waters more equitably for upstream countries. Kenya was motivated to sign the agreement because it had plans to pump water out of Lake Victoria for irrigation. The 2010 agreement was opposed by Egypt and Sudan.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=244–245}}.
|{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|pp=25–26}}.
|{{harvnb|Roussi|2020}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=70}}.
}}</ref> In 2011, [[2011 South Sudanese independence referendum|South Sudan became independent from Sudan]], becoming the eleventh country in the Nile Basin. In subsequent water disputes, South Sudan allied with the upstream nations rather than with Sudan.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=18}}

In 2011, Ethiopia announced plans to build a large dam on the Blue Nile near the border with Sudan. The dam was later named the [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]] (GERD).{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=27}} Ethiopia viewed the GERD as essential to the nation's future, because the electrical power generated by the dam would enable it to significantly increase the quality of life of its population. Egypt was concerned that the dam would imperil the irrigation of its crops because Egypt already uses nearly all of the river water that enters its country, and it was concerned that the new dam would lead to water shortages. Sudan was concerned about safety and water supply.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|p=30}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=316}}.
}}</ref> After the dam was announced, Egyptian president [[Mohamed Morsi]] hinted that military strikes on Ethiopia were an option,{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=27}} and Sudan and Egypt conducted several joint [[military exercise]]s.{{sfn|İlkbahar|Mercan|2023|pp=1165-1166}}

Numerous negotiations were conducted between Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt while the dam was constructed and the reservoir was filled.{{sfn|Roach|2025|pp=1-2}} In 2015 the countries signed a "Declaration of Principles" which contained high-level agreements regarding water usage and reservoir filling procedures.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=28}}{{efn| The 2015 agreement stipulated that the three countries would use the Nile's waters in a fair and appropriate manner; and  they agreed on an approach to filling the reservoir and operating the dam.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=28}} }} In 2019, the United States hosted talks between the involved nations.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=28}} In 2020, the [[African Union]] started facilitating talks.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|pp=29-31}} That year, Egypt asked the [[United Nations Security Council]] to intervene, but it declined to do so.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|pp=30-32}} In 2021 and 2022, the [[UAE]] hosted talks.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|pp=30,33}} Construction of the GERD dam was completed in 2020, and in 2025 the reservoir was full and most of the dam's generators were producing electricity.{{Sfn|Mureithi |2025}}
<!-- 
===Future===

In the early 2020s, the population of the Nile Basin was about 250 million people, and the total population of the eleven countries of the basin was over 400 million.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|"The Nile Basin", ''Nile Basin Initiative''}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=70}}.
}}</ref>  Egypt's population was about 100 million, a dramatic increase from  2.5 million in 1800{{snd}}made possible by the construction of dams, the [[green revolution]], and the industrialization of agricultural practices.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=61}}  In the 21st century, Egypt and Sudan continue to rely on extracting large amounts of water from  the Nile for their existence.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=43-44,61}}  Some experts predict that the Nile Basin may experience a [[water scarcity]] problem in the future, if population growth, agricultural needs, and climate change combine to create a scenario where the water demands exceed the amount of water available.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=70}}
-->

==Economy ==
===Agriculture===
[[File:Desert agriculture in Egypt (Copernicus 2024-02-03).jpg|thumb|alt=An aerial photograph of a yellow sandy desert to the west of the Nile. Over forty green circles are visible, where irrigation water has been used to grow crops.|These crops in Egypt (near the [[Toshka Lakes]]) are the result of [[New Valley Project|an irrigation system]] that pumps Nile water out of [[Lake Nasser]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|"Desert Agriculture", ''Copernicus Programme''}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=84–85}}.
}}</ref>
]]
There is a significant difference in agricultural practices between the northern nations of the Nile Basin (Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan) and the southern nations (Uganda, Ethiopia, etc).{{sfn|Allan|2009|pp=754-758}} The north is primarily a desert, yet the south receives significant rainfall; crops in the north rely primarily on irrigation, whereas the south relies on rainfall retained in the soil ([[Soil water (retention)|soil water]]); crop yields are higher in the north (due to intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides) than in the south; and the north has extensive irrigation infrastructure (dams, canals, etc) supported by governmental policies and international funding sources.{{sfn|Allan|2009|pp=754-758}}  The amount of soil water used annually for crops in the south is 229&nbsp;km{{super|3}}, which is more than twice the total annual water flow of the Nile (about 100&nbsp;km{{super|3}}).{{sfn|Allan|2009|pp=754-755}} Crop yields in the south are adversely influenced by longer distances to market; in contrast to the north, where nearly all farms are concentrated in a narrow strip along riverbanks with ample transportation opportunities.{{sfn|Allan|2009|p=758}} 

The lack of rainfall and groundwater leads Egypt to rely on the Nile for virtually all its water needs.<ref name="Hamza 2009 84">{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=84}}.  
|{{harvnb|Holt|2026}}.  
}}</ref> Principal crops grown in Egypt include cotton, wheat, corn, rice, sorghum, and fava beans.<ref name="Hamza 2009 84"/> There are generally two growing seasons in Egypt: summer (cotton) and winter (grains and vegetables).{{sfn|Holt|2026}} Since the 1950s, Egypt has increasingly used industrial farming techniques (including extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides) to improve crop yield.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=85}}.  
|{{harvnb|Holt|2026}}.  
}}</ref> Egypt's land is 94% desert and 3% [[arable land]].{{sfn|Holt|2026}} The vast majority of Egypt's farmland is located in the Nile Delta, with the remainder along the banks of the Nile.{{sfn|Hamza|2009|pp=75, 84}}

The primary crops in Sudan are peanuts, cotton, sesame, sugarcane, and [[sorghum]]. Other crops include millet, wheat, corn, and barley.{{sfn|Sabr|2026}} Sudan's crops draw upon water from both the Blue Nile and White Nile, supported by several dams including the Sennar Dam and Khashm el-Girba Dam.{{sfn|Sabr|2026}} Much of the irrigated land is within the [[Gezira Scheme]], an extensive irrigation project started in the 1920s.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Sabr|2026}}  
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=315}}.  
}}</ref>

===Fisheries===
[[File:Lates niloticus by DaijuAzuma.jpg|thumb|The [[Nile perch]] was introduced to Lake Victoria in the 1950s to create a new fishery.<ref name=perch/>|alt=A grey fish, viewed from the side.  Rocks and blue water are in the background.]]
The Nile and its associated lakes have been an important food source for peoples living near the waters since prehistoric times.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=723-724}} In the year 2000, the Nile Basin produced about 1.4 million tonnes of fish per year, which is more than half of the total fresh water yield from the entire African continent (2.2 million tonnes).{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=724-725}} Lake Victoria alone{{snd}}Africa's largest lake{{snd}}provided 1 million tonnes.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=724-725, 742}} The yield of the lakes of the Nile Basin far exceeds the amount of fish caught in its rivers.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=723-724}}  All waters of the Nile Basin{{snd}}with the exception of the Sudd{{snd}}show evidence of overfishing.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Witte|2009a|pp=723–724, 742}}.
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=17}}.
|{{harvnb|Vijverberg|2009|p=182}}.
}}</ref>

In the 1950s, Nile perch and Nile tilapia were introduced into Lake Victoria in an effort to reverse the shrinking yields of native fishes in the lake; the effort was successful, but led to a decline in the number of native fish species in the lake.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|p=723}} Currently, the vast majority of fish caught in Lake Victoria are Nile perch and [[Silver cyprinid]] (Lake Victoria sardine).{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=723-724}} Some fisheries{{snd}}particularly the [[Nile perch]]{{snd}}are primarily exported to Europe, rather than consumed locally.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=17}} Fish farming is carried out in some parts of the basin.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=17}}.
|{{harvnb|El-Shabrawy|Dumont|2009|p=119}}. 
}}</ref>

===Hydropower===
{{further|List of power stations in Egypt|List of power stations in Sudan|List of power stations in Ethiopia|List of power stations in Uganda}}
[[File:Nile River Hydropower Stations.svg|thumb|Some hydropower stations on the Nile. "GERD" is the [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]].|alt=A map of northeast Africa.  The Nile is shown as a blue line.  Along the Nile, locations of about ten hydropower stations are indicated.]]
 
The Nile and its tributaries power dozens of [[hydropower]] stations, which collectively have a capacity to generate over 10 [[gigawatts]] (GW) of electrical power.{{efn|Total generation capacity for the Nile Basin was computed by summing generation capacity values from the table titled "Major hydropower stations in the Nile Basin".  Sources for capacities of individual power stations are identified in that same table.}} Prior to the year 2000, there were few dams on the Nile, but thereafter, governments accelerated the pace of dam construction.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=348}} <!--
{{efn|Hydropower stations generate electricity from rivers and lakes by using the water to turn turbine generators.  Most hydropower stations are integrated with a dam, but some{{snd}}such as Ethiopia's [[Beles Hydroelectric Power Plant]]{{snd}}do not have a dam, and instead use a [[Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity|'run of the river']] design to take water from a lake and run the water through conduits to the generators.}} -->  Hydropower stations with [[Nameplate capacity|capacities]] over 100 MW are listed in the table below.{{efn|This table only includes hydropower stations with capacities over 100 MW.  Smaller stations including [[Assiut Barrage]], [[Jebel Aulia Dam]], [[Naga Hammadi dam]], [[Esna Power Plant]], and  [[Tis Abay I, II]]   are not included. Hydropower stations ''outside'' the Nile Basin are not included, such as Ethiopia's [[Gilgel Gibe I Dam|Gilgel Gibe Dams I]], [[Gilgel Gibe II Dam|II]], and [[Gilgel Gibe III Dam|III]].}}

{| class= "wikitable defaultright col2center col5center sortable"
|+ Major hydropower stations in the Nile Basin{{efn|Colors in the "Landmark" column indicate the country in which the hydropower station is located.}}
! scope="col" | Hydropower<br>station
! scope="col" | Nearby<br>landmark
! scope="col" | Year<br>completed
! scope="col" | [[Nameplate capacity|Power]]<br>(MW, in 2025)
! scope="col" | Tributary
|-
! scope="row" |  [[Aswan Low Dam]]
| {{operational|[[Aswan, Egypt]]}} ||1902, 1912, 1933, 1985||  550{{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} || Main Nile 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Aswan High Dam]]
| {{operational|[[Aswan]] Egypt}} || 1970 || 2,100{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=149}} || Main Nile 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Merowe Dam]]
| {{WinDL|[[Merowe, Sudan]]  }}|| 2009 || 1,250{{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}}  || Main Nile 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex|Upper Atbara and Setit]]
| {{WinDL| [[Showak|Showak, Sudan]] }}||  2017  || 320{{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam",  ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}}  || [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] and [[Tekezé River|Tekezé]]
|-
! scope="row" |  [[Roseires Dam]]
| {{WinDL| [[Er Roseires|Er Roseires, Sudan]]}} || 1966, 2013  || 280{{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}} || Blue Nile 
|-
! scope="row" |  [[Beles Hydroelectric Power Plant|Tana Beles]]
| {{partial|[[Lake Tana|Lake Tana, Ethiopia]]}} || 2010 || 460{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || [[Beles River]], Blue Nile
|-
! scope="row" | [[Tekezé Dam]]
| {{partial|[[Tekezé River|Tekezé River, Ethiopia]]}} || 2009 || 300{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}}    || [[Tekezé River|Tekezé]], [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]]
| {{partial|[[Bameza|Bameza, Ethiopia]] }}|| 2020 || 5,150{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} || Blue Nile 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Fincha Hydroelectric Power Station|Fincha]]
| {{partial| [[Fincha'a|Fincha'a, Ethiopia]]}} || 1973|| 134{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Blue Nile (Chomen Lake) 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Karuma Hydroelectric Power Station|Karuma]]
| {{nom|  [[Karuma Falls|Karuma Falls, Uganda ]]}} || 2024 || 600{{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} || Victoria Nile
|-
! scope="row" |  [[Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|Isimba]]
| {{nom| [[Kamuli District|Kamuli District, Uganda]]}}|| 2019 || 183{{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} || Victoria Nile
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bujagali Hydroelectric Power Station|Bujagali]]
| {{nom| [[Bujagali Falls|Bujagali Falls, Uganda]]}}|| 2012|| 250{{sfn|Griffin|2018}} || Victoria Nile
|-
! scope="row" | [[Kiira Hydroelectric Power Station|Kiira]]
| {{nom| [[Kimaka|Kimaka, Uganda]]}}|| 2003 || 200{{sfn|Angurini|2021}} || Victoria Nile 
|-
! scope="row" |  [[Nalubaale Hydroelectric Power Station|Nalubaale]]
| {{nom| [[Jinja, Uganda]]}} || 1954|| 180{{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=10}}  ||   Victoria Nile
|}

===Transportation===
[[File:Nile Barge R08.jpg|thumb|alt=A cargo boat, empty, in a wide river|Barges {{snd}}like this one near [[Luxor]], Egypt{{snd}}are used to carry cargo on the river.]]
<!--
[[File:Ecluse-Nil.jpg|thumb|[[Lock (water navigation)|Locks]] permit boats to pass through dams on the river. This lock is in [[Esna]], Egypt.|alt=A boat lock in a dam on a river.]]
-->
The Nile has a flatter gradient in the north relative to the mountainous southern region{{snd}}so the northern countries (Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan) have more navigable stretches of water.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=336}} In Egypt, the river has no major obstacles between the delta and the first cataract at Aswan, and as a consequence that stretch has been utilized heavily for transportation.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=12}} That stretch could be used even before the arrival of [[steamship]]s, because currents could carry boats downstream, and winds from the north often helped sailboats travel upstream.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=12,14}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=64}}. 
}}</ref>
<!--
Several bridges cross the Nile, including the  [[6th October Bridge]],  [[Rod El Farag Axis Bridge]],  [[Aswan Bridge]] (all in Egypt);  and the [[Tuti Bridge]] (Sudan).{{cn|date=February 2026}}
-->The Blue Nile is generally not navigable in most places. Instead of the river, Ethiopians and Italian colonizers used an overland route{{snd}}the ''[[Strada Imperiale]]''{{snd}} for north-south transportation in Ethiopia.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=317}} As recently as 1903, explorers were still researching the Blue Nile to see if it could be used for transportation between Ethiopia and Sudan, but were not successful.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=115-117, 317}}

In ancient Egypt, the river was the primary mode of transportation, and a wide variety of boats were built{{snd}}both utilitarian and ceremonial.<ref name=ancientTransport>
{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Van de Moortel|2007}}.
|{{harvnb|Creasman|2010}}. 
}}</ref> Egyptian boats were sufficiently sturdy to carry large [[obelisks]] and stones for building pyramids and temples.<ref name=boatStone>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Robins|2008|p=126}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=60|loc=Figure 4.6}}. 
| {{harvnb|Younes |2024}}.
}}</ref>{{efn | name=Giza|
Artwork showing an obelisk on a boat is in the [[Deir el-Bahari]] [[mortuary temple]]s.   The Nile River used to be much closer to the Giza Pyramid Complex than it is today, enabling boats to bring stones close to the construction site.{{sfn|Younes |2024}} 
}} In the modern era, the river is still used for transportation, particularly in Egypt, which has four navigable waterways suitable for large ships: two in the delta, one between the delta and the Aswan High Dam, and one in Lake Nasser. Egypt moves 500 million tonnes of cargo on the river per year, which is only about 0.8% of Egypt's total freight movement (the vast majority of freight moves by road or railway).{{efn|Data regarding Egyptian waterborne cargo is from 2023.{{sfn|"Private Sector in River Transport",  ''EnterpriseAM''}}}} Cargo transported on the river includes cement, limestone, coal, petroleum products, and phosphates.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|"Private Sector in River Transport",  ''EnterpriseAM''}}.
|{{harvnb|"Current State of River Transport",  ''EnterpriseAM''}}.
}}</ref>

Upstream from Lake Nasser, the Nile and its tributaries contain waterfalls, [[Cataracts of the Nile|cataracts]], rapids, and dams that make long-distance navigation difficult.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|pp=6-7}} Another obstacle to navigation is the [[Sudd]], a large swampy [[wetland]] on the White Nile in South Sudan. Plans to build a canal through the swamp{{snd}}called the [[Jonglei Canal]]{{snd}}were initiated in the early 20th century with the goal of providing more water to grow cotton in Egypt. Construction was briefly started in 1978, but the endeavor was soon halted.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Shahin|2002|pp=286–287}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=154}}.
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp= 61-64,195-212}}.
}}</ref>

===Tourism and recreation===
[[File:Murchison falls National Park.2.jpg|thumb|alt=A boat on river.  In the boat are about 20 people.|Several parts of the river attract tourists. This boat is viewing [[Murchison Falls]] on the White Nile, between Lake Victoria and Lake Albert.]]
The Nile{{snd}}in particular, the stretch in Egypt{{snd}}has been one of the world's most popular tourist destinations for millennia, and has been the subject of a vast amount of travel literature.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=47}}{{efn|In 1992, Smithsonian librarian [[Martin R. Kalfatovic]] documented 1,150 books that described travels on the Nile.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=47}}}} One of the most visited tourist destinations along the Nile is the [[Giza pyramid complex]]{{snd}}about {{convert|9|km |mi|sp=us}} from the modern course of the Nile in Cairo{{snd}}which has been a tourist destination since the time of the Greeks.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=54}}{{efn |name=Giza}}

The stretch of the Nile between Cairo and Aswan has long been a popular destination for tourists: during celebrations surrounding the opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1870, a large group of tourists took a boat ride on that stretch of the river and visited [[Luxor]], [[Dendera]], [[Saqqara]], [[Edfu]], and [[Philae]].{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=47}} One of the world's first [[Travel agency|travel agencies]], [[Thomas Cook & Son]], started offering tours of the river in 1870 when the Suez Canal opened, and started regular steamboat cruises on the Nile in 1875.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=77}} Since the construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1970, the dam itself has become a tourist attraction, along with the nearby temples that were moved during construction to avoid becoming submerged.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=85-87}} The Aswan High Dam also benefited the cruise industry because the river from Aswan to the delta became safely navigable all year.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=71}}

The Nile Basin is home to several parks and nature reserves, including Uganda's [[Murchison Falls National Park]]{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=189}} and Egypt's [[Saluga and Ghazal Protectorate|Salouga and Ghazal Protected Area]].{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=53}}<!--
{{efn|Other parks on or near the Nile include Uganda's [[Ziwa Rhino Sanctuary]], [[Rwenzori Mountains National Park]], and [[Queen Elizabeth National Park]]. South Sudan has the [[Boma National Park]], [[Bandingilo National Park]], [[Shambe National Park]], and [[Zeraf Game Reserve]]. Sudan contains the [[Sabaloka Game Reserve]].   Egypt has [[Wadi al Hitan]], [[Lake Burullus|Lake Burullus Protected Area]], and [[Wadi Allaqi|Wadi Allaqi biosphere]].
}} 
--> The Bujagali Falls were once among Africa's most notable [[rafting]] sites, but have become submerged due to construction of the [[Bujagali Power Station]].{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=219}} <!-- 
{{
efn|
The river has several major cities on or near its banks including Cairo, [[Khartoum]], [[Juba]], and [[Kampala]]. These cities have hotels and facilities for tourists, such as the [[Speke Resort and Conference Center]], opened in Kampala in 2007.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=217}} 
}} -->

== In culture==

===Art and literature===
{{Multiple image
| width             = 
| total_width       = 425
| perrow            = 2

| image1            = Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Menna MET DT10878.jpg
| alt1              = A painting of two boats on a river, with ancient Egyptian men and women standing on the boats, catching fish from the river.  
| caption1          = This ancient Egyptian artwork, "Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes", is within the [[Tomb of Menna]] in the [[Theban Necropolis]].{{sfn| Siliotti|1997|pp=154-155}}

| image2            =Maler der Grabkammer des Menna 003.jpg
| alt2            = A painting of some dead fish, from the Tomb of Menna
| caption2          = A [[Nile crocodile]] eating fish.{{sfn| Siliotti|1997|pp=154-155}}{{efn|Detail of larger artwork in the [[Tomb of Menna]] in the [[Theban Necropolis]]{{sfn| Siliotti|1997|pp=154-155}} }}
 
| image3            = 0 Mosaïque à scène mytholgique - villa Severi - Pal. Massimo 3.JPG
| alt3              = A large mosaic artwork.  It is a landscape of a river, with animals and people in the river, including crocodiles and hippos.
| caption3          = [[Nilotic landscape]]s, such as this 2nd century Roman  mosaic, often displayed crocodiles and hippos.<ref name=Nilotic_Egyptian/>

| image4            = New Wing, Vatican Museums (25497052238) (cropped).jpg
| alt4              = A large marble sculpture, inside a formal room. The main object is a reclining nude man, surrounded by many children, as well as some animals.
| caption4          = ''[[Personification of the River Nile]]'' is a colossal marble sculpture from {{circa}} 2nd century CE Rome{{snd}}now in the [[Vatican Museum]].<ref name=colossal/>

}}
The river was frequently featured in [[Art of ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian art]], often with kings fishing or harpooning hippopotamuses.<ref name=Nilotic_Egyptian/> [[Landscape painting|Landscape artworks]] featuring the Nile{{snd}}either directly or allegorically{{snd}}are called [[nilotic landscape]]s. Nilotic landscapes are characterized by a river scene featuring plant and animal life, much of which is native to Egypt. Common  elements include papyrus, palm trees, fish and water birds, and{{snd}}less often{{snd}}felines, monkeys, and crocodile.<ref name=Nilotic_Egyptian>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Robins|2008|pp=68–69,97,126}}.
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=53–54}}.
}}</ref>

Nilotic landscapes are also represented in artwork from ancient Greece and [[Roman art|ancient Rome]].<ref name=Nilotic_GreekRoman/> Imperial Roman Nilotic art places greater emphasis on fierce animals, usually including crocodiles and hippopotamuses.<ref name=Nilotic_GreekRoman>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Betancourt|2007|pp=93,122,146,190}}.
|{{harvnb|Versluys|2002|pp=3–4, 23, 28–30,43–50, 55, 65}}.
}}</ref> A notable representation of the Nile in art is the ''[[Personification of the River Nile]]'', a colossal marble sculpture from {{circa}} 2nd century CE Rome{{snd}}now in the [[Vatican Museum]].{{efn|A colossal sculpture is one twice life size or larger.{{sfn|"Colossal", ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary''}}}} The Nile is represented as a reclining man holding sheaves of wheat in his hand. At his side are a [[sphinx]]{{snd}}representing Egypt{{snd}}and sixteen children which allude to sixteen cubits (the ideal height of the annual flood). At the base are crocodiles, pygmies, and hippopotamuses.<ref name=colossal>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Schama|1995|pp=282–289}}.
|{{harvnb|"Nile", ''Vatican Museum''}}.
|{{harvnb|"Personification of the River Nile", ''Yale Peabody Museum''}}.
}}</ref>

The Nile is seen in artworks that feature four major rivers of the world: Nile (Africa), [[Danube]] (Europe), [[Ganges]] (Asia), and [[Río de la Plata]] (Americas). Examples include the painting ''[[The Four Continents|The Four Rivers of Paradise]]'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens]] (1615){{sfn|Rosenthal|2005|pp=41-42}} and the fountain in Rome ''[[Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi]]'' designed by [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]] (1651).{{sfn|Schama|1995|pp=289-305}} In Bernini's fountain, the Nile is depicted as a man with his head covered in a cloth, symbolizing the mystery of the unknown source of the Nile.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Schama|1995|p=302}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=351}}.
}}</ref>

The [[Hymn to the Nile]] was composed and sung by the ancient Egyptian peoples; it celebrated the flooding of the Nile and the benefits it brought to Egyptian civilization.{{sfn|"Hymn to the Nile Flood", ''University College London''}} [[Giuseppe Verdi]] was commissioned by [[Isma'il Pasha]] to compose an opera to celebrate the opening of the Suez Canal. The opera, ''[[Aida]]'', was performed at the newly-constructed [[Egyptian Royal Opera House]] in 1871.  The opera's third act is set on the banks of the Nile.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=43}} Since the start of construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, Ethiopian musicians have produced songs that celebrate and glorify the Nile and the dam.{{sfn|Ayenalem|2023}} 

[[William Shakespeare]] has the character [[Marc Antony]] describe the Nile floods in the play ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]'': "Thus do they, sir: they take the flow o' the Nile By certain scales i' the pyramid; they know, By the height, the lowness, or the mean, if dearth Or foison follow: the higher Nilus swells, The more it promises: as it ebbs, the seedsman Upon the slime and ooze scatters his grain, And shortly comes to harvest."{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=59}}{{efn|Quote from 
''Antony and Cleopatra'' (Act 2, Scene 7). "Foison" means a rich harvest.}}<!--  The Nile also plays a role in other depictions of [[Cleopatra]] in art, including the 1898  play ''[[Caesar and Cleopatra (play)|Caesar and Cleopatra]]'' by [[George Bernard Shaw]].{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=73}}
 and the 1963 film ''[[Cleopatra (1963 film)|Cleopatra ]]''.{{cn}}
-->

[[Agatha Christie]] wrote the popular 1937 mystery novel ''[[Death on the Nile]]'', about a murder on a Nile steamboat, which  inspired several adaptations.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=77-78}} ''[[Adrift on the Nile]]'' is a 1966 novel by Egyptian author and [[Nobel Laureate|Nobel Prize]] winner [[Naguib Mahfouz]] about a young man who lives aboard a houseboat on the Nile. The river is a metaphor for a life that he cannot control, leading him to turn his back on society.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=72-73}} The Nile plays a prominent role in several [[video game]]s, including ''[[Civilization VI]]''.{{sfn|Tian|2025|pp=95,100-102}}

===Myth and religion===
[[File:Hapy_tying.svg|thumb|The Egyptian god [[Hapi (Nile god)|Hapy]] was responsible for the annual Nile floods.<ref name=Hapy/>|alt=A diagram of two identical blue men, facing each other. They are holding green plants.]]
[[File:Jozef Geirnaert - Finding of Moses.jpg|thumb|The Hebrew Bible contains a story about the infant [[Moses]] being rescued from the Nile.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=20-22}}|alt=A detailed colorful painting, of several men and women alongside a river. A baby is in a basket.]]

The [[Ancient Egyptian religion#Cosmology|cosmology]] of the ancient Egyptians was cyclic in nature: rather than viewing life as having a start and end, it was viewed as a perpetual cycle. This cyclic life-view was rooted in the natural world that surrounded the Egyptians, the daily passage of the sun, and the annual floods of the Nile.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Allen|2000|p=104}}.
|{{harvnb|Assmann |2001 |pp=63–64}}.
|{{harvnb|Fleming |Lothian | 1997 | pp = 15, 108}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=10}}. 
}}</ref> The sun god [[Ra]] passed through the sky each day from east to west, and the three phases of the day (sunrise, daytime, and sunset) corresponded to the human lifecycle: birth, life, and death. For this reason, many burial sites were positioned on the west bank of the Nile, where they would be closer to the setting sun.<ref name=west>{{Multiref	
|{{harvnb|Redford|2001|p= 147 |loc=Article:  "Hymns"}}. 	
|{{harvnb|Redford|2001a|pp= 123, 376 |loc=Articles: "Re", "Temples" }}. 	
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=10}}. 	
|{{harvnb|Fleming |Lothian | 1997 | pp = 18, 29, 60}}.	
}}</ref>{{efn|The west side of the river is where many Egyptian funerary monuments are located, including the [[Giza pyramid complex]], the [[Memphite Necropolis]], and the [[Valley of the Kings]].<ref name=west/>}}
 
In the [[Ancient Egyptian deities|ancient Egyptian religion]], no single god personified the Nile in the same way that the god Ra personified the sun.{{sfn|Hornung|1982|pp=77–79}} Gods associated with the river included [[Hapi (Nile god)|Hapy]] (god of the annual floods) and [[Khnum]] (god of the [[Cataracts of the Nile|first cataract]]), who were jointly responsible for producing the annual Nile flood that fertilized the country's farmland.<ref name=Hapy>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hart|2005|pp=61,85–86}}.
|{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=9}}. 
|{{harvnb|Fleming|Lothian|1997|pp=30–31}}. 
|{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=62–63}}. 
|{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=14-15}}. 
}}</ref> The Egyptian religion placed the source of the Nile's annual flood at [[Elephantine Island]] (at the first cataract) where the floodwaters were believed to flow up out of the netherworld.{{sfn|Assmann |2001 |pp=54-55, 63}}

[[Isis]] was a [[Ancient Egyptian deities|major deity]] in the Egyptian religion, strongly associated with the Nile. Cults based on Isis spread from Egypt into Europe in the second century BCE.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=1}} An example of the influence of the cult of Isis in Europe is the [[Nile mosaic of Palestrina]], located in Rome and dated to the first century BCE: the 4 by 3 meter mosaic depicts a detailed Nilotic landscape.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=2}}

In [[Greek mythology]], [[Nilus (mythology)|Nilus]] is the god of the Nile, one of thousands of river-god children of [[Titans]] [[Oceanus]] and his sister-wife [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]]. Nilus was father of the [[naiad]] [[Memphis (wife of Epaphus)|Memphis]], mythical founder of the city of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]].{{sfn| Smith|1878|pp=499, 553-554, 564, 866}}
<!--
{{efn|Memphis was an important city in the Ancient Egyptian civilization. It declined during the [[Roman Egypt|Roman rule of Egypt]], and was superseded by [[Cairo]], located about 20 km north of Memphis.}}{{cn}}
--> 

The Nile is mentioned in the [[Bible]] dozens of times, including a story in the [[Book of Exodus]] about the infant [[Moses]] being placed in a basket in the river.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=20-22}} Some authorities identify the river [[Gihon]]{{snd}}which is mentioned in the [[Book of Genesis]] as one of the four [[Rivers of Paradise]]{{snd}}as the Nile.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=20-22}} A story particularly important to the [[Copts|Coptic peoples]] of Egypt is found in the [[Book of Matthew]]: it recounts how [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] and [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] [[flight into Egypt|fled to Egypt]] and lived near the Nile for several years, thus avoiding [[Herod the Great|Herod]].{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=20-22}}
{{clear }}

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
====Books====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
<!--{{sfn|Allan|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 749–770 
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/749
| chapter =  Nile Basin Asymmetries: A Closed Fresh Water Resource, Soil Water Potential, the Political Economy and Nile Transboundary Hydropolitics
| first=  John
| last = Allan
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Allen |2000 |pp=??}}  -->
* {{cite book | last=Allen 
| first=James P
 | author-link=James Peter Allen 
| title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs
 | publisher=Cambridge University Press 
| year=2000 
| url=  https://archive.org/details/middle-egyptian-an-introduction-to-the-language-and-culture-of-hieroglyphs-1999 
| isbn=0521774837 
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Appiah|Gates|2005|pp=??}}  -->
* {{cite book 
| title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience
 |  editor-last1 =Appiah
   |editor-first1= A. 
 | editor-link1 = Kwame Anthony Appiah
 | editor-last2= Gates
 |editor-first2= H.L.
 | editor-link2 = Henry Louis Gates Jr.
 |   isbn=9780195170559
  |  url=https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi
  |  year=2005
  |  publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Assmann |2001 |pp=??}}  -->
*  {{cite book 
| last=Assmann 
| first=Jan 
| author-link=Jan Assmann
| others=Lorton, David transl 
| title=The Search for God in Ancient Egypt
| publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] 
| year=2001 
| orig-year=1984 
| url=https://archive.org/details/TheSearchForGodInAncientEgypt_201807 
| isbn=0801487293 
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Badawi   |2003 |pp=??}}  -->
* {{cite book
 | title= Al-Muhit Oxford Study Dictionary: English-Arabic
 | editor-first=   Mohammad 
 | editor-last = Badawi  
| isbn=  995330050X
| year=  2003
 | url=  https://archive.org/details/20240125_20240125_1408
| publisher= Academia
| access-date= 31 January 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Beaumont|1993|pp=??}}  -->
* {{cite book
 | title=  Drylands: Environmental Management and Development
 |  first=    Peter
 |  last =  Beaumont
| isbn=   0415004578
| year=   1993
 | url=  https://archive.org/details/drylandsenvironm0000beau
| publisher=  [[Routledge]]
| access-date= 13 March 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Betancourt|2007|pp=??}}  -->
* {{cite book
 |title=Introduction to Aegean Art
 |first1= P.P
 |last1=Betancourt
| author-link=Philip Betancourt
| isbn= 9781623030841
| year= 2007
 | url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoae0000beta
| publisher= [[Institute for Aegean Prehistory]]
| access-date= 1 January 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Bunbury  |2023|pp=??}}  -->
* {{cite book
 |title=River Culture 
 |chapter = The Egyptian Nile
 | editor-last=Wantzen 
 |editor-first= Karl M.
 |first1= Judith 
 |last1= Bunbury 
 |display-authors=etal
 |pages = 43–78 
| author-link= Judith Bunbury
| isbn=  9789231005404
|doi=10.54677/HHMI3947
| year= 2023
 | url= https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000382775 
| publisher= [[UNESCO]]
| access-date= 10 March 2026
}}

<!--{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages =307–333
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/307
| chapter = Nile Basin Climates
| first= Pierre
| last = Camberlin
| display-authors=etal
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Collins|2002|pp=??}}  -->
* {{cite book
 |title= The Nile
 |first1= Robert 
 |last1= Collins
| author-link= Robert O. Collins
| isbn=  9780300097641
| year= 2002
 | url= https://archive.org/details/nile00robe
| publisher=  [[Yale University Press]]
| access-date= 16 March 2026
}}  The "Bibliographical Essay" (pp. 245{{ndash}}248) lists books about the Nile River.

<!--{{sfn|Dumont |2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 1–22
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/1
| chapter = A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources
| first= Henri
| last = Dumont
}}

<!--{{sfn|Eggermont |2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 243–262
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/883
| chapter = Rwenzori Mountains (Mountains of the Moon): Headwaters of the Nile
| first= Hilde
| last = Eggermont
| display-authors=etal
}}

<!--{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|Dumont|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 95–124
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/95
| chapter =  The Fayum Depression
| first1= Gamal
| last1 = El-Shabrawy
| first2= Henri
| last2 = Dumont
}}

<!--{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 125–156
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/125
| chapter =  Lake Nasser-Nubia
| first1= Gamal
| last1 = El-Shabrawy
}}

<!--{{sfn|El-Sheekh |2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 395–406
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/395
| chapter =   River Nile Pollutants and Their Effect on Life Forms and Water Quality
| first1=  Mostafa 
| last1 = El-Sheekh
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Embabi   |2018  | pp=>? }} --> 
* {{Cite book 
|last=Embabi 
|first=N.S.
 |title=Landscapes and Landforms of Egypt
 |year=2018
 |isbn=9783319656595
|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]
 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-65661-8_4
|url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-65661-8
 |access-date=4 February 2020 
|archive-date=4 February 2020 
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204215026/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-65661-8
 |url-status=live
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Faulkner|1964 |p = ?? }}   -->
* {{cite book
 |first= Raymond
 |last = Faulkner
 |author-link =  Raymond O. Faulkner
 |title= A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian
 |year=  1964 
 |orig-year=  1962  
 |publisher = [[Griffith Institute]]
 |url=  https://archive.org/details/concisedictionar0000faul/
 |access-date = 26 March 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Fierro|Nyer|2007|p = ?? }}   -->
* {{cite book
 | last1 =  Fierro
| first1 =  Pedro
| first2 =  Evan K.
| last2 =  Nyer
 | title = The Water Encyclopedia: Hydrologic Data and Internet Resources
 | publisher = [[CRC Press]]
| year =  2007
 | isbn = 9781420012583 
 | url  = https://archive.org/details/waterencyclopedi0000unse_j5x4
 | access-date = 24 March 2026
 }}

<!-- {{sfn|Fleming |Lothian  |1997 |p = ?? }}   -->
* {{cite book
 | last1 = Fleming
| first1 = Fergus 
| first2 = Alan
| last2 = Lothian
 | title = The Way to Eternity: Egyptian Myth
 | publisher = Duncan Baird 
| year = 1997
 | isbn = 0705435032
 | url =https://archive.org/details/waytoeternityegy00flem
 }}

<!-- {{sfn|Gardiner|1964|p =?? }}   -->
* {{cite book
 |first= Alan
 |last = Gardiner
 |author-link = Alan Gardiner
 |title=Egyptian Grammar  
 |year= 1964 
 |edition =3rd
 |orig-year= 1927
 |publisher = [[Oxford University Press ]]
 |url=https://archive.org/details/egyptiangrammar0000alan 
 |access-date = 26 March 2026
}}

<!--{{sfn|Ghabbour|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 499–520
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/499
| chapter = The Oligochaeta of the Nile Basin Revisited 
| first= Samir
| last = Ghabbour
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Green|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages =205–214
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/205
| chapter =  The Kyoga Catchment
| first= Jim
| last = Green
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Green|2009a|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009a
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 705–720
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/705
| chapter =   Birds of the Nile
| first= Jim
| last = Green
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Green|El-Moghraby|2009|pp=???}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 193–204
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/193
| chapter = Swamps of the Upper White Nile
| first1= Jim
| last1 = Green
| first2= Asim
| last2 = El-Moghraby
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Hamilton |2016|pp=??}}  -->
* {{cite book
 |title=Luganda Dictionary and Grammar 
 |first1=  Alan
 |last1= Hamilton
| isbn=  9780954149611
| year=    2016 
 | url= https://archive.org/details/lugandadictionar0000hami
| publisher=  Alan Hamilton
| access-date= 31 January 2026
}}

<!--{{sfn|Hamza|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 75–94
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/75
| chapter = The Nile Delta
| first= Waleed
| last = Hamza
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Hart|2005|p=??}} -->
*{{cite book
|last=Hart
|first=George
|author-link=George Hart (Egyptologist)
|title=The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses
|edition=Second
|year=2005
|publisher=[[Routledge]]
|isbn=  0415344956
|url=https://archive.org/details/edg-the-routledge-dictionary-of-egyptian-gods
| access-date= 15 January 2026
}}

<!--  {{sfn|Holl|2025|pp=355–375}} 
* {{cite book
|last1=Holl
 |first1=Augustin
 |title=General History of Africa
 |volume=IX: General history of Africa Revisited 
 |chapter =Ancient Civilizations of Africa
|publisher=[[UNESCO]]
|pages=355–375
|year=2025
|isbn=9789231008092
|chapter-url = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7
|access-date=2 February 2026
}}-->
<!-- {{sfn|Hornung|1982|p=??}} -->
*{{cite book
|last=Hornung
|first=Erik
|author-link=Erik Hornung
|translator-first=John
|translator-last=Baines
|translator-link= John Baines (Egyptologist)
|others=Original in German.
|title=Conceptions of God in Egypt: The One and the Many
|publisher=[[Cornell University Press]]
|year=1982
|orig-year= 1971
| isbn=9780801412233
| url= https://archive.org/details/conceptionsofgod0000horn_q6b3
| access-date= 15 January 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Hughes|1992|p=??}} -->
*{{cite book
|last1=Hughes
|first1=Ralph H.
|display-authors=etal
|title=IUCN Directory of African Wetlands
 |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/1992-007.pdf
|access-date=2013-03-25
 |year=1992
|publisher= [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]
|isbn=9782880329495
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Lehman|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages =215–242
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/215
| chapter =   Lake Victoria
| first=  John
| last = Lehman
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Murray| 1923|p=??}} -->
*{{cite book
|last= Murray
|first= G. W.
|title=An English-Nubian Comparative Dictionary
|year= 1923
|publisher= [[Humphrey Milford]], [[Oxford University Press]]
|url=https://archive.org/details/englishnubiancom0004gwmu_4
| access-date= 15 January 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Okidi|1994|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
 |last=Okidi
 |first=C. O.
 |editor-first1=P.P.
 |editor-last1=Howell
 |editor-first2=J. J.
 |editor-last2=Alan
 |isbn=9780521450409
 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521450409/page/321
 |access-date=12 January 2026
 |title=The Nile: Sharing a Scarce Resource
 |chapter=History of the Nile and Lake Victoria Basins through Treaties
 |pages=321–350
 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 |year=1994
}}

 <!-- {{sfn|Redford  |2001|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
 |year=   2001
 |title=   Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt
 | volume = 2
 |editor-last1= Redford  
 |editor-first1=   Donald B.
|editor-link1=  Donald B. Redford
 |publisher= Oxford University Press
 |url=   https://archive.org/details/oxfordencyclopediaofancientegyptvolume2
 |access-date=26 March 2026
 |isbn=  0195138228 
}}

 <!-- {{sfn|Redford  |2001a|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
 |year=   2001a
 |title=   Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt
 | volume =3
 |editor-last1= Redford  
 |editor-first1=   Donald B.
|editor-link1=  Donald B. Redford
 |publisher= Oxford University Press
 |url=  https://archive.org/details/oxfordencyclopediaofancientegyptvolume3
 |access-date=26 March 2026
 |isbn=  0195138236
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Roach|2025|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
 |last=  Roach
 |first= Steven
 |year=  2025
 |chapter=Introduction: Nile Basin Politics and its Challenges
 |pages=1–16
 |title=Nile Basin Politics: From Coordinated to Cooperative Peace 
 |editor-last1=  Roach
 |editor-first1= Steven
 |editor-last2=  Hudson
 |editor-first2= Derrick
 |publisher= [[Edward Elgar Publishing]]
 |url=  https://www.elgaronline.com/edcollbook/book/9781803927176/9781803927176.xml
 | doi=10.4337/9781803927176
 |access-date=15 January 2026
 |isbn=  9781803927176 
}}

<!--{{sfn|Robins|2008|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title= The Art of Ancient Egypt
  | last =Robins
  | first= Gay
 | author-link= Gay Robins
  |  isbn=9780674030657
  |  url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YD-z8hmdUMIC
  |access-date= 24 February 2026
 |   year=2008
 | orig-year=1997
  |  publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]
}}
 
<!-- {{sfn|Rosenthal|2005}} -->
* {{cite book
 |last=  Rosenthal
 |first= Lisa
 |year=  2005
 |title=Gender, Politics, and Allegory in the Art of Rubens
 |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]
 |url= https://archive.org/details/genderpoliticsal0000rose
 |access-date=15 December 2025
 |isbn= 9780521842440
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Said|1993}} -->
* {{cite book
 |last=Said
 |first=Rushdi
 |author-link=Rushdi Said
 |year=1993
 |title=The River Nile: Geology, Hydrology, and Utilization
 |publisher=[[Pergamon Press]]
 |url= https://archive.org/details/rivernilegeology0000said 
 |access-date=11 February 2026
 |isbn= 0080418864
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Schama|1995|pp=??}} -->
* {{cite book
 |last=Schama
 |first=Simon
|author-link=Simon Schama
 |year=1995
 |isbn=9780679402558
 |title=Landscape and Memory
 |publisher=[[A.A. Knopf]]
 |url= https://archive.org/details/landscapememory0000scha_k7e4
 |access-date=15 December 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Shahin|2002}} -->
* {{Cite book
 |last=Shahin
 |first=Mamdouh
 |url=https://archive.org/details/hydrologywaterre0000shah
 |title=Hydrology and Water Resources of Africa
 |date=2002
 |publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
 |isbn=9781402008665
 | access-date=7 January 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Shoup|2017|loc= articleName }} -->
* {{Cite book
 |  title=The Nile: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture
  |  last=Shoup
 |first= John A.
  | display-authors=etal
  |  isbn=9798216123323 
  |  url=https://archive.org/details/the-nile-an-encyclopedia-of-geography-history-and-culture
  | access-date= 14 February 2026
  |  year=2017
  |  publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] / [[ABC-CLIO]]
}} EBook.  The hardcover is {{isbn|9781440840401}}.

 <!-- {{sfn| Siliotti|1997|p=?}} -->
* {{Cite book
 |  title=Guide to the Valley of the Kings
 |   last =Siliotti
 | first= Alberto
 | author-link = Alberto Siliotti
 |   isbn=9780760733257
  |  url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owicnQAACAAJ
 | access-date= 24 February 2026
  |  year=1997
  |  publisher=[[Barnes & Noble ]]
}}

<!-- {{sfn| Smith|1878}} -->
* {{Cite book
 |last= Smith
 |first= William
|author-link = William Smith (lexicographer)
 |url= https://archive.org/details/anewclassicaldi00unkngoog
 |title=A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology And Geography
 |date= 1878
 |publisher= [[Harper & Brothers]]
 |lccn=04035163
 |access-date=7 January 2026
}}
 
<!-- {{sfn| Stokes|2009 |p=??}} -->
* {{Cite book
 |last=  Stokes
 |first=  Jamie
 |url= https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpe0000unse_h6k0 
 |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East
 |volume=2
 |date= 2009 
  |isbn=9781438126760
 |publisher=  [[Facts On File]]
 |access-date=13 March 2026
}}

<!--{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 334–364
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/334
| chapter = The Hydrology of the Nile Basin
| first= John
| last = Sutcliffe
| display-authors=etal
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Talbot|Williams|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 37–60
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/37
| chapter =   Cenozoic Evolution of the Nile Basin  
| first1=     Michael 
| last1 =  Talbot
| first2=     Martin
| last2 =  Williams
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Talling|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 23–34
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/23
| chapter =     History of Scientific Research
| first=    Jack 
| last = Talling
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Talling|2009a|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009a
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 367–394
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/367
| chapter =  Physical and Chemical Water Characteristics
| first=    Jack 
| last = Talling
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Tian|2025|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
| title =Ancient Egypt in Video Games
|editor-first=Jennifer 
|editor-last=  Cromwell
| isbn = 9783111534022
|year=2025
|  publisher = [[de Gruyter Oldenbourg]]
| chapter = Pharaohs, Labourers and Wonder Builders: Illustrating Ancient Egypt with Game Mechanics in Strategy Games 
| pages = 87–110
| last= Tian 
|first=Tian
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Tvedt|2021}} -->
* {{cite book
 | title= The Nile: History's Greatest River
 | last=Tvedt
 | first= Terje
 | author-link = Terje Tvedt
 | isbn= 9780755616800
 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=brYsEAAAQBAJ
 | access-date= 10 December 2025
 | year= 2021
 | publisher= [[Bloomsbury Publishing]]
 }}

<!--{{sfn|Van Damme| Bocxlaer|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| series=Monographiae Biologicae
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 585–630
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/585
| chapter = Freshwater Molluscs of the Nile Basin, Past and Present
| first1= Dirk
| last1 = Van Damme
| first2= Bert
| last2 = Bocxlaer
}}

<!--  {{sfn|Versluys|2002 |pp=??}} -->
* {{cite book
|last1= Versluys
|first1=  M. J.
|year= 2002
|title=Aegyptiaca Romana : Nilotic Scenes and the Roman Views of Egypt
|publisher=  [[Brill Publishers]]
|url= https://archive.org/details/aegyptiacaromana0000vers
|access-date=15 January 2026
| isbn = 9004124403
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Vijverberg|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 163–192
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/163
| chapter =   Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile
| first=    Jacobus
| last = Vijverberg
| display-authors=etal
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Warren| 2006 | p =352  }}. --> 
* {{Cite book
 |last=Warren
 |first=John 
 |url=https://archive.org/details/evaporitessedime0000warr
 |title=Evaporites: Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons
 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]
 |year=2006 
|isbn=3540260110   
 |url-access=registration
}}

<!--{{sfn|Williams |2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 61–72
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/61
| chapter = Late Quaternary Environments in Nile Basin
| first= Martin
| last = Williams
| display-authors=etal
}}

<!--{{sfn|Williams |2009a|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009a
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 771–780
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/771
| chapter = Human Impact on Nile Basin
| first= Martin
| last = Williams
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Witte |2009|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 647–676
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/647
| chapter =   Fish Fauna of the Nile 
| first=     Frans  
| last =  Witte 
| display-authors=etal
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Witte |2009a|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
| editor-first=Henri
| editor-last=Dumont
| isbn=9781402097263
| year=2009a
| publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]]
| access-date= 1 December 2025
| pages = 723–748
| chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/nileoriginenviro0000unse/page/723
| chapter =  Fisheries of the Nile System 
| first=     Frans  
| last =  Witte 
| display-authors=etal
}}
{{refend}}

====Journals and websites====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
<!-- {{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018}} -->
* {{cite journal
|last1=Abdelsalam |first1=Mohamed G.
|title=The Nile's journey through space and time: A geological perspective
|journal=Earth-Science Reviews
|date=February 2018
|volume=177
|pages=742–773
|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.01.010
|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018ESRv..177..742A
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Abdullah|2020}} 
* {{cite journal
|display-author1=1 |ref={{sfnref|Abdullah|2020}}
|last1=Abdullah |first1=Al-Noor |last2=Rahman |first2=Sanzidur |last3=Essex |first3=Stephen |last4=Benhin |first4=James
|title=Economic Contributions of Mega-Dam Infrastructure as Perceived by Local and Displaced Communities: A Case Study of Merowe Dam, Sudan
|journal=Agriculture |date=12 June 2020 |volume=10 |issue=6
|article-number=227
|doi=10.3390/agriculture10060227 |doi-access=free
}}
-->
<!-- {{sfn|Abotalib|2023}} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Abotalib|2023}}
|last1=Abotalib |first1=Abotalib Z. |last2=Abdelhady |first2=Ahmed A. |last3=Heggy |first3=Essam |last4=Salem |first4=Salem G. |last5=Ismail |first5=Esam |last6=Ali |first6=Ahmed |last7=Khalil |first7=Mahmoud M. |title=Irreversible and Large-Scale Heavy Metal Pollution Arising From Increased Damming and Untreated Water Reuse in the Nile Delta
|journal=Earth's Future |date=March 2023 |volume=11 |issue=3
|article-number=e2022EF002987
|doi=10.1029/2022EF002987 |doi-access= free
|bibcode=2023EaFut..1102987A
}}

<!-- {{sfn| Alnaqbi|2022}} 
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Alnaqbi|2022}}
|last1=Alnaqbi |first1=Shaima |last2=Alasad |first2=Shamma |last3=Aljaghoub |first3=Haya |last4=Alami |first4=Abdul |last5=Abdelkareem |first5=Mohammad |last6=Olabi |first6=Abdul |title=Applicability of Hydropower Generation and Pumped Hydro Energy Storage in the Middle East and North Africa
|journal=Energies |date=25 March 2022 |volume=15 |issue=7
|article-number=2412
|doi=10.3390/en15072412 |doi-access=free
}}
-->
<!-- {{sfn|Angurini|2021}} -->
* {{cite news
 |url= https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/business/finance/eskom-invests-in-kiira-dam-water-controllers-3379660
 | title= Eskom Invests in Kiira Dam Water Controllers
| newspaper= [[Daily Monitor]]
|date=   2021
 |first=  Tom
| last=   Angurini
 |access-date=8 February 2026
 |location= Uganda
|oclc=	44216472
}}
 
<!-- {{sfn|Ayenalem|2023}} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Ayenalem|2023}}
|last1=Ayenalem |first1=Abebe Yirga |last2=Fantini |first2=Emanuele |last3=Van der Zaag |first3=Pieter
|title=Popular culture and Nile hydropolitics: Amharic songs about the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
|journal=International Journal of Water Governance |date=28 December 2023 |volume=10 |issue=1
|doi=10.59490/ijwg.10.2023.7359 |doi-access=free
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Beck|2018  }} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Beck|2018}}
|last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution
|journal=Scientific Data |date=30 October 2018 |volume=5 |issue=1
|article-number=180214
|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |doi-access=free
|pmid=30375988
|pmc=6207062
|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Burton|1864|pp = 6–14 }}
* {{cite journal
|last1=Burton |first1=Richard F.
|author-link1=Richard Francis Burton
|title=On Lake Tanganyika, Ptolemy's Western Lake-Reservoir of the Nile
|journal=The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London |date=1865 |volume=35 |pages=1–15
|doi=10.2307/3698075 |jstor=3698075
}}
 -->
<!-- {{sfn|Creasman|) |pp = ?? }} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Creasman|2010}}
|last1=Creasman |first1=Pearce Paul |last2=Doyle |first2=Noreen
|title=Overland Boat Transportation During the Pharaonic Period: Archaeology and Iconography
|journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections |date=16 September 2010 |volume=2 |issue=3
|doi=10.2458/azu_jaei_v02i3_creasman
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Driouech |2020}} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Driouech|2020}}
|last1=Driouech |first1=Fatima |last2=ElRhaz |first2=Khalid |last3=Moufouma-Okia |first3=Willfran |last4=Arjdal |first4=Khadija |last5=Balhane |first5=Saloua
|title=Assessing Future Changes of Climate Extreme Events in the CORDEX-MENA Region Using Regional Climate Model ALADIN-Climate
|journal=Earth Systems and Environment |date=September 2020 |volume=4 |issue=3
|pages=477–492
|doi=10.1007/s41748-020-00169-3 |doi-access=free
|bibcode=2020ESE.....4..477D
}}

<!-- {{sfn|El Mahmoudi |2008  |pp = 53–67 }}. --> 
* {{Cite journal 
|last1=El Mahmoudi 
|first1=A. 
|last2=Gabr 
|first2=A. 
|year=2008 
|title=Geophysical Surveys to Investigate the Relation Between the Quaternary Nile Channels and the Messinian Nile Canyon at East Nile Delta, Egypt
|journal=Arabian Journal of Geosciences 
|publisher=Springer Nature 
|volume=2 
|issue=1 
|pages=53–67 
|doi=10.1007/s12517-008-0018-9 
|issn=1866-7511}}

<!--   {{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} -->
* {{Cite news
 |newspaper= [[Reuters]]
 |last=   Endeshaw
 |first= Dawit  
 |date=  2025
|title=Ethiopia Opens Africa's Largest Hydroelectric Dam to Egyptian Protest
|url=https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/boards-policy-regulation/ethiopia-opens-africas-largest-hydroelectric-dam-egyptian-protest-2025-09-09/ 
 |access-date=20 January 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn| Griffin| 2018 }} -->
* {{cite news
 |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/africa/nearly-completed-dam-on-white-nile-casts-a-long-shadow-1.3431735
 | title=Nearly Completed Dam on White Nile Casts a Long Shadow
| newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] 
|issn =	0791-5144
|date= 2018
 |first=Dan  
| last=Griffin
 |access-date=28 December 2021
 |location=Dublin, Ireland
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Hafez |2024}} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Hafez|2024}}
|last1=Hafez |first1=Ahmed M. |last2=Haggag |first2=Mohammed |last3=Wagdy |first3=Ahmad |last4=Radwan |first4=Hany G.
|title=Assessing the influences of future water development projects in Tekeze-Atbara-Setit basin on the Nile River inflow at Aswan, Egypt
|journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |date=December 2024 |volume=56
|article-number=102007
|doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.102007 |doi-access=free
|bibcode=2024JHyRS..5602007H
}}

<!--   {{sfn|Hailu   |2022 }} -->
* {{cite journal
|last1=Hailu |first1=Ashebir Dingeto
|title=Ethiopia hydropower development and Nile basin hydro politics
|journal=AIMS Energy |date=2022 |volume=10 |issue=1
|pages=87–101
|doi=10.3934/energy.2022006 |doi-access=free
}}

<!--   {{sfn|Halsall|1998}}
* {{Cite web
 |last=Halsall
 |first=Paul
 |year = 1998
 | website = Ancient History Sourcebook
|title=Hymn to the Nile, C. 2100 BCE
|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/literature/floodindex.html
 |access-date=20 November 2016
 |publisher=Fordham University
}}
 -->
<!--  {{sfn|Hassan|1997}} 
* {{cite journal
|last1=Hassan |first1=Fekri A.
|title=The dynamics of a riverine civilization: A geoarchaeological perspective on the Nile Valley, Egypt
|journal=World Archaeology |date=June 1997 |volume=29 |issue=1
|pages=51–74
|doi=10.1080/00438243.1997.9980363 |doi-access=free
}} 
-->
<!--  {{sfn|Hassan|2007}} -->
* {{cite journal
|last1=Hassan |first1=Fekri A.
|title=The Aswan High Dam and the International Rescue Nubia Campaign
|journal=African Archaeological Review |date=December 2007 |volume=24 |issue=3–4
|pages=73–94
|doi=10.1007/s10437-007-9018-5 |jstor=40743449
}}

<!--  {{sfn|Haupt|1926}} -->
* {{cite journal
|last1=Haupt |first1=Paul
|author-link1=Paul Haupt
|title=Etymological and Critical Notes
|journal=The American Journal of Philology |date=1926 |volume=47 |issue=4
|pages=305–318 |doi=10.2307/289993 |jstor=289993
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Healy|2007|p=??}} -->
* {{Cite web
 |   title=Water Budgets: Foundations for Effective Water-Resources and Environmental Management
  |  last =Healy
 | first= R. W.
 |display-authors=etal
 |   url=https://water.usgs.gov/watercensus/AdHocComm/Background/WaterBudgets-FoundationsforEffectiveWater-ResourcesandEnvironmentalManagement.pdf
 |access-date= 14 January 2026
 |   year=2007
  |  publisher= [[U.S. Geological Survey]]
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Hegab|2025}} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Hegab|2025}}
|last1=Hegab |first1=Mahmoud H. |last2=El Sayed |first2=Seliem M. |last3=Ahmed |first3=Nasr M. |last4=Abdel-Aal |first4=Eman I. |last5=Kassem |first5=Doaa A. |last6=Gaber |first6=Khadiga M. |last7=Haroon |first7=Amany M. |last8=Abdel Gawad |first8=Soad S. |last9=Goher |first9=Mohamed E. |last10=Hussian |first10=Abd-Ellatif M.
|title=Evaluating the spatial pattern of water quality of the Nile River, Egypt, through multivariate analysis of chemical and biological indicators
|journal=Scientific Reports |date=4 March 2025 |volume=15 |issue=1
|article-number=7626
|doi=10.1038/s41598-025-89982-2
|pmid=40038343
|pmc=11880377
|bibcode=2025NatSR..15.7626H
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Holt|2026}} -->
* {{Cite encyclopedia
|last1= Holt 
|first1= Peter 
|author-link1=Peter Holt (historian)
|display-authors=etal
|title=Egypt: Agriculture and Fishing
|year= 2026
|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]
|url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/Agriculture-and-fishing
|access-date= 7 February 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Hurst|2025}} -->
* {{Cite encyclopedia
|last1= Hurst
|first1= Harold Edwin
|author-link1=Harold Edwin Hurst
|display-authors=etal
|title=Nile River
|year= 2025
|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]
|url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Nile-River
|access-date=11 December 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Huyge|2011|pp=??}}  -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Huyge|2011}}
|last1=Huyge |first1=Dirk |last2=Vandenberghe |first2=Dimitri A.G. |last3=De Dapper |first3=Morgan |last4=Mees |first4=Florias |last5=Claes |first5=Wouter |last6=Darnell |first6=John C.
|title=First evidence of Pleistocene rock art in North Africa: securing the age of the Qurta petroglyphs (Egypt) through OSL dating
|journal=Antiquity |date=November 2011 |volume=85 |issue=330
|pages=1184–1193
|doi=10.1017/S0003598X00061998
}}

<!-- {{sfn|İlkbahar|Mercan|2023|pp=??}}  -->
* {{Cite journal |last1=İlkbahar |first1=Hasan |last2=Mercan |first2=Muhammed Hüseyin |date=2023 |title=Hydro-Hegemony, Counter-Hegemony And Neoclassical Realism on the Nile Basin: An Analysis of Egypt's Response to the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (Gerd) |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00219096231188953 |journal=[[Journal of Asian and African Studies]] |publisher=[[Sage Publishing]] |language=en |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=7–8 |doi=10.1177/00219096231188953 |issn=0021-9096 |url-access=subscription}}

<!-- {{sfn|Kuper |Kröpelin|2006 |p=??? }} -->
* {{cite journal
|last1=Kuper |first1=Rudolph |last2=Kröpelin |first2=Stefan
|title=Climate-Controlled Holocene Occupation in the Sahara: Motor of Africa's Evolution
|journal=Science |date=11 August 2006 |volume=313 |issue=5788
|pages=803–807
|doi=10.1126/science.1130989
|pmid=16857900 |bibcode=2006Sci...313..803K }}

<!-- {{sfn|Lemma |2019 |p=??? }} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Lemma|2019}}
|last1=Lemma |first1=Hanibal |last2=Nyssen |first2=Jan |last3=Frankl |first3=Amaury |last4=Poesen |first4=Jean |last5=Adgo |first5=Enyew |last6=Billi |first6=Paolo
|title=Bedload transport measurements in the Gilgel Abay River, Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia
|journal=Journal of Hydrology |date=October 2019 |volume=577
|article-number=123968
|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.123968
|bibcode=2019JHyd..57723968L
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Leplongeon |2017}} -->
* {{cite journal
|last1=Leplongeon |first1=Alice
|title=Technological variability in the Late Palaeolithic lithic industries of the Egyptian Nile Valley: The case of the Silsilian and Afian industries
|journal=PLOS ONE |date=27 December 2017 |volume=12 |issue=12
|article-number=e0188824
|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0188824 |doi-access=free
|pmid=29281660
|pmc=5744920
|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1288824L
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Liu |2009}} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Liu|2009}}
|last1=Liu |first1=S. |last2=Lu |first2=P. |last3=Liu |first3=D. |last4=Jin |first4=P. |last5=Wang |first5=W.
|title=Pinpointing the sources and measuring the lengths of the principal rivers of the world
|journal=International Journal of Digital Earth |date=March 2009 |volume=2 |issue=1
|pages=80–87
|doi=10.1080/17538940902746082
|bibcode=2009IJDE....2...80L
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Marshall| |p=??? }} -->
* {{cite journal
|last1=Marshall |first1=Brian E.
|title=Guilty as charged: Nile perch was the cause of the haplochromine decline in Lake Victoria
|journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences |date=September 2018 |volume=75 |issue=9
|pages=1542–1559
|doi=10.1139/cjfas-2017-0056
|bibcode=2018CJFAS..75.1542M
|hdl=1807/87547
|hdl-access=free
}}

<!-- {{sfn|McCoy|2023}} -->
* {{Cite news
|last1= McCoy
|first1=Terrence 
|display-authors=etal
|title=The Nile is the World's Longest River? The Amazon Would Like a Word
|date = 20 June 2023
| newspaper=[[Washington Post]]
|url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/06/12/amazon-nile-longest-river/
|access-date=24 March 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|McKenna|2025}} -->
* {{Cite encyclopedia
|last1= McKenna
|first1=Amy
|display-authors=etal
|title=Blue Nile River
|year= 2025
|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]
|url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Blue-Nile-River
|access-date=31 December 2025
}}

<!-- {{Sfn|Mureithi |2025}} -->
*   {{cite news
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/sep/09/ethiopia-inaugurates-africa-largest-hydroelectric-dam-egypt-rift-deepens
|access-date= 15 February 2026 
 |title=Ethiopia Inaugurates Africa's Largest Hydroelectric Dam as Egypt Rift Deepens
 |newspaper=The Guardian
 |date=9 September 2025
|first=Carlos
|last=Mureithi 
 }}

<!-- {{Sfn|Plummer |2023 }} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Plummer|2023}}
|last1=Plummer |first1=Thomas W. |last2=Oliver |first2=James S. |last3=Finestone |first3=Emma M. |last4=Ditchfield |first4=Peter W. |last5=Bishop |first5=Laura C. |last6=Blumenthal |first6=Scott A. |last7=Lemorini |first7=Cristina |last8=Caricola |first8=Isabella |last9=Bailey |first9=Shara E. |last10=Herries |first10=Andy I. R. |last11=Parkinson |first11=Jennifer A. |last12=Whitfield |first12=Elizabeth |last13=Hertel |first13=Fritz |last14=Kinyanjui |first14=Rahab N. |last15=Vincent |first15=Thomas H. |last16=Li |first16=Youjuan |last17=Louys |first17=Julien |last18=Frost |first18=Stephen R. |last19=Braun |first19=David R. |last20=Reeves |first20=Jonathan S. |last21=Early |first21=Emily D. G. |last22=Onyango |first22=Blasto |last23=Lamela-Lopez |first23=Raquel |last24=Forrest |first24=Frances L. |last25=He |first25=Huaiyu |last26=Lane |first26=Timothy P. |last27=Frouin |first27=Marine |last28=Nomade |first28=Sébastien |last29=Wilson |first29=Evan P. |last30=Bartilol |first30=Simion K. |last31=Rotich |first31=Nelson Kiprono |last32=Potts |first32=Richard
|title=Expanded geographic distribution and dietary strategies of the earliest Oldowan hominins and Paranthropus
|journal=Science |date=10 February 2023 |volume=379 |issue=6632
|pages=561–566
|doi=10.1126/science.abo7452
|pmid=36758076
|bibcode=2023Sci...379..561P
|url=https://hal.science/hal-04001912
}}

<!-- {{Sfn|Ranjan |2024}} -->
*  {{cite journal
|last1=Ranjan |first1=Amit
|title=Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam dispute: implications, negotiations, and mediations
|journal=Journal of Contemporary African Studies |date=2 January 2024 |volume=42 |issue=1
|pages=18–36
|doi=10.1080/02589001.2023.2287425
}}

<!-- {{Sfn|Rose |2000 }}
*   {{cite web
|url=https://www.laits.utexas.edu/cairo/history/ancient/ancient.html
|access-date= 15 February 2026 
|title=Ancient Cairo: 3000 BCE - 200 CE
 |website=   Cairo: Living Past, Living Future
 |publisher=[[University of Texas]] 
 |year = 2000
|first= Christopher
|last= Rose 
 }}
 -->
<!-- {{harvnb|Roussi|2020}}  -->
* {{cite journal
|last1=Roussi |first1=Antoaneta
|title=Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists
|journal=Nature |date=23 July 2020 |volume=583 |issue=7817
|pages=501–502
|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-02124-8
|pmid=32669727
|bibcode=2020Natur.583..501R
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Sabr|2026}} -->
* {{Cite encyclopedia
|last1= Sabr
|first1=  Mohy el-Din
|display-authors=etal
|title=Sudan: Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
|year= 2026
|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]
|url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Sudan/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing
|access-date= 7 February 2026
}}

<!-- {{Sfn|Senay|2014}} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Senay|2014}}
|last1=Senay |first1=Gabriel B. |last2=Velpuri |first2=Naga Manohar |last3=Bohms |first3=Stefanie |last4=Demissie |first4=Yonas |last5=Gebremichael |first5=Mekonnen
|title=Understanding the hydrologic sources and sinks in the N ile B asin using multisource climate and remote sensing data sets
|journal=Water Resources Research |date=November 2014 |volume=50 |issue=11
|pages=8625–8650
|doi=10.1002/2013WR015231
|bibcode=2014WRR....50.8625S
}}

<!-- {{Sfn|Shuka| 2022}}
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Shuka|2022}}
|last1=Shuka |first1=Kamal Abdelrahim Mohamed |last2=Ke |first2=Wang |last3=Sohail Nazar |first3=Mohammad |last4=Abubakar |first4=Ghali Abdullahi |last5=Shahtahamssebi |first5=AmirReza
|title=Impact of Hydrological Infrastructure Projects on Land Use/Cover and Socioeconomic Development in Arid Regions—Evidence from the Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex, Kassala, Eastern Sudan
|journal=Sustainability |date=15 March 2022 |volume=14 |issue=6
|article-number=3422
|doi=10.3390/su14063422 |doi-access=free
}}
 -->
<!-- {{Sfn|Soliman|2006}} 
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Soliman|2006}}
|last1=Soliman |first1=A. S. |last2=Wang |first2=X. |last3=Stanley |first3=J.-D. |last4=El-Ghawalby |first4=N. |last5=Bondy |first5=M. L. |last6=Ezzat |first6=F. |last7=Soultan |first7=A. |last8=Abdel-Wahab |first8=M. |last9=Fathy |first9=O. |last10=Ebidi |first10=G. |last11=Abdel-Karim |first11=N. |last12=Do |first12=K.-Anh. |last13=Levin |first13=B. |last14=Hamilton |first14=S. R. |last15=Abbruzzese |first15=J. L.
|title=Geographical Clustering of Pancreatic Cancers in the Northeast Nile Delta Region of Egypt
|journal=Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |date=July 2006 |volume=51 |issue=1
|pages=142–148
|doi=10.1007/s00244-005-0154-0
|pmid=16453066
|hdl=2027.42/48088 |hdl-access=free
}}
-->
<!-- {{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=??}} -->
* {{Cite book
| title=Key Issues in Uganda's Energy Sector
 | url=http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16030IIED.pdf
| access-date= 7 February 2026
| publisher= [[International Institute for Environment and Development]]
| last= Tumwesigye
|first =Robert 
| year=2011
|isbn=978-1-84369-831-9
|display-authors=etal
}}
 
<!-- {{Sfn|Van de Moortel|2007 }} -->
* {{cite journal
|last1=Van de Moortel |first1=Aleydis
|title=Book Review of Sacred and Secular: Ancient Egyptian Ships and Boats, by Cheryl A. Ward
|journal=American Journal of Archaeology |date=October 2007 |volume=111 |issue=4
|doi=10.3764/ajaonline1114.VandeMoortel |doi-access=free
}}

<!-- {{Sfn|Walubiri|2018}} -->
* {{cite web
 |last=Walubiri
|first=Moses 
| url=https://www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1487771/nile-bridge-fifth-africa
 |title=New Nile Bridge Is Fifth Longest of Its Kind in Africa 
|access-date=16 October 2018
|date=16 October 2018
 |newspaper=[[New Vision]] 
}}

<!-- {{Sfn|Warburg |2007}} -->
* {{cite journal
|last1=Warburg |first1=Gabriel R.
|author-link1=Gabriel Warburg
|title=The Search for the Sources of the White Nile and Egyptian-Sudanese Relations
|journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=2007 |volume=43 |issue=3
|pages=475–486
|doi=10.1080/00263200701246165
|jstor=4284556
}}

<!-- {{Sfn|Waslekar|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{Cite web
|last= Waslekar
|first= Sundeep 
|author-link= Sundeep Waslekar
| url = http://www.strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/11374Nile%20concise.pdf 
|title = Blue Peace for the Nile
|year = 2009 
 |access-date= 20 January 2026
 |publisher = [[Strategic Foresight Group]]
}}

<!-- {{Sfn|Wedajo|2024}} 
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Wedajo|2024}}
|last1=Wedajo |first1=Obsinet Abebe |last2=Fufa |first2=Fekadu |last3=Ayenew |first3=Tenalem |last4=Nedaw |first4=Dessie
|title=A review of hydroclimate variability and changes in the Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia
|journal=Heliyon |date=February 2024 |volume=10 |issue=3
|article-number=e25530
|doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25530
|pmid=38327459
|pmc=10847645
}}
 -->
<!-- {{Sfn|Younes |2024}} -->
* {{cite journal
|display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Younes|2024}}
|last1=Younes |first1=Gamal |last2=Marriner |first2=Nick |last3=Kaniewski |first3=David |last4=Sheisha |first4=Hader |last5=Chen |first5=Zhongyuan |last6=Salama |first6=Asem |last7=El-Qady |first7=Gad |last8=Morhange |first8=Christophe
|title=The pyramid builders' waterways: Reconstructing the ancient topography of Khufu's Pharaonic Harbour at Giza, Egypt
|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |date=February 2024 |volume=53
|article-number=104303
|doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104303
|bibcode=2024JArSR..53j4303Y
|url=https://hal.science/hal-04295184
}}
{{refend}}

====Unknown author====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
<!-- {{sfn|"Abyssinia", ''Library of Congress'' }} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnref |"Abyssinia", ''Library of Congress'' }}
|title=Abyssinia, Or the Empire of Prester John
|publisher=  [[Jodocus Hondius]] 
|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/2021668727/ 
|access-date=11 February 2026
|website= [[Library of Congress]]
|year=1619
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Current State of River Transport",  ''EnterpriseAM''}} -->
* {{cite web
| ref= {{sfnRef|"Current State of River Transport",  ''EnterpriseAM''}} 
|url=https://enterpriseam.com/egypt/hardhats/a-look-into-the-current-state-of-the-river-transport-sector/
|title=A Look into the Current State of the River Transport Sector 
|website= EnterpriseAM
|date=  16 July 2025
|access-date=11 February 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} -->
*{{cite web
|ref={{sfnref |"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }}
|title=Aswan Dam (1,2) Electric Hydro Power Plant
 |url=http://www.moee.gov.eg/english/elshabaka/Aswan%20Dam%20%281,2%29.htm |publisher=[[Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy]]
|year=2011
 |accessdate=2 January 2011 
|url-status=dead
 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720131508/http://www.moee.gov.eg/english/elshabaka/Aswan%20Dam%20%281%2C2%29.htm 
|archivedate=20 July 2011
 }}

<!-- {{sfn|"Baḥr al-Ghazāl" ''Britannica'' }} -->
* {{Cite encyclopedia
|ref={{sfnref |"Baḥr al-Ghazāl" ''Britannica'' }}
|title=Baḥr Al-Ghazāl
|year= 2025
|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]
|url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Bahr-al-Ghazal-river-South-Sudan
|access-date=7 January 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Big Canal", ''Popular Science''}}
* {{cite magazine
|ref={{sfnref |"Big Canal", ''Popular Science'' }}
| magazine=[[Popular Science]]
| issn=	0161-7370
| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA34 
|title=Big Canal to Change Course of Nile River
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905230928/https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA34 
 |archive-date=5 September 2015
|access-date=5 September 2015 
|date=October 1933
}} -->
<!-- {{sfn|"Colossal", ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary''}} -->
* {{Cite book
 |ref={{sfnRef|"Colossal", ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary ''}}
 |year=2001
|chapter=Colossal
 |title=[[Concise Oxford English Dictionary]]
|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]
|chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/conciseoxforddic0000unse_t1j9/page/282
|access-date=27 December 2025
 |pages=282
 |isbn=0198604386
}}

<!--  {{sfn|"Desert Agriculture", ''Copernicus Programme''}} -->
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef|"Desert Agriculture", ''Copernicus Programme''}}
  |url= https://www.copernicus.eu/en/media/image-day-gallery/desert-agriculture-egypt 
|title=Desert Agriculture in Egypt 
|date=  3 February 2024
|website= [[Copernicus Programme|Copernicus: Europe's Eyes on Earth]]
|publisher = [[European Union Space Programme]]
 |access-date= 12 February 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Private Sector in River Transport",  ''EnterpriseAM''}} -->
* {{cite web
| ref= {{sfnRef|"Private Sector in River Transport",  ''EnterpriseAM''}} 
|url=https://enterpriseam.com/egypt/hardhats/govt-wants-the-private-sector-to-get-in-on-developing-egypts-river-transport/
|title=Gov't Wants the Private Sector to Get in on Developing Egypt's River Transport 
|website= EnterpriseAM
|date= 5 April 2023
|access-date=11 February 2026
}}
 
<!--  {{sfn|"Hymn to the Nile Flood", ''University College London''}} -->
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef|"Hymn to the Nile Flood", ''University College London''}}
  |url=https://uegcl.com/isimba-hydropower-station/
|title= Hymn to the Nile Flood
|date= 2000
|website=Digital Egypt for Universities
|publisher=[[University College London]]
 |access-date= 27 March 2026
}}

<!--  {{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} -->
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}}
  |url=https://uegcl.com/isimba-hydropower-station/
|title=Isimba Hydropower Station
|date= 1 February 2026
|website=[[Uganda Electricity Generation Company Limited ]]
 |access-date= 7 February 2026
}}

<!--  {{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} -->
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}}
  |url=https://www.independent.co.ug/the-600-mw-karuma-hydropower-plant-commissioned/ 
|title=The 600 MW Karuma Hydropower Plant Commissioned 
|date=26 September 2024 
|website=[[The Independent (Uganda)]]
 |access-date=3 August 2025
 |publisher =[[Uganda Radio Network]] 
}}

<!--  {{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}} -->
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}}
  |url=https://www.adfd.ae/en/success-stories/merowe-dam-sudan
|title=Merowe Dam - Sudan
|date=  2024 
|website=[[Abu Dhabi Fund for Development]]
 |access-date=13 April 2026
}}

<!--  {{sfn|"Nile", ''Vatican Museum''}} -->
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef|"Nile", ''Vatican Museum''}}
|title=Nile
|publisher=  [[Vatican Museum]]
|url=  https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/braccio-nuovo/Nilo.html
|access-date= 14 January 2026
}}

<!--  {{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}} -->
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef| "Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}}
  |url=https://www.compositerunoff.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1662100.html
|title=Nile Basin - Station: Dongola
|website=Global Runoff Data Center 
|publisher=[[University of New Hampshire]]
 |access-date= 12 February 2026
}}
<!--  SAVE FOR POSSIBLE FUTURE USE !!! 
  {{sfn|"The Nile Basin", ''Nile Basin Initiative''}} 
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef| "The Nile Basin", ''Nile Basin Initiative'' }}
|title=The Nile Basin
|year= 2025
|publisher= [[Nile Basin Initiative]]
|url= https://nilebasin.org/nile-basin 
|access-date=13  March 2026
}}
--> 
<!-- {{sfn|"Nile Basin National Water Quality", ''Nile Basin Initiative''}} -->
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef| "Nile Basin National Water Quality", ''Nile Basin Initiative'' }}
|title=Nile Basin National Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report for Egypt
|year= 2005
|publisher= [[Nile Basin Initiative]]
|url= https://nilebasin.org/node/12482
|access-date=31 December 2025
}}

<!--  {{snf|"Personification of the River Nile", ''Yale Peabody Museum''}} -->
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef|"Personification of the River Nile", ''Yale Peabody Museum''}}
|title=Personification of the River Nile
|publisher=   [[Yale Peabody Museum]]
|url= https://echoesofegypt.peabody.yale.edu/overview/personification-river-nile
|access-date= 14 January 2026
}}

<!--  {{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}}   -->
* {{Cite web
| ref={{sfnRef| "Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}}
|title=Sudan - Roseires 
|year= 2022
|publisher= [[International Hydropower Association]]
|url= https://www.hydropower.org/sediment-management-case-studies/sudan-roseires
|access-date=9 February 2026
}}
 
<!-- {{sfn|"Source Du Nil", ''Google Maps''}} -->
* {{cite web
| ref= {{sfnRef|"Source Du Nil", ''Google Maps''}} 
|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Source+Du+Nil/@-3.9151459,29.835292,750m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m6!3m5!1s0x19c0dc528139a7dd:0xe40198647c1df0f3!8m2!3d-3.9151459!4d29.8378669!16s%2Fg%2F11sf0fpfmf?entry=ttu&g_ep=EgoyMDI2MDMxNS4wIKXMDSoASAFQAw%3D%3D 
|title= Source Du Nil
|website=[[Google Maps]]
|date=  18 March 2026
|access-date=18 March 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"The Nile Basin Trust Fund",  ''World Bank Group''}} -->
* {{cite web
| ref= {{sfnRef|"The Nile Basin Trust Fund",  ''World Bank Group''}} 
|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/cooperation-in-international-waters-in-africa/brief/nile-basin-trust-fund
|title=The Nile Basin Trust Fund
|publisher=[[World Bank Group]]
|date= 14 January 2016
|access-date=20 January 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam",  ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} -->
* {{cite web
| ref= {{sfnRef|"Upper Atbara Dam",  ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} 
|url=https://opecfund.org/where-we-work/list/upper-atbara-dam-complex-project
|title=Upper Atbara Dam Complex Project
|publisher=[[OPEC Fund for International Development]]
|date= 2026
|access-date=12 April 2026
}}

<!-- {{sfn|''Water Accounting in the Nile River Basin'', ''United Nations''}} -->
* {{Cite book
| ref={{sfnRef| ''Water Accounting in the Nile River Basin'', ''United Nations'' }}
|title=Water Accounting in the Nile River Basin
|year= 2020
|publisher= [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] - [[United Nations]]
|url= https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/ca9895en
|access-date=11 December 2025
|doi= 10.4060/ca9895en
|isbn=9789251329825
}}
{{refend}}

{{Nile River}}
{{Egypt topics}}
{{Ancient Egypt topics}}
{{Subject bar|auto=yes|wikt=yes|}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Nile| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Egyptian religion]]
[[Category:Geography of ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible rivers]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:National parks of Egypt]]
[[Category:Nile basin|*]]
[[Category:Rivers in art]]
[[Category:Rivers of Burundi]]
[[Category:Rivers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Rivers of Egypt]]
[[Category:Rivers of Eritrea]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Kenya]]
[[Category:Rivers of Rwanda]]
[[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Sudan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Uganda]]
[[Category:Water transport in Egypt]]