View source for Nighthawk

{{Short description|Subfamily of birds}}
{{About|the bird|the plane|Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk|other uses|Nighthawk (disambiguation)}}
{{More citations needed|date=October 2023}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|taxon = Chordeilinae
| image = Chordeiles_minorEJN31CB.jpg
| image_caption = [[Common nighthawk]], ''Chordeiles minor'' 
|subdivision_ranks = Genera
|subdivision = 
* ''[[Chordeiles]]''
* ''[[Lurocalis]]'' 
* ''[[Nyctiprogne]]''
}}

The '''nighthawk''' is a [[nocturnal]] [[bird]]  of the subfamily Chordeilinae, within the [[nightjar]] family, Caprimulgidae, which is a grouping of 92 species of medium-sized birds with long wings and short bills specialized for eating insects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Caprimulgidae - nightjars {{!}} Wildlife Journal Junior |url=https://nhpbs.org/wild/caprimulgidae.asp#:~:text=The%20Caprimulgidae%20family%20includes%2092,are%20nocturnal%20and%20eat%20insects. |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=nhpbs.org}}</ref> The nighthawk's subfamily consists of four genera: ''[[Chordeiles]]''; Swainson, 1832, ''[[Lurocalis]];'' Cassin, 1851, ''[[Podager]];'' Wagler, 1832, and ''[[Nyctiprogne]];'' Bonaparte, 1857, which are all native to the western hemisphere.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Common Nighthawk Similar Species to, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Nighthawk/species-compare/ |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=www.allaboutbirds.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Taxonomy and systematics==
Species in the family Caprimulgidae exhibit similarities in [[plumage]] appearance, a fact that some attribute to [[convergent evolution]], which occurs when species that do not share an evolutionary history develop similar adaptations, while others attribute it to [[Parallel evolution|parallelism]] which is the process by which similar adaptations arise in members of closely related species or populations.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Kin-Lan |last2=Robbins |first2=Mark B. |last3=Braun |first3=Michael J. |date=2010-05-01 |title=A multi-gene estimate of phylogeny in the nightjars and nighthawks (Caprimulgidae) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790310000254 |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=443–453 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.023 |pmid=20123032 |bibcode=2010MolPE..55..443H |issn=1055-7903|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Because of this, taxonomists in the past experienced difficulty in categorizing members of this group, however new advancements in molecular phylogeny have allowed for more conclusive classification.<ref name=":4" /> Thanks to these techniques, it is now understood that there are nine genera in the family, not 16 as previously accepted, and that there are two main subfamilies: Caprimulginae (nightjars) and Chordeilinae which is the subfamily that nighthawks belong to.<ref name=":4" /> Because of this taxonomic complexity, a lot of information regarding nightjars is conflated with information regarding nighthawks. Nighthawks are similar in most respects to the nightjars, but have shorter bills and plumage that is less soft. Nighthawks are less strictly nocturnal than many nightjars and may be seen hunting when there is still light in the sky.<ref name=":4" />

=== Types of Nighthawks ===
The subfamily Chordeilinae contains four genera and ten species.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=taxonomy |title=Taxonomy browser (Chordeilinae) |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=48287&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> Under the genus ''Chordeiles'' exists the greatest number of diversity in species in the subfamily with the lesser nighthawk (''Chordeiles acutipennis''), the Antillean nighthawk (''Chordeiles gundlachii''), the common nighthawk (''Chordeiles minor''), the nacunda nighthawk (''Chordeiles nacunda''), the least nighthawk (''Chordeiles pusillus''), and the sand-colored nighthawk (''Chordeiles rupestris'') comprising the category.<ref name=":2" /> The genus ''Lurocalis'' contains the chestnut-banded nighthawk (''Lurocalis nattereri''), the Rufous-bellied nighthawk (''Lurocalis rufiventris''), and the short-tailed nighthawk (''Lurocalis semitorquatus'').<ref name=":2" /> There is only one species in the monotypic genus ''Nyctiprogne''  which is the band-tailed nighthawk (''Nyctiprogne leucopyga''), a small bird differentiated from other nighthawks by its long tail and dark appearance.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yoon |first=Hyun Seok |date=2020 |title=Band-tailed Nighthawk (Nyctiprogne leucopyga), version 1.0 |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/batnig1/cur/introduction |journal=Birds of the World |language=en |doi=10.2173/bow.batnig1.01 |issn=2771-3105|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!Image
!Genus
!Living species
|-
|[[File:Nyctiprogne_leucopyga_Band-tailed_Nighthawk;_Arari,_Maranhão,_Brazil.jpg|thumb]]
|''[[Nyctiprogne]]'' <small>[[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], 1857</small>
|
* [[Band-tailed nighthawk]], ''Nyctiprogne leucopyga''
* [[Plain-tailed nighthawk]], ''Nyctiprogne vielliardi''
|-
|[[File:Rufous-bellied_Nighthawk.jpg|thumb]]
|''[[Lurocalis]]'' <small>[[John Cassin|Cassin]], 1851</small>
|
* [[Rufous-bellied nighthawk]] ''Lurocalis rufiventris''
* [[Short-tailed nighthawk]], ''Lurocalis semitorquatus''
* [[Chestnut-banded Nighthawk|Chestnut-banded nighthawk]], ''Lurocalis nattereri''
|-
|[[File:Common_Nighthawk.JPG|thumb]]
|''[[Chordeiles]]'' <small>[[William Swainson|Swainson]], 1832</small>
|
* [[Nacunda nighthawk]], ''Chordeiles nacunda''
* [[Antillean nighthawk]], ''Chordeiles gundlachii''
* [[Lesser nighthawk]], ''Chordeiles acutipennis''
* [[Common nighthawk]], ''Chordeiles minor''
* [[Least nighthawk]], ''Chordeiles pusillus''
* [[Sand-colored nighthawk]], ''Chordeiles rupestris''
|}

== Discovery ==
While limited information is known regarding the discovery of nighthawks, it is believed that the term "nighthawk", first recorded in the [[King James Bible]] of 1611, was originally a local name in England for the [[European nightjar]].<ref name="OEDnight2">{{Cite OED|Nighthawk}}</ref> Its use in the Americas to refer to members of the genus ''Chordeiles'' and related genera was first recorded in 1778 when John Cassin, a renowned ornithologist responsible for the establishment of the Delaware County Institute of Science, established the classification.<ref name="OEDnight2" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-08-28 |title=The People Behind the Birds Named for People: John Cassin |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/news/the-people-behind-the-birds-named-for-people-john-cassin/ |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=All About Birds |language=en-US}}</ref> Fossil records indicate that specimens later identified to be the common nighthawks (''Chordeiles minor'') excavated in the Southwestern US could be traced back as far as 400,000 years (during the [[Pleistocene|Pleistocene era]]) meaning that the subfamily has been an entrenched component of new world ecology for a significant duration of time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Common Nighthawk Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Nighthawk/overview#:~:text=Many%20Late%20Pleistocene%20fossils%20of,and%20from%20Wyoming%20to%20Texas. |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=www.allaboutbirds.org |language=en}}</ref>

== Appearance ==
Nighthawks are medium-sized birds averaging 9 inches (22–24&nbsp;cm) from bill to tail with a wingspan of about 21-22 inches (53–57&nbsp;cm), short legs, and very short, wide bills that are moderately hooked at the tip.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Common Nighthawk |url=https://www.wildlife.nh.gov/wildlife-and-habitat/species-occurring-nh/common-nighthawk |website=New Hampshire Fish and Game Department}}</ref> The [[least nighthawk]] (''Chordeiles pusillus''), at 6.3 inches (15–19&nbsp;cm) and 23 grams (0.81&nbsp;oz), is the smallest of all [[Caprimulgiformes]], while the Nacunda nighthawk (''Chordeiles nacunda'') is one of the largest nightjars in the world measuring at 11-13 inches (28–33&nbsp;cm).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hellmich |first=Dominique |date=2020 |title=Least Nighthawk (Chordeiles pusillus), version 1.0 |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/leanig1/cur/introduction?printable |journal=Birds of the World |language=en |doi=10.2173/bow.leanig1.01 |issn=2771-3105|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago |url=https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Chordeiles_nacunda%20-%20Nacunda%20Nighthawk.pdf |website=UWI Saint Augustine}}</ref> Nighthawks have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is cryptically coloured to resemble bark or leaves, aiding in protection from their primary predators; foxes and racoons.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-14 |title=The 'Big Boom Theory' That Could Help Conserve Common Nighthawks {{!}} Audubon |url=https://www.audubon.org/news/the-big-boom-theory-could-help-conserve-common-nighthawks |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=www.audubon.org |language=en}}</ref> To promote concealment during the day, some species perch facing lengthwise along a branch, rather than across it as birds usually do.<gallery widths="200px" heights="140px">
File:IGP4727_(3).jpg|Nighthawk wing markings
File:IGP4748.jpg|A nighthawk resting on a branch
</gallery>

== Behavior ==
Nighthawks are generally solitary but form flocks for the purpose of migration and for elaborate mating displays.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Common Nighthawk Range Map, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Nighthawk/maps-range |access-date=2024-11-10 |website=www.allaboutbirds.org |language=en}}</ref> These displays begin with the males diving from high in the air to produce the booming noises also associated with defense.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=BioKIDS - Kids' Inquiry of Diverse Species, Chordeiles minor, common nighthawk: INFORMATION |url=https://biokids.umich.edu/critters/Chordeiles_minor/ |access-date=2024-11-10 |website=biokids.umich.edu}}</ref> This process is followed by tail-shaking, the exposing of a white patch located on the throat of the male, and vocalizations similar to croaks.<ref name=":6" /> Although it is unclear whether nighthawks mate for life, they are monogamous for the duration of mating season in which they develop a barren nest on the ground or another flat surface, such as an urban roof, where the female lays two patterned eggs directly onto bare ground.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Armstrong |first=Joseph T. |date=September 1965 |title=Breeding Home Range in the Nighthawk and Other Birds: Its Evolutionary and Ecological Significance |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1935001 |journal=Ecology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=619–629 |doi=10.2307/1935001 |jstor=1935001 |bibcode=1965Ecol...46..619A |issn=0012-9658|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These eggs incubate for 18 to 20 days between May and August and they emerge semi-precocial, meaning they have their eyes open and a layer of down.<ref name=":6" /> Males will defend the nesting area, demonstrating indiscriminate aggression with displays involving diving and the production of a booming noise using their wings which deters predators and others of the same species.<ref name=":0" /> This unselective hostility can result in a decline in the average proportion of breeding individuals in a population in densely occupied territories, even below that of the carrying capacity established by available resources.<ref name=":0" /> This means that prey availability is not commonly cited as a concern for the conservation of nighthawks, but rather that habitat loss can be damaging to population stability.<ref name=":0" /> Nighthawks are mostly active in the late evening and early morning or at night and feed on moths and other large flying insects by holding their beak open in flight.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Todd |first1=Danielle |last2=Poulin |first2=Ray |last3=Brigham |first3=Mark |date=January 1998 |title=Diet of Common Nighthawks (Chordeiles minor: Caprimulgidae) Relative to Prey Abundance |url=https://bioone.org/journals/the-american-midland-naturalist/volume-139/issue-1/0003-0031_1998_139_0020_DOCNCM_2.0.CO_2/Diet-of-Common-Nighthawks-Chordeiles-minor--Caprimulgidae-Relative-to/10.1674/0003-0031(1998)139[0020:DOCNCM]2.0.CO;2.full |journal=The American Midland Naturalist |volume=139|page=20 |doi=10.1674/0003-0031(1998)139[0020:DOCNCM]2.0.CO;2 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> There exists a mistaken belief that members of the Caprimulgidae family suck milk from goats (the [[Latin]] for goatsucker is ''Caprimulgus''), however this claim is as of yet unsubstantiated.<ref name=":1" /> Heard most often at dusk, nighthawks have been known to perform a loud, nasal call which has been described as sounding like the noise "pee-yah".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Common Nighthawk {{!}} Audubon Field Guide |url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/common-nighthawk |access-date=2024-11-10 |website=www.audubon.org |language=en}}</ref>

== Diet ==
Nighthawks are visually reliant predators that feed on flying insects such as beetles (Coleoptera), sawflies, bees, ants, and wasps (Hymenoptera), flies (Diptera), caddisflies (Trichoptera), butterflies, and moths (Lepidoptera) by opening their wide mouths to allow for the entrance of the insects as they are traveling.<ref name=":1" /> Areas of high precipitation, cool temperature, or high elevation are therefore unfavorable to nighthawks because flying insects are less mobile in such conditions.<ref name=":1" /> Nighthawks are most often observed hunting during crepuscular periods, or during twilight, which necessitates good eyesight with insects shorter than 5mm eliciting no reaction from experimental nighthawks.<ref name=":1" /> This consideration could pose a long-term risk to nighthawk population stability as climate change is increasing vulnerability in larger insects due to extreme weather events and higher temperatures, thus restricting prey availability for nighthawks which cannot see the, in some circumstances, 20% smaller prey organisms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pennisi |first=Elizabeth |date=January 2018 |title=Large beetles are shrinking, thanks to climate change |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/large-beetles-are-shrinking-thanks-climate-change |journal=Science}}</ref>

== Habitat ==
During the day, nighthawks roost in forested areas which provide them with cover from both predators and temperature fluctuations, although they may also occasionally be observed in grasslands and early successional habitats rich in foraging opportunities.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ng |first1=J.W. |last2=Knight |first2=E.C. |last3=Scarpignato |first3=A.L. |last4=Harrison |first4=A.-L. |last5=Bayne |first5=E.M. |last6=Marra |first6=P.P. |date=March 2018 |title=First full annual cycle tracking of a declining aerial insectivorous bird, the Common Nighthawk ( Chordeiles minor ), identifies migration routes, nonbreeding habitat, and breeding site fidelity |url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/10.1139/cjz-2017-0098 |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |language=en |volume=96 |issue=8 |pages=869–875 |doi=10.1139/cjz-2017-0098 |bibcode=2018CaJZ...96..869N |issn=0008-4301|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Nighthawks breed in more open habitats like beaches or clearings to allow for the males to perform their mating rituals.<ref name=":6" />
[[File:Lurocalis_semitorquatus_range_map.png|thumb|Short-tailed nighthawk range]]

== Range ==
In October 2018, the [[University of Alberta]] published research on the common nighthawk revealing that it travels {{Convert|20000|km|mi|abbr=on}} every year during migration between the rainforests and savannas of Brazil and its breeding grounds in northern Alberta.<ref>{{cite web |last=Willis |first=Katie |date=October 1, 2018 |title=Scientists track nighthawks' migration route in search of clues to species' steep decline |url=https://phys.org/news/2018-10-scientists-track-nighthawks-migration-route.html |access-date=October 1, 2018 |publisher=[[Phys.org]]}}</ref> Further research has determined that, in addition to this annual migration between general regions, nighthawks demonstrate a high breeding site fidelity, thus meaning they are especially susceptible to destabilization as a result of natural disasters such as forest fires, floods or droughts, as well as anthropogenic interventions such as development.<ref name=":3" /> Nighthawks have been observed migrating at all hours of the day in flocks of, at times, hundreds of birds which winter in both rural and urban regions of South America.<ref name=":5" /> Nighthawk migration is considered one of the longest routes traveled for any North American bird.<ref name=":5" />

==References==
<references />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q945260}}

[[Category:Chordeilinae|*]]