View source for Newar language

{{Short description|Sino-Tibetan language of central-eastern Nepal}}
{{Redirect|Nepal Bhasa|the official language of Nepal|Nepali language}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{cleanup|reason=This article needs to be cleaned up and copyedited|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Newar
| altname          = 
| nativename       = {{lang|new|{{script|Newa|𑐣𑐾𑐥𑐵𑐮 𑐨𑐵𑐳𑐵}}}}, {{tlit|new|Nepal Bhasa}}<br>{{lang|new|{{Script|Newa|𑐣𑐾𑐰𑐵𑑅 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂}}}}, {{tlit|new|Nevāh Bhāy}}
| states           = [[Nepal]]
| region           = [[Nepal Mandala]]
| ethnicity        = {{sigfig|1.340000|2}} million [[Newars]] (2021 census)<ref name=e27/>
| speakers         = {{sigfig|877,000|2}}
| date             = 2021 census
| ref              = e27
| refname          = Newar
| familycolor      = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2             = [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]]
| fam3             = [[Newaric languages|Newaric]]
| ancestor         = [[Classical Newar]]
| dia1             = [[Dolakhae dialect|Dolakhae]]
| dia2             = Sindhupalchok
| dia3             = Kathmandu
| dia4             = Lalitpur
| dia5             = Bhaktapur
| dia6             = Panauti
| dia7             = Banepa
| dia8             = Hetauda
| dia9             = Dhulikhel
| dia10            = Chitlang
| image            = NepalBhasa word in Ranjana&Prachalit script2.gif
| imagescale       = 
| imagecaption     = "Nepal Bhasa" written in the [[Ranjana script]] and the [[Prachalit Nepal script]]
| script           = [[Ranjana script]], [[Pracalit script]], [[Bhujimol script]], [[Devanagari]] and various [[Nepalese scripts]]
| nation           = [[India]]
* [[Sikkim]] (additional)
[[Nepal]]
* [[Bagmati Province]] (additional)  
'''Historical''': <br>[[Gorkha Kingdom]]
[[Kingdom of Nepal]]<ref name="Tuladhar">''Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Itihas: History of Nepalbhasa Literature.''Tuladhar, Prem Shanti (2000). Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Academy. {{ISBN|99933-56-00-X}}. Page 37: "The early new rulers cultivated Newari language. Kings Prithvi Narayan Shah, Rana Bahadur and Rajendra Bikram Shah composed poetry and wrote many plays in Newari".</ref><ref>Levy, Robert I. (1990) ''Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. {{ISBN|81-208-1038-4}}. Page 15:"Following the advent of the Shahs, the Gorkhali language became the court language, and Newari was replaced as the language of administration".</ref><ref>Malla, kamal. History of the Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: Rolwaling press. p. 155</ref>
| agency           = [[Nepal Bhasa Academy]]
| iso2             = new
| iso2comment      = Nepal Bhasa, Newari
| lc1              = new
| ld1              = Newari
| lc2              = nwx
| ld2              = Middle Newar
| lc3              = phj
| ld3              = [[Pahari Newar]]
| linglist         = new
| lingname         = Newari
| linglist2        = nwx
| lingname2        = Middle Newar
| glotto           = newa1247
| glottorefname    = Subfamily: Newar
| notice           = IPA
| revived-category = 
| map              = Nepal ethnic groups.png
| mapcaption       = Language map of Nepal (including Newar):<br>red = Newar 
language is the majority spoken language<br> red with yellow  stripes = Newar language is spoken along with [[Pahari language]]
| extinct          = 
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|new|newaː bʱæː|}}
}}

'''Newar''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|n|ə|ˈ|w|ɑː|r}}; {{lang|new|{{Script|Newa|𑐣𑐾𑐥𑐵𑐮 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵}}}}, {{translit|new|nepāla bhāṣā}})<ref>{{Cite OED|Newar}}</ref> is a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan language]] spoken by the [[Newar people]], the indigenous inhabitants of [[Nepal Mandala]], which consists of the [[Kathmandu Valley]] and surrounding regions in [[Nepal]]. The language is known officially in Nepal as '''Nepal Bhasa,''' a name that has been historically used for the language.<ref>{{cite book |author=Maharjan, Resha |title=The Journey of Nepal Bhasa: From Decline to Revitalization (M.Phil. thesis) |publisher=UIT The Arctic University of Norway |year=2018}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> The term "'''Newari'''" is also used to refer to the language, although the Indic ''-i'' suffix is considered inappropriate by some Newar speakers.{{efn|name=newari|
* "The Newars themselves, some of whom find the term 'Newar' to be an oppressive reminder of their colonization by the Gorkhas in the 18th century."{{sfn|Tuladhar-Douglas|2007|p=25}}
* "Some people in the Newar community, including some prominent Newar linguists, consider the derivational suffix -i found in the term Newari to constitute an 'Indianization' of the language name. These people thus hold the opinion that the term Newari is non-respectful of Newar culture."{{sfn|Genetti|2007|p=10}}}}

The language served as the official language of Nepal during the [[Malla dynasty (Nepal)|Malla dynasty]] since the 14th century till the end of dynasty in 1769 during which the language was referred as "Nepal Bhasa", a term which literally means "Nepalese Language".{{Sfn|Tuladhar|2000|p=9}}<ref name=":12">{{cite book |last=Regmi |first=DR |url=https://dokumen.pub/medieval-nepal-volume-ii-a-history-of-the-three-kingdoms-1520-ad-to-1768-ad-second-edition-9788129110985-8129110989.html |title=Medieval Nepal Part II |publisher=Rupa and Co |year=2007 |isbn=978-8129110985 |location=[[New Delhi]], [[India]] |pages=338}}</ref> However, the language is not the same as [[Nepali language|Nepali]], an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] and the current official language of [[Nepal]], which only got the name Nepali in the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burghart |first=Richard |date=1984 |title=The Formation of the Concept of Nation-State in Nepal |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=101–125 |doi=10.2307/2056748 |jstor=2056748 }}</ref> [[Newar literature|Literature in Newar]] is one of the oldest in Nepal, dating back to at least 600 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bajracharya |first=Srizu |date=23 November 2019 |title=Newar flavours in the 3rd Nepal Bhasa Literature Festival |url=https://kathmandupost.com/art-culture/2019/11/23/newar-flavours-in-the-3rd-nepal-bhasa-literature-festival |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=The Kathmandu Post |language=English}}</ref>

From the start of the [[Rana dynasty]] in the 1840s until [[2006 democracy movement in Nepal|democratisation]], Newar suffered from official suppression.<ref name=tumbahang2010>{{cite journal |last=Tumbahang |first=Govinda Bahadur |date=2010 |title=Marginalization of Indigenous Languages of Nepal |url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_37_01_04.pdf |journal=Contributions to Nepalese Studies |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=73–74 |access-date=16 July 2014 |archive-date=27 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727004834/http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_37_01_04.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vajracharya |first=Suwarn |date=2014 |title=Language Politics and State Policy in Nepal: A Newar Perspective |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/56661529.pdf |journal=University of Tsukuba}}</ref> From 1952 to 1991, the percentage of Newar speakers in the Kathmandu Valley dropped from 75% to 44%<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kpmalla.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/the-occupation-of-the-kathmandu..pdf |title=The Occupation of the Kathmandu Valley and its Fallout |last=Malla |first=Kamal P. |page=3 |access-date=16 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108161716/http://www.kpmalla.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/the-occupation-of-the-kathmandu..pdf/ |archive-date=8 January 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and today Newar culture and language are under threat.<ref>{{cite web |title= Between the market and Comrade Mao: Newar cultural activism and ethnic/political movements (Nepal) |url= http://www.socant.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.85287.1334740225!/menu/standard/file/Transnationell_migration_Ingemar_Grandin_18apr.pdf |last= Grandin |first= Ingemar |access-date= 27 December 2020 |archive-date= 30 September 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200930162022/https://www.socant.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.85287.1334740225!/menu/standard/file/Transnationell_migration_Ingemar_Grandin_18apr.pdf |url-status= live }}</ref> The language has been listed as "[[Definitely endangered language|Definitely endangered]]" by [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{cite web |title=UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger |url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php?hl=en&page=atlasmap&lid=1117 |access-date=13 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130827051400/http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php?hl=en&page=atlasmap&lid=1117 |archive-date=2013-08-27}}</ref>

On 6 May 2024, Newar, along with [[Tamang language|Tamang]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]] was declared as the official language of [[Bagmati Province]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nepali, Tamang, Nepal Bhasha official languages of Bagmati |url=https://kathmandupost.com/province-no-3/2024/04/24/nepali-tamang-nepal-bhasha-official-languages-of-bagmati |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=kathmandupost.com |language=English}}</ref> Similarly, Newar is given official status in several city governments of Nepal including [[Kathmandu]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nepal Bhasa as official language in metropolis |url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2017/06/22/nepal-bhasa-as-official-language-in-metropolis |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=kathmandupost.com |language=English}}</ref>

==Name==
[[File:Use of Nepal Bhasa in an inscription from 1706.jpg|left|thumb|A line from an [[Stone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley|inscription]] dated 1706 using the term "''Nepāla Bhāṣā''" in [[Pracalit script]] to refer to the language.]]
The official and historical name of the language, '''Nepal Bhasa''', which literally means ''Nepal Language'', originates from [[Name of Nepal|Nepal]].<ref name="dambar">{{cite web |last1=Khatiwada |first1=Dambar |title='राजधानी प्रदेश' र 'नेवा राज्य' : केही भ्रमको खण्डन |url=https://www.onlinekhabar.com/2021/10/1024571 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115000/https://www.onlinekhabar.com/2021/10/1024571 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |access-date=30 October 2021 |website=Online Khabar}}उनले भनेका थिए– ‘तिब्बतको दक्षिणमा ‘नेपाल’ छ, त्यसका बासिन्दालाई ‘नेवार’ भनिन्छ ।’ यो सन्दर्भलाई पत्याउने हो भने त्यतिखेर ‘नेपाल’ काठमाडौं वरिपरि मात्र भएको देशको नाम थियो र अहिले ‘नेपाली’ भनिए जस्तो त्यो ‘नेपाल’ देशका बासिन्दालाई ‘नेवार’ भनिन्थ्यो । उनीहरूले बोल्ने भाषालाई ‘नेपाल भाषा’ भनिन्थ्यो । यसको गहिरो अर्थ छ– ‘नेवार’ कुनै जात, जाति वा नश्ल समुुदाय हैन, एक ऐतिहासिक राष्ट्र वा राष्ट्रियता हो ।</ref><ref name="kashinath1">{{cite book |last1=Tamot |first1=Kashinath |url=https://archive.org/details/NepalmandalKashinathTamot_201712/ |title=नेपालमण्डल |publisher=Nepal Mandal Anusandhan Guthi |year=2006 |isbn=99946-987-5-3 |access-date=30 October 2021}}</ref> Historically, ''Nepal'' was only used to refer to the [[Kathmandu Valley]] and its surroundings, where the language was native to.{{efn|The term ''Nepa Valley'' is still used among the native [[Newar people|Newar]] population<ref name="savenepavalley">{{cite web |title=Save Nepa Valley Movement Homepage |url=https://www.savenepavalley.org/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115002/https://www.savenepavalley.org/index.html |archive-date=30 October 2021 |access-date=30 October 2021 |website=Save Nepa Valley}}</ref><ref name="rukshanakapali">{{cite web |last1=Kapali |first1=Rukshana |date=31 May 2018 |title=बाहिरी चक्रपथ र स्याटलाइट शहर: विकासको नाममा आत्महत्या ! |url=https://www.bizshala.com/story/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80-1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115004/https://www.bizshala.com/story/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80-1 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |access-date=30 October 2021 |website=Bizshala}}हाल काठमाडौँ उपत्यका भनेर चिनिएको, पहिले नेपाल खाल्डो(नेपाः गाः) भनेर परिचित नेपाः उपत्यका, राजधानी यस्तो छ, यस्तो हुनुपर्छ, विकास यो हो, त्यो हो भन्ने आम जनमानसमा एउटा मानसिकता नै छ।</ref><ref name="bhaktarai">{{cite web |last1=Rai |first1=Bhakta |title=रञ्जनाको साैन्दर्यमा युवा मुग्ध |url=https://archive.nepalnews.com/life-arts/2766-2019-06-30-03-55-15 |access-date=30 October 2021 |website=Nepal News}}लिपि नखःकै कार्यक्रममा 'सेभ नेपाः भ्याली' अभियन्ताहरू पनि रञ्जना लिपिमा आफ्नो उपस्थिति देखाए। काठमाडाैं उपत्यकामा विकासका नाममा सम्पदा मासिँदै गएपछि काठमाडाैं उपत्यका (नेपाः भ्याली) बचाउन लागिपरेका हुन्, उनीहरू।</ref><ref name="bkhabar">{{cite web |title=नेवार जाति र वर्तमान अवस्था |url=https://www.blastkhabar.com/news/2017/03/28/37352.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115007/https://www.blastkhabar.com/news/2017/03/28/37352.html |archive-date=30 October 2021 |access-date=30 October 2021 |website=Blastkhabar}}नेपाः देश आजको काठमाडौँ उपत्यका हो ।</ref> and local governments<ref name="bktmun">{{cite book |url=https://bhaktapurmun.gov.np/sites/bhaktapurmun.gov.np/files/documents/Pahichan_book_Class%206.pdf |title=भक्तपुर नगरपालिका स्थानीय पाठ्यक्रम २०७५ |date=2018 |publisher=Bhaktapur Municipality |location=Bhaktapur |page=9 |access-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115012/https://bhaktapurmun.gov.np/sites/bhaktapurmun.gov.np/files/documents/Pahichan_book_Class%206.pdf |archive-date=30 October 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> to refer to the [[Kathmandu Valley]] while senior citizens still tend to refer the valley as ''Nepal''.<ref name="dambar2">{{cite web |last1=Khatiwada |first1=Dambar |title='राजधानी प्रदेश' र 'नेवा राज्य' : केही भ्रमको खण्डन |url=https://www.onlinekhabar.com/2021/10/1024571 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115000/https://www.onlinekhabar.com/2021/10/1024571 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |access-date=30 October 2021 |website=Online Khabar}}यो कुनै तर्क हैन, एक ऐतिहासिक सत्य हो । यसलाई पुष्टि गर्न डेशीदेरी जस्तो कुनै विदेशी विद्वानको सहारा लिइरहनु पर्दैन । हाम्रो पुस्ता बाल्यकालमा हुँदासम्म बूढो पुस्ताले काठमाडौं जानुलाई ‘नेपाल जानु’ भन्थे । ‘तीन शहर नेपाल’ भन्ने गीत खुबै चलेको थियो । स्वयं मेरी हजुरआमाले मलाई ‘नेपाल भ्रमणको संस्मरण’ सुनाएको सम्झना छ । मेरा हजुरबा आफूलाई ‘माझ किरातको बाहुन हुँ’ भन्ने गर्नुहुन्थ्यो । ‘माझ किरात’ बाट ‘नेपाल’ गए/आएको २२ दिनको पैदलयात्राको कथा हजुरआमाले बेलीविस्तार सुनाउँदा म मन्त्रमुग्ध भई सुनिरहन्थें ।</ref>  A government report from 1961 describes the valley being grouped as ''Kathmandu District'', which is different from today's [[Kathmandu District]], marks the commencement of referring the valley as Kathmandu Valley.<ref name="2013district">{{cite web |title=नेपालको जिल्ला प्रशासन पुनर्गठनको रिपोर्ट २०१३ |url=http://www.moga.gov.np/uploads/documentFiles/8277_9b6dca51899ce235fed73faa3278ea77_1488389319__.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907050855/http://moga.gov.np/uploads/documentFiles/8277_9b6dca51899ce235fed73faa3278ea77_1488389319__.pdf |archive-date=7 September 2018 |access-date=30 October 2021 |website=Ministry Federal Affairs & General Administration |publisher=Government of Nepal}}</ref><ref name="rajendramaharjan">{{cite web |last1=Maharjan |first1=Rajendra |title=एकल राष्ट्र–राज्यको धङधङी |url=https://ekantipur.com/opinion/2021/06/15/162372365631162234.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115001/https://ekantipur.com/opinion/2021/06/15/162372365631162234.html |archive-date=30 October 2021 |access-date=30 October 2021 |website=EKantipur |publisher=Kantipur Publication Limited}}</ref>}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Widdess |first=Professor Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QWcIzK4VHusC |title=Dāphā: Sacred Singing in a South Asian City: Music, Performance and Meaning in Bhaktapur, Nepal |date=2013-12-02 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-1-4094-6601-7 |pages=294 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Pal |first=Pratapaditya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T88UAAAAIAAJ |title=The arts of Nepal II.: Painting. |date=1974 |publisher=Brill Archive |isbn=978-90-04-05750-0 |pages=8 |language=en}}</ref>{{Sfn|Tuladhar-Douglas|2007|p=24}}<ref name="celestialadvice">{{cite web |title=Celestial Advice |url=https://www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/dibbaya-upadesh-of-prithivi-narayan-shah.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101044326/https://www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/dibbaya-upadesh-of-prithivi-narayan-shah.pdf |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=30 October 2021 |website=Nepal Law Commission}}When we were on the top of Chandragiri Mountain, I asked them- "Which one is Nepal?" They helped me to recognize Bhadgaun (Now Bhaktapur), Patan and Kathmandu. My heart, at that time, felt to be the King of those Three Cities.....also to see the Kathmandu Valley (the then Nepal).....Not to be recognized and arrested by the King of Nepal (Kathmandu) I was using Sayakhu( Woolen Blanket)....We may not conquer Nepal (Kathmandu) without sufficient human resource like in Kurukshetra...</ref> A larger region surrounding the [[Kathmandu Valley|valley]] is known as [[Nepal Mandala]]. Therefore, the language spoken in [[Nepal Mandala]] became known as Nepal Bhasa.<ref name="kashinath1" />
  
The name "Nepal Bhasa" is ubiquitous in sources from the [[Malla dynasty (Nepal)|Malla dynasty]] to refer to the language.{{Sfn|Tuladhar|2000|p=9}} The earliest occurrences of the name ''Nepālabhāṣā'' ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]]: नेपालभाषा) or ''Nepālavāc'' ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]]: नेपालवाच) used to refer to the language, can be found in the manuscripts of [http://catalogue.ngmcp.uni-hamburg.de/wiki/A_1160-6_%28M%C4%81navadharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra%29N%C4%81radasa%E1%B9%83hit%C4%81 a commentary to the ''Nāradasaṃhitā''], dated 1380, and [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-01698/1 a commentary to the ''Amarkośa''], dated 1386.{{Sfn|Tuladhar|2000|p=10}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Classical Newari Literature |url=http://www.kpmalla.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Classical-Newari-Literature.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013121520/http://www.kpmalla.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Classical-Newari-Literature.pdf/ |archive-date=13 October 2017 |access-date=28 December 2011}} Page 1.</ref> Some inscriptions from the [[Malla dynasty (Nepal)|Malla Dynasty]] refer to the language as ''deśabhāṣā'' ([[Pracalit script|Pracalit Script]]: {{Script|Newa|𑐡𑐾𑐱𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵}} , {{Literal translation|language of the country}}) and ''svadeśabhāṣā'' ([[Pracalit script|Pracalit Script]]: {{Script|Newa|𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐡𑐾𑐱𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵}}, {{Literal translation|language of one's own country}}).{{Sfn|Tuladhar|2000|p=9}} Similarly, Father Cassiano da Macerata, a [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin missionary]] who visited Nepal in the 1740s referred to the language as Nepalese.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alsop |first=Ian |date=11 March 2021 |title=Christians at the Malla Court: The Capuchin 'piccolo libro' |url=https://www.asianart.com/articles/capuchins/index.html |journal=Asian Art |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521122555/https://www.asianart.com/articles/capuchins/index.html |archive-date=21 May 2022 |quote=When the king saw the figure under which it was written with their characters the above-mentioned text translated in Nepalese language.}}</ref>

The term "Newari" as a name for the language was coined by [[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Brian Hodgson]] in 1847 and since then used by most western scholars.{{Sfn|Genetti|2007|p=10}} The term "Newari" is considered by many [[Newar people|Newars]] to be inappropriate as it is the [[Sanskritisation (linguistics)|Sanskritisation]] of "Newar".{{efn|name=newari}} "Newar" is generally believed to be related to the word "Nepal", possibly derived by the replacement of the 'la' sound with a 'ra' sound, a common practice in historical documents from Nepal.{{Sfn|Tuladhar-Douglas|2007|p=51}} Historically, the term "Newar" itself was rarely used, only finding use in the travelogue of some of the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] [[missionaries]] who visited Nepal during the [[Malla dynasty (Nepal)|Malla dynasty]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=Poudel |first=Nayanath |date=17 June 2023 |title=nevāra śabdako prācīnatā |trans-title=Historicity of the term "Newar" |url=https://gorkhapatraonline.com/news/67977 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521132515/https://gorkhapatraonline.com/news/67977 |archive-date=21 May 2024 |work=[[Gorkhapatra]] |language=ne}}</ref> Only two sources from the [[Malla dynasty (Nepal)|Malla dynasty]] use the term "Newar" to refer to the language or its script; the [[Stone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley#Multilingual inscriptions|multilingual stone inscription]] of [[Pratap Malla]] uses "''nevāra ākhara''" ("newar alphabet") to refer to the [[Pracalit script]] and another stone inscription set up by [[Pratap Malla]] in 1652 uses the term ''nevārabhāṣā'' ("newar language") to refer to the language.<ref name=":5" /> 

In the 1920s, the language known as Khas Kura,<ref>{{cite news |last= Thapa |first= Lekh Bahadur |date= 1 November 2013 |title= Roots: A Khas story |url= http://epaper.ekantipur.com/ktpost/showtext.aspx?boxid=15456593&parentid=25991&issuedate=1112013 |newspaper= The Kathmandu Post |access-date= 1 November 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131102122616/http://epaper.ekantipur.com/ktpost/showtext.aspx?boxid=15456593&parentid=25991&issuedate=1112013 |archive-date= 2 November 2013 |url-status= dead }}</ref> Gorkhali or Parbatiya<ref>{{cite web | last =Hodgson| first =B. H.| url = https://archive.org/stream/illustrationsofl00hodg/illustrationsofl00hodg_djvu.txt| title =Illustrations of the literature and religion of the Buddhists| publisher =Serampore| year=1841| access-date = 16 February 2012}}</ref> was renamed to [[Nepali language|Nepali]].<ref name="Lienhard, Siegfried 1992 Page 3">Lienhard, Siegfried (1992). ''Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns.'' New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. {{ISBN|81-208-0963-7}}. Page 3.</ref><ref name="rajendramaharjan2">{{cite web |last1=Maharjan |first1=Rajendra |title=एकल राष्ट्र–राज्यको धङधङी |url=https://ekantipur.com/opinion/2021/06/15/162372365631162234.html |website=EKantipur |publisher=Kantipur Publication Limited |access-date=30 October 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115001/https://ekantipur.com/opinion/2021/06/15/162372365631162234.html |url-status=live }}आजभन्दा करिब नौ दशकअघि मात्रै देशको नाम ‘नेपाल’ का रूपमा स्विकारिएको हो भने, पहिले खस–पर्वते–गोर्खाली भनिने भाषालाई ‘नेपाली’ नामकरण गरिएको हो ।</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=T. W. |title=Current Trends in Linguistics |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=1973 |page=252 |chapter=Nepali and Pahari}}</ref> Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the former [[national anthem]] entitled "Shreeman Gambhir" was changed to Nepali in 1951.<ref>{{cite news|title=The kings song|url=http://www.himalmag.com/component/content/article/4214-.html|access-date=15 June 2012|newspaper=Himal Southasian|date=June 2003|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025182216/http://www.himalmag.com/component/content/article/4214-.html|archive-date=25 October 2012}}</ref> ''Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti'' (Gorkha Language Publishing Committee), a government institution established in 1913 (B.S. 1970) for advancement of Gorkha Bhasa, renamed itself as ''Nepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti'' (Nepali Language Publishing Committee) in 1933 (B.S. 1990), which is currently known as ''Sajha Prakashan''.<ref name="sajhaprakashan">{{cite web |title=साझा प्रकाशन एक झलक |url=https://sajha.org.np/chinari/28/ |website=Sajha Prakashan |access-date=30 October 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115002/https://sajha.org.np/chinari/28/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 7 September 1995, the cabinet of ministers decided to use "Nepala Bhasa" instead of "Newari".<ref name="kapalilangname">{{cite book |last1=Kapali |first1=Rukshana |title=नेपाल भाषा नामको औपचारिक पुनःस्थापना सम्बन्धी सूचनाको हकद्वारा प्राप्त मन्त्रीपरिषद्‌को निर्णय (व्यक्तिगत अभिलेखको उतार) |date=5 March 2022 |isbn=978-9937-1-1498-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/978-9937-1-1498-1/ |access-date=8 March 2022|pages=96}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://archive.org/details/trn-9sept-1995|title=It's Nepal Bhasa|newspaper=The Rising Nepal|date=9 September 1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://archive.org/details/gopa-2052-5-24|title=अबदेखि "नेपाल भाषा" |newspaper=Gorkhapatra|date=9 September 1995}}</ref>  On 13 November 1998, the Minister of Information and Communication issued another directive to use the name Nepal Bhasa instead of Newari.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://archive.org/details/trn-14nov-1998|title=Mass media directed to use Nepal Bhasa|newspaper=The Rising Nepal|date=14 November 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://archive.org/details/gopa-2055-7-28|title='नेपाल भाषा' शब्दको प्रयोग गर्न निर्देशन|newspaper=Gorkhapatra|date=14 November 1998}}</ref> However, the Central Bureau of Statistics has not been doing so.<ref>{{cite web| url =http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Major-Finding.pdf| title =Major highlights| publisher =Central Bureau of Statistics| year =2013| access-date =24 May 2013| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130717170017/http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Major-Finding.pdf| archive-date =17 July 2013}}</ref>

A colloquial term is ''Newa Bhaay'' ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]]: नेवा: भाय्, [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: Nevāḥ Bhāy) is also used.

==Geographic distribution==
[[File:Classical Newar Stone Inscription from Bhaktapur.jpg|thumb|289x289px|A stone inscription in [[Classical Newar]] at [[Bhaktapur]].]]
[[Image:Nepal lipi inscription 1952.jpg|thumb|200px|Copper plate inscription at [[Swayambhunath]], dated [[Nepal Sambat]] 1072 (1952&nbsp;AD)]]

Newar is spoken by over a million people in Nepal according to the 2001 census.
* In Nepal: [[Kathmandu Valley]] (including [[Kathmandu]], [[Patan, Nepal|Lalitpur]], [[Bhaktapur]] and [[Madhyapur Thimi]] municipalities), [[Dolakha District]], [[Banepa]], [[Dhulikhel]], [[Bandipur]], Bhimphedi (Makwanpur), [[Panauti]], Palpa, Trishuli, Nuwakot, Bhojpur, Chitlang, [[Narayangarh, Chitwan]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Shrestha|first=Bal Gopal|title=Ritual and Identity in the Diaspora: The Newars in Sikkim|url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_2005_01_03.pdf|access-date=21 March 2011|newspaper=Bulletin of Tibetology|year=2005|archive-date=7 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007095553/http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_2005_01_03.pdf|url-status=live}} Page 26.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= Himalaya Darpan |url= http://epaper.himalayadarpan.com/PUBLICATIONS/HD/HD/2013/09/19/ArticleHtmls/19092013008024.shtml?Mode=1 |access-date= 18 September 2013 |newspaper= Himalaya Darpan |date= 20 September 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053921/http://epaper.himalayadarpan.com/PUBLICATIONS/HD/HD/2013/09/19/ArticleHtmls/19092013008024.shtml?Mode=1 |archive-date= 21 September 2013 |url-status= dead }}</ref>
* In India: [[West Bengal]] & [[Sikkim]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=new|title=Newar|work=Ethnologue|access-date=3 April 2006|archive-date=7 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607182318/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=new|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In Tibet: [[Zhangmu|Lhasa]]

With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Newar-speaking people have emerged in countries such as the US, the UK, Australia, and Japan.

==Official status==
===Nepal===
Newar was [[Nepal Mandala]]'s (then only known as Nepal) administrative language from the 14th to the late 18th century.  The continued official use of Newari into the [[Shah dynasty]] is shown by the 1775 treaty with [[Tibet]], which was written in the language, but it was gradually replaced in official use by Gorkhali.{{sfn|Lienhard|1992|p=3}} From the early 20th century until [[2006 democracy movement in Nepal|democratization]], Newar suffered from official suppression.<ref name=tumbahang2010 /> During this period, the use of the language for business and literary purposes was declared illegal, and Newar authors were fined or imprisoned.{{sfn|Lienhard|1992|p=4}}

The [[Language Commission (Nepal)|Language Commission of Nepal]] recommended [[Bagmati Province]] to provide Nepal Bhasa (Newar) the status of official language, alongside [[Tamang language|Tamang]]. The commission also recommends Nepal Bhasa (Newar) for official status in specific areas and purposes in [[Province No. 1]] and [[Gandaki Province]].<ref name="langcomreport">{{cite web |title=सरकारी कामकाजको भाषाका आधारहरूको निर्धारण तथा भाषासम्बन्धी सिफारिसहरू (पञ्चवर्षीय प्रतिवेदन- साराांश) २०७८ |url=https://languagecommission.gov.np/files/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%20%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%20%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE.pdf |website=Language Commission |access-date=28 October 2021 |archive-date=6 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906171816/https://languagecommission.gov.np/files/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%20%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%20%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> At local levels, Nepal Bhasa (Newar) has official status in [[Kathmandu Metropolitan City]],<ref name="kathmandu">{{cite news |last1=Ojha |first1=Anup |title=Nepal Bhasa as official language in metropolis |url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2017/06/22/nepal-bhasa-as-official-language-in-metropolis |access-date=29 October 2021 |agency=The Kathmandu Post |publisher=The Kathmandu Post |date=22 June 2017 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029094649/https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2017/06/22/nepal-bhasa-as-official-language-in-metropolis |url-status=live }}</ref> Lalitpur Metropolitan City<ref name="kapali1142">{{cite book |last1=Kapali |first1=Rukshana |title=स्थानीय तहमा नेपालभाषा सम्बन्धी सूचनाको हकद्वारा प्राप्त सूचनाको संगालो (व्यक्तिगत अभिलेखको उतार) |date=November 2021 |isbn=978-9937-0-9816-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/978-9937-0-9816-8 |access-date=1 November 2021|pages=93, 94}}</ref> and Kirtipur Municipality<ref name="kirtipur">{{cite web |title=कीर्तिपुर नगर साँस्कृतिक संरक्षित क्षेत्र सम्बन्धमा व्यवस्था गर्न बनेको ऐन, २०७८ |url=https://kirtipurmun.gov.np/sites/kirtipurmun.gov.np/files/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%20%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%20%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%20%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%20%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%20%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%20%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%20%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A8.pdf |website=Kirtipur Municipality |access-date=30 October 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030100216/https://kirtipurmun.gov.np/sites/kirtipurmun.gov.np/files/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%20%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%20%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%20%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%20%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%20%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%20%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%20%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A8.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Chandragiri Municipality]], Shankharapur Municipality, Tarkeshwor Municipality of Kathmandu district; [[Banepa Municipality]], [[Dhulikhel Municipality]] of Kavre district; Godavari Municipality of Lalitpur district; and [[Bhaktapur Municipality]], Madhyapur Thimi Municipality of Bhaktapur district have recognized Nepal Bhasa in some ways. Similarly, Bhimeshor Municipality has recognized and made policy-level decisions for Dolakha Nepal Bhasa.<ref name="kapali1142" />

===India===
Newar is an additional official language in [[Sikkim]] for the purpose of preservation of culture and tradition in the state.<ref name="sikkimgov">{{cite web |title=About Sikkim |url=https://www.sikkimtourism.gov.in/Public/ExperienceSikkim/history |website=Sikkim Tourism |access-date=1 November 2021 |archive-date=1 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101134953/https://www.sikkimtourism.gov.in/Public/ExperienceSikkim/history |url-status=live }}</ref> The official weekly publication ''Sikkim Herald'' has a Newar Edition.<ref>{{cite web |title=𑐳𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐩 𑐴𑐾𑐬𑐮𑑂𑐜 |url=https://sikkim.gov.in/uploads/SikkimHerald/Newa_22Oct_0_20211028.pdf |website=Government of Sikkim |access-date=1 November 2021 |archive-date=1 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101134952/https://sikkim.gov.in/uploads/SikkimHerald/Newa_22Oct_0_20211028.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The Information & Public Relations Department also broadcasts news bulletin in Newar.<ref>{{cite web |title=IPR department's eNEWS bulletin in Newar language |url=https://m.facebook.com/Sikkimorganic/videos/ipr-departments-enews-bulletin-in-newar-language-as-on-7092021-staysafe-ipr/1024112581706278/ |website=Facebook |publisher=Government of Sikkim |access-date=1 November 2021 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323054449/https://m.facebook.com/login.php?next=https%3A%2F%2Fm.facebook.com%2FSikkimorganic%2Fvideos%2Fipr-departments-enews-bulletin-in-newar-language-as-on-7092021-staysafe-ipr%2F1024112581706278%2F&refsrc=deprecated&_rdr |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Education==
Nepal Bhasa is included as elective mother tongue subject in schools by Curriculum Development Committee.<ref>{{cite web |title=मातृभाषा पाठ्यक्रम |url=http://202.45.146.138/catalog/opac_css/index.php?lvl=etagere_see&id=4 |website=Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) |access-date=16 December 2021 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323054432/http://202.45.146.138/catalog/opac_css/index.php?lvl=etagere_see&id=4 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Tribhuvan University]] offers Bachelors, Masters, Mphil and PhD degree in Nepal Bhasa.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://risingnepaldaily.com/nation/tu-introduces-mphil-phd-in-nepal-bhasa |date=28 August 2021 |title=TU Introduces MPhil, PhD In Nepal Bhasa |newspaper=Gorakhapatra |access-date=16 December 2021 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216135734/https://risingnepaldaily.com/nation/tu-introduces-mphil-phd-in-nepal-bhasa |url-status=live }}</ref> Expatriates{{who?|date=April 2023}} can study Nepal Bhasa at Bishwa Bhasa Campus in Kathmandu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Departments |url=https://www.bishwobhasa.edu.np/departments/ |website=Campus of International Languages |access-date=16 December 2021 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216135734/https://www.bishwobhasa.edu.np/departments/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kathmandu Metropolitan City and Kirtipur Municipality are teaching Nepal Bhasa as a local language.<ref>{{cite news |title=Eight local levels in Kathmandu implement local curriculum |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/three-out-of-11-local-levels-of-kathmandu-yet-to-implement-local-curriculum/ |access-date=1 April 2022 |publisher=My Republica |date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401050035/https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/three-out-of-11-local-levels-of-kathmandu-yet-to-implement-local-curriculum/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Newar is taught in schools of Sikkim.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sikkim asks schools to introduce 11 local languages in curriculum |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/sikkim-asks-schools-to-introduce-11-local-languages-in-curriculum/articleshow/80565090.cms |access-date=16 December 2021 |agency=The Economic Times |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216135728/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/sikkim-asks-schools-to-introduce-11-local-languages-in-curriculum/articleshow/80565090.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Relationship with other Tibeto-Burman languages==
The exact placement of Newar within the Tibeto-Burman language family has been a source of controversies and confusion. Robert Shafer classified Newar as part of his Bodic division of Sino-Tibetan.<ref>{{cite journal | given = Robert | surname = Shafer | title = Classification of the Sino-Tibetan languages | journal = Word (Journal of the Linguistic Circle of New York) | year = 1955 | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 94–111 | doi = 10.1080/00437956.1955.11659552 | doi-access = free }}</ref> George Van Driem classified Newar within the [[Mahakiranti languages|Mahakiranti grouping]] but he later retracted his hypothesis in 2003. Moreover, he proposed a new grouping called "Maha-Newari" which possibly includes [[Baram–Thangmi languages|Baram–Thangmi]].<ref name="Turin2004">{{cite journal |title=Newar-Thangmi Lexical Correspondences and the Linguistic Classification of Thangmi |given=Mark |surname=Turin |journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies |volume=68 |pages=97–120 |year=2004 |url=http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/projectteam/turin/downloads/JAAS_68.pdf |access-date=13 February 2016 |archive-date=29 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129235401/http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/projectteam/turin/downloads/JAAS_68.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

T. R. Kansakar attributes the difficulty about the placement of Newar to the inability of scholars to connect it with the migration patterns of the Tibeto-Burman speakers. Since Newar separated from rest of the family very early in history, it is difficult or at least arbitrary to reconstruct the basic stratum that contributed to present day Newar speech. He underscored the point that the language evolved from mixed racial/linguistic influences that do not lend easily to a neat classification.<ref name="thlib">{{cite journal|url=http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_08_02_01.pdf|date=June 1981|journal=CNAS Journal|volume=VIII|issue=2|author=Tej R. Kansakar|title=Newari Language and Linguistics: Conspectus|access-date=11 September 2017|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011121201/http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_08_02_01.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

A classification (based on Glover's<ref>{{cite book |given=Warren W. |surname=Glover |chapter=Cognate counts via the Swadesh list in some Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal |pages=23–130 |title=Tone systems of the Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal 2: Lexical lists and comparative studies |editor1-surname=Hale |editor1-given=Austin |editor2-given=Kenneth L. |editor2-surname=Pike |location=Urbana, Illinois |publisher=Department of Linguistics University of Illinois |year=1970 }}</ref>) indicating a percentage of shared vocabulary within the labeled branch and an approximate time of split:{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

{{barlabel | size=5
| at1=6 | label1=''Indo-Aryanized (~50–60% lexicons)'' | bar1=midnightblue
| cladogram=
{{clade
  |label1=SINO-TIBETAN?
  |1={{clade
       |label1=Non Bodic divisions
       |1=Example: [[Karen languages|Karen]] etc
       |label2=Bodic Division  ({{font|size=80%|color=Gray|text=13%}}, {{font|size=80%|color=Green|text=5000BC}}){{font|size=100%|color=OrangeRed|text=ɫ}}
       |2={{clade
            |label1=East Himalayish Subdivision
            |1=Example: [[Sunwar language|Sunwar]]
            |label2=Bodic Subdivision ({{font|size=80%|color=Gray|text=19%}}, {{font|size=80%|color=Green|text=3200BC}})
            |2={{clade
                   |label1=Bodish Section
                   |1=[[Tamang language|Tamang]], [[Manang language|Manang]], [[Gurung language|Gurung]], [[Thakali language|Thakali]], [[Kaike language|Kaike]], [[Tibetan languages|Tibetan]], [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]]
                   |label2=Kiranti Section
                   |2=Examples: [[Limbu language|Limbu]]
                   |label3=West Central Himalayish Section {{font|size=100%|color=OrangeRed|text=ɞ}} ({{font|size=80%|color=Gray|text=28%}}, {{font|size=80%|color=Green|text=2200BC}})
                   |3={{clade
                           |1=[[Chepang language|Chepang]]
                           |label2=Maha Newari {{font|size=100%|color=OrangeRed|text=ʌ}}
                           |2={{clade|style=width:auto;font-size:85%;line-height:100%;
                                 |1=[[Baram–Thangmi languages|Baram–Thangmi]]|state1=dashed|barbegin1=midnightblue
                                 |2=Pahri or Pahari (unrelated to other [[Pahari language (name)|"Pahari"]] languages of the region)|bar2=midnightblue
                                 |3=[[Dolakhae dialect|Dolkha Newari]]|bar3=midnightblue
                                 |4=Modern [[Nepal Bhasa]] |barend4=midnightblue
                                 }}
                   }}
                 }}
          }}
     }}
}}
}}

<span style="color:red;">ɫ </span>"%" indicates lexical similarity/common vocabulary between Newar and the other languages in the branch. The date indicates an approximate time when the language diverged.<br/>
<span style="color:red;">ɞ </span>Van Driem labelled this branch as "Parakiranti" and included it together with Kiranti branch to form Maha Kiranti group. However, he would later drop this hypothesis.<br/>
<span style="color:red;">ʌ </span>All languages within this branch have extensive Indo-Aryan vocabulary. It is hypothesised that either ancient IndoAryan admixture happened before Newar-Thangmi-Baram split or that Thangmi-Baram borrowed through Newari.<ref name="Turin2004"/>

==History and development==

=== Origin ===
<timeline>
# All measures are in pixels
ImageSize  = width:800 height:390 
PlotArea   = left:0 right:150 bottom:250 top:10
AlignBars  = early

DateFormat = yyyy
Period     = from:-2500 till:2100
TimeAxis   = orientation:hor
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:400 start:-2400

# there is no automatic collision detection,
# so shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlap

Define $dx = 25 # shift text to right side of bar

PlotData=
  bar:Age color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
  from:start  till:-2200   shift:(-20, 0) text:Antiquity
  from:-2200    till:400  shift:($dx, 0) color:yellow text:Proto Newari
  from:400   till:2000  shift:($dx, 0) color:green text:Historical Age
  at:2000  shift:(10, -140) text:AD
  at:-2200  shift:(0, -150) text:←Proto-Newari diverges from Proto-Chepangi
  at:-200  shift:(-160, -165) text:Arrival of Charumati in the Valley→
  at:-200  shift:(0, -180) text:←start of Indo-Aryanization through Magadhi Prakrit?
  at: 200  shift:(-190, -195) text:Ascension of Lichhavi King Jayavarma-I→
  at: 200  shift:(0, -210) text:←start of Sanskritization?
  at: 1300  shift:(-181, -225) text:Arrival of last Karnat King Nanyadeva→
  at: 1300  shift:(0, -240) text:←start of Maithali influence
 at: 1400  shift:(0, -255) text:←start of Persian/Arabic influence
  at: 1600  shift:(-135, -270) text:start of Khas Bhasa influence→
  at: 600  shift:(-240, -285) text:Rise of Songtsen Gampo and influence of Tibetan→
  at: 1920  shift:(0, -300) text:←Hindi and English influence

  bar:Era5 color:blue width:18 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
  from:-200  till:1980   shift:(0, 0) text:Indo-Aryanization period
  from:1980  till:2000   shift:(0, 0) text:←Recent attempts to de-Sanskritize

  bar:Era color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
  from:400  till:1200   shift:(-20, 0) text:Ancient Era
  from:1200 till:1850  shift:(-20, 0) color:yellow text:Medieval era
  from:1850 till:1940  shift:(7, 0) color:black text:Dark era

  bar:Era2 color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
  from:1909 till:1940  shift:(5, 0) color:blue text:Renaiassance

  bar:Era3 color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
  from:1950 till:2000  shift:(5, 0) color:green text:Modern Era

  bar:Era4 color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
  from:1960 till:1990  shift:(2, 0) color:black text:Dark era
</timeline>According to the Linguist Glover, Newar and [[Chepang language]] must have diverged around 2200 BC. It is estimated that Newar shares 28% of its vocabulary with Chepang. At the same time, a very large and significant proportion of Newari vocabulary is Indo-European in origin, by one estimate more than 50%, indicating an influence of at least 1,600 years from Indo-European languages, first from Sanskrit, Maithili, Persian, and Urdu and today from Hindi, Nepali and English.<ref>David N. Gellner (1986). ''Language, caste, religion and territory: Newar identity ancient and modern'', European Journal of Sociology, p.102-148</ref>
===Licchavi Dynasty===
The [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit language]] stone inscriptions of the [[Licchavis of Nepal|Licchavi period]] (approximately 400–750) contains frequent use of [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] words especially for proper nouns.<ref name=":4" /> Almost 80 percent of the names of places, taxes and merchandise used in the inscriptions are [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] in origin.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Levy |first1=Robert Isaac |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngacsMPGJPcC |title=Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal |last2=Rājopādhyāya |first2=Kedar Rāj |date=1990 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06911-4 |pages=36 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":p1">{{Cite book |last=Shrestha |first=Purushottam Lochan |url=https://archive.org/details/TripurRaYuthunimamRajkulPurushottamLochanShrestha |title=Tripura ra Yuthunimama Durbara |publisher=Bhaktapur Offset Prints |year=2001 |isbn=99933-622-0-4 |page=2 |language=ne |trans-title=The Royal Houses of Tripura and Yuthunimama}}</ref>{{Sfn|Tuladhar|2000|p=19}} It suggests that Newar existed as a vernacular language since at least the [[Licchavis of Nepal|Lichhavi Dynasty]].<ref name=":4" /> According to the [[Gopal Raj Vamshavali]], a 14th century Newar language history book, before the [[Licchavis of Vaishali]] conquered [[Nepal Mandala|Nepal]], it was ruled by the [[Kirata]] and the language they spoke, which is referred by historians such as Shrestha as Kiranti, is believed to be the old form of the Newar language.<ref name=":p1" /> For instance, in an inscription from 594 located in present day [[Bhaktapur]], the area is referred as ''khopṛiṅa'' which closely resmbles the [[Classical Newar|classical]] and modern Newar name for the [[Bhaktapur|city]], ''khopa.<ref name=":p2">{{Cite book |last=Shrestha |first=Purushottam Lochan |url=https://archive.org/details/TripurRaYuthunimamRajkulPurushottamLochanShrestha |title=Tripura ra Yuthunimama Durbara |publisher=Bhaktapur Offset Prints |year=2001 |isbn=99933-622-0-4 |page=4 |language=ne |trans-title=The Royal Houses of Tripura and Yuthunimama}}</ref>''
===Medieval era===
{{Main articles|Classical Newar}}
[[File:MS Indic 1936, Appeasement of the Grahas Wellcome L0031358.jpg|thumb|A page from a [[Hindu astrology|Astrology]] book from 1480 written in Newar.]]
[[File:A Nepalese Expenditure Book from 1681.jpg|thumb|A expenditure book written in the Newar Language from 1681.]]
It is during this period that the earliest dated document written entirely in [[Classical Newar|Newar]] was written, a [[palm-leaf manuscript]] preserved in Uku Bāhā, a [[Bahal, Nepal|Buddhist monastery]] in [[Lalitpur, Nepal|Lalitpur]], which dates from 1114.<ref name=":3">{{cite news |last=Malla |first=Kamal P |title=The Earliest Dated Document in Newari: The Palmleaf from Uku Bahah NS 234/AD 1114 |url=http://www.kpmalla.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/kailash_16_0102_02.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108161716/http://www.kpmalla.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/kailash_16_0102_02.pdf/ |archive-date=8 January 2016 |access-date=9 February 2012 |newspaper=Kailash}} Pages 15–25.</ref> Following is a line from the document which mostly deals with business transaction.<ref name=":3" /> 
{|
!Original
!English Translation
|-
|chīna ḍhākō tr̥saṃghaṣa paribhōga, chu pulēṃga kītya bipāra vastra 
bivu mikhā tivu maduguna chu sāta duguna valhe
|The community should keep an eye on what remains and 
replace for what is lost, with a remaining object or gift rightly
sold out, give some clothes.
|}
The first inscription written entirely in Newar set up by the royal family also dates from this period; a stone inscription from [[Bajrayogini Temple]] of Rudra Malla from 1127 ([[Nepal Sambat|NS]] 293).<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last=Vaidya |first=Dr. Janak Lal |date=4 November 1994 |title=nepāla bhāṣā sāhityayā dhāḥ |trans-title=The Literature of Nepal Bhasa |url=https://archive.org/details/nepalbhashasahityayaitihascompiledbyjanaklalvaidya/mode/1up |work=Kheluita |pages=58 |language=new |volume=16}}</ref>

The Newar language of the Medieval era (879 to 1769 CE) is referred as [[Classical Newar]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turin |first=Mark |date=2000 |title=Shared words, shared history? The case of Thangmi and Late Classical Newar |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-03083397/document |journal=The Journal of Newar Studies |publisher=Newâh Vijñâna |volume=3 |issue=9–17}}</ref> It is further classified into Early Classical Newar, used from 879 to 1482, when the [[Malla dynasty (Nepal)#Period of three kingdoms|period of three kingdom started]] and Late Classical Newar, from 1482 to 1769, when the [[Battle of Bhaktapur|Malla dynasty ended]].

In the 14th century, Newar was given the status of national language by [[Jayasthiti Malla]].<ref name=":2" /> Since then, most of royal decrees, official proclamations and public notices set up by the monarchs appeared in Newar.<ref name="Lienhard, Siegfried 1992 Page 3" /> [[Jayasthiti Malla]] himself commissioned many works in Newar like the [[Gopal Raj Vamshavali]], a manuscript about the history of Nepal dating to 1389.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vajracarya |first1=Dhanavajra |url=https://archive.org/details/GopalarajaVamsavaliDhanavajraVajracaryaAndKamalP..Malla |title=The Gopalarajavamsavali |last2=Malla |first2=Kamal P. |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GMBH |year=1985 |isbn=3-515-04349-7}}</ref> From the 14th century onwards, an overwhelming number of [[stone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley]], where they are a ubiquitous element at heritage sites, are in Newar.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gutschow |first=Niels |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQp_957RRtAC&q=The+Nepalese+Caitya: |title=The Nepalese Caitya: 1500 Years of Buddhist Votive Architecture in the Kathmandu Valley |publisher=Edition Axel Menges |year=1997 |isbn=9783930698752 |page=25 |access-date=26 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323054535/https://books.google.com/books?id=IQp_957RRtAC&q=The+Nepalese+Caitya: |archive-date=23 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Bajracharya, Chunda (1985). ''Mallakalya Chhun Sanskriti'' ("Some Customs of the Malla Period"). Kathmandu: Kashinath Tamot for Nepal Bhasa Study and Research Centre.</ref>

The period from 1428 to 1769 is considered a Golden Age for [[Newar literature|Newar Literature]]. Many monarchs of the Malla dynasty themselves started composing hymns and dramas in Newar. Noted royal writers include [[Mahendra Malla|Mahindra Malla]], [[Siddhi Narasimha Malla|Siddhi Narsingh Malla]], and [[Ranajit Malla]].  Still, there are numerous works of literature from this period with anonymous authors. Some non royal authors include Keshav Udās, Brisabhānanda and Biladātāsingha.{{Sfn|Vaidya|2002|p=180}} 

Some notable women who wrote literature in Newar during this period include, Jagatakeshari from [[Banepa]], [[Briddhi Lakshmi]] (queen consort of [[Kingdom of Bhaktapur|Bhaktapur]]), Riddhi Lakshmi (mother of [[Bhupalendra Malla]]), Jaya Lakshmi (queen consort of [[Yoga Narendra Malla]]).{{Sfn|Vaidya|2002|p=189}} Among them, Riddhi Lakshmi is considered to be the first woman to publish literature in Nepal as her poems are the earliest dated literature in Nepal authored by a woman.{{Sfn|Vaidya|2002|p=119}} 

An example of the language used during this period is provided by the following lines from a poem written by [[Briddhi Lakshmi]].{{Sfn|Vaidya|2002|p=124}}
{|
!Original{{Sfn|Vaidya|2002|p=124}}
!English Translation<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dhaubhadel |first=Om Prasad |date=September 2020 |title=''Ranajita Malla ra satbahale rajkumara haru'' |url=https://www.bhaktapurmun.gov.np/sites/bhaktapurmun.gov.np/files/documents/BKT-286%20A.pdf |work=Bhaktapur |publisher=Bhaktapur Municipality |pages=33–38 |language=Ne |volume=286}}</ref>
|-
|''kokila kokha o tī bhatu gilakhā va ati uti dhaka thva jugasa jula'' 
''dukha hāṅā hāṅā parabata jina lhvaneṅa maphuta,'' ''madata vipatiyā udhāra''
|This is the age, where the crow and cuckoo are considered equal, where the owl and the parrot are considered the same

I can no longer bear the mountain of grief; there is no salvation for the grieved
|}

===Dark age===

Newar began to be sidelined after the [[Gorkha Kingdom|Gorkha]] conquest of Nepal and the ouster of the [[Malla (Nepal)|Malla dynasty]] by the [[Shah dynasty]] in the late 18th century. Since then, its history has been one of constant suppression and struggle against official disapproval.<ref name="Shrestha">{{cite news|last=Shrestha|first=Bal Gopal|title=The Newars: The Indigenous Population of the Kathmandu Valley in the Modern State of Nepal|url=http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_26_01_04.pdf|access-date=20 April 2012|newspaper=CNAS Journal|date=January 1999|archive-date=21 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054744/http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_26_01_04.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Following the advent of the Shahs, the Gorkhali language became the court language,<ref>Levy, Robert I. (1990) ''Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. {{ISBN|81-208-1038-4}}. Page 15.</ref> and Newar was replaced as the language of administration.<ref>Los Angeles County Museum of Art and Pal, Pratapaditya (1985) ''Art of Nepal: A Catalogue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art Collection.'' University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-05407-3}}. Page 19.</ref> However, Newar continued to remain in official use for a time as shown by the 1775 treaty with Tibet which was written in it.<ref name="Lienhard, Siegfried 1992 Page 3"/> A few of the new rulers cultivated the language. Kings [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]], [[Rana Bahadur]] and [[Rajendra Bikram Shah]] composed poetry and wrote plays in it.

Newar suffered heavily under the repressive policy of the [[Rana dynasty]] (1846–1951&nbsp;AD) when the regime attempted to wipe it out.<ref>{{cite news|last=Singh|first=Phatte Bahadur|title=Nepali Biharya Aitihasik Pristabhumi ("Historical Background of Nepali Bihar") |newspaper=Jaa|publisher=Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Sahitya Pala, Tri-Chandra Campus|date=September 1979}} Page 186.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Hutt|first=Michael|title=Diversity and Change in the Languages|url=http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_14_01_01.pdf|access-date=20 March 2011|newspaper=CNAS Journal|publisher=Tribhuvan University|date=December 1986|archive-date=28 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728105255/http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_14_01_01.pdf|url-status=live}} Page 10.</ref> In 1906, legal documents written in Newar were declared unenforceable, and any evidence in the language was declared null and void.<ref>{{cite news|last=Tumbahang|first=Govinda Bahadur|title=Process of Democratization and Linguistic (Human) Rights in Nepal|url=http://tujournal.edu.np/index.php/TUJ/article/viewFile/18/16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724190136/http://tujournal.edu.np/index.php/TUJ/article/viewFile/18/16|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 July 2011|access-date=1 March 2011|newspaper=Tribhuvan University Journal|date=September 2009}} Page 8.</ref> The rulers forbade literature in Newar, and writers were sent to jail.<ref name="Lienhard, Siegfried 1992 Page 4">Lienhard, Siegfried (1992). ''Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns.'' New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. {{ISBN|81-208-0963-7}}. Page 4.</ref> In 1944, Buddhist monks who wrote in the language were expelled from the country.<ref>LeVine, Sarah and Gellner, David N. (2005). ''Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal.'' Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0674019083}}, 9780674019089. Pages 47–49.</ref><ref>Hridaya, Chittadhar (1982, third ed.) ''Jheegu Sahitya'' ("Our Literature"). Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Page 8.</ref>

Moreover, hostility towards the language from neighbours grew following massive migration into the Kathmandu Valley leading to the indigenous Newars becoming a minority.<ref>{{cite news |last=Manandhar |first=T |date=7 March 2014 |title=Voice Of The People |url=http://www.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2014/03/06/letters/voice-of-the-people/260095.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171011122143/http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/printedition/news/2014-03-06/voice-of-the-people-260095.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 October 2017 |newspaper=The Kathmandu Post |access-date=7 March 2014 }}</ref> During the period 1952 to 1991, the percentage of the valley population speaking Newar dropped from 74.95% to 43.93%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kpmalla.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/the-occupation-of-the-kathmandu..pdf |title=The Occupation of the Kathmandu Valley and its Fallout |last=Malla |first=Kamal P. |page=3 |access-date=16 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108161716/http://www.kpmalla.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/the-occupation-of-the-kathmandu..pdf/ |archive-date=8 January 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Nepal Bhasa movement]] arose as an effort to save the language.

===''Nepal Bhasa'' movement===
[[File:Black day sit-in 2013 June 1.jpg|thumb|200px|Sit-in outside the prime minister's residence to mark Black Day on 1 June 2013.]]
{{Main|Nepal Bhasa movement}}

Newars have been fighting to save their language in the face of opposition from the government and hostile neighbours from the time of the repressive [[Rana dynasty|Rana regime]] till today.<ref name="Hoek, Bert van den and Shrestha, Balgopal"/> The movement arose against the suppression of the language that began with the rise of the Shah dynasty in 1768&nbsp;AD, and intensified during the Rana regime (1846–1951) and [[Panchayat (Nepal)|Panchayat]] system (1960–1990).<ref>{{cite news|last=Shrestha|first=Bal Gopal|title=The Newars: The Indigenous Population of the Kathmandu Valley in the Modern State of Nepal)|url=http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_26_01_04.pdf|access-date=20 April 2012|newspaper=CNAS Journal|date=January 1999|archive-date=21 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054744/http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_26_01_04.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

At various times, the government has forbidden literature in Newar, banned the official use and removed it from the media and the educational system.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gurung |first=Kishor |date=Nov–Dec 1993 |title=What is Nepali Music? |url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/himal/pdf/Himal_6_6.pdf |journal=Himal |page=11 |access-date=4 April 2014 |archive-date=7 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407071120/http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/himal/pdf/Himal_6_6.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Opponents have even petitioned the Supreme Court to have its use barred.

Activism has taken the form of publication of books and periodicals to public meets and protest rallies. Writers and language workers have been jailed or expelled from the country, and they have continued the movement abroad. The struggle for [[linguistic rights]] has sometimes combined with the movement for religious and political freedom in Nepal.

===Renaissance era===
[[File:Buddha dharma magazine cover 1929.jpg|thumb|200px|Cover of ''Buddha Dharma wa Nepal Bhasa'' ("Buddhism and Nepalese") magazine dated 1929.]]
[[Image:Aesop book cover.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'[[Aesop's Fables]]' in Newar by Jagat Sundar Malla, first published in 1915.]]
{{Main|Nepal Bhasa renaissance}}

The period between 1909 and 1941 is considered as the renaissance era of Newar.<ref>शुक्रराज अस्पताल स्मारिका २०५७, Page 52, नेपालभाषाको पुनर्जागरणमा शुक्रराज शास्त्री by सह-प्रा. प्रेमशान्ति तुलाधर</ref> During this period, a few authors braved official disapproval and started writing, translating, educating and restructuring the language. Writers [[Nisthananda Bajracharya]], [[Siddhidas Mahaju]], [[Jagat Sundar Malla]] and [[Yogbir Singh Kansakar]] are honored as the [[Four Pillars of Nepal Bhasa]]. [[Shukraraj Shastri]] and [[Dharmaditya Dharmacharya]] were also at the forefront of the Renaissance.

In 1909, Bajracharya published the first printed book using movable type. Shastri wrote a grammar of the language entitled ''Nepal Bhasa Vyakaran'', the first one in modern times. It was published from [[Kolkata]] in 1928. His other works include ''Nepal Bhasa Reader'', Books 1 and 2 (1933) and an alphabet book ''Nepali Varnamala'' (1933).<ref>Bajracharya, Phanindra Ratna (2003). ''Who's Who in Nepal Bhasha.'' Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Academy. Page 27.</ref>

Mahaju's translation of the [[Ramayana|Ramayan]] and books on morals and ethics, Malla's endeavours to impart education in the native language and other literary activities marked the renaissance. Dharmacharya published the first magazine in Newar ''[[Buddha Dharma wa Nepal Bhasa]]'' ("Buddhism and Nepalese") from [[Kolkata]] in 1925. Also, the Renaissance marked the beginning of the movement to get official recognition for the name "Nepal Bhasa" in place of the [[Khas]] imposed term "Newari".

Some of the lines of Mahaju read as follows:

<blockquote>
:सज्जन मनुष्या संगतनं मूर्ख नापं भिना वै
:sajjana manuṣyā saṃgatanaṃ mūrkha nāpaṃ bhinā vai
:पलेला लपते ल वंसा म्वति थें ल सना वै
:palēlā lapatē la vaṃsā mvati thēṃ la sanā vai
</blockquote>

The verse states that even a moron can improve with the company of good people just like a drop of water appears like a pearl when it descends upon the leaves of a lotus plant.

===Modern Newar===

====Jail years====

The years 1941–1945 are known as the jail years for the large number of authors who were imprisoned for their literary or political activities. It was a productive period and resulted in an outpouring of literary works.

[[Chittadhar Hridaya]], [[Siddhicharan Shrestha]] and [[Phatte Bahadur Singh]] were among the prominent writers of the period who were jailed for their writings. While in prison, Hridaya produced his greatest work [[Sugata Saurabha (epic)|''Sugata Saurabha'']],<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/content/religion/9780195341829/toc.html |title=Sugata Saurabha: An Epic Poem from Nepal on the Life of the Buddha by Chittadhar Hridaya |publisher=Oxford Scholarship Online |access-date=24 January 2012 |date=13 November 2009 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195341829.001.0001 |isbn=9780199866816 |last1=Lewis |first1=Todd T. |last2=Tuladhar |first2=Subarna Man |archive-date=15 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715030935/http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/content/religion/9780195341829/toc.html |url-status=live }}</ref> an epic poem on the life of [[Gautama Buddha]].<ref name="Lienhard, Siegfried 1992 Page 4"/> Shrestha wrote a collection of poems entitled ''Seeswan'' ("Wax Flower", published in 1948) among other works. Singh (1902–1983) was sentenced to life imprisonment for editing and publishing an anthology of poems by various poets entitled ''Nepali Bihar''.<ref>Shrestha, Siddhicharan (1992). ''Siddhicharanya Nibandha ("Siddhicharan's Essays").'' Kathmandu: Phalcha Pithana. Page 73.</ref>

The efforts of Newar authors coincided with the revival of [[Theravada]] Buddhism in Nepal, which the rulers disliked equally. In 1946, the monks who had been exiled by the Ranas in 1944 for teaching [[Buddhism]] and writing in Newar were allowed to return following international pressure. Restrictions on publication were relaxed, and books could be published after being censored. The monks wrote wide-ranging books on Buddhism and greatly enriched the corpus of religious literature.<ref>LeVine, Sarah and Gellner, David N. (2005). ''Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal.'' Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0-674-01908-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-674-01908-9}}. Pages 47–49.</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Tewari | first = Ramesh Chandra | url = https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache%3A-D1GwWzwnb0J%3Aarchiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fjiabs%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F8607%2F2514+ven+aniruddha+nepal&hl=en&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESi7UvGTqtWcxhGkkXX0xYcBDKBG7i9cWlbDEc0A3Q37914n_D60UF3BGD69oA-lM4ITV9uiU7nFvR_RR_wOrOZalFzx7PONG1_9tZ_WkVbGZQlS0l2-9lB7yESd7JGJngX1_MRx&sig=AHIEtbTPapjCajNSZPIauHNVQ7QpgBWI4w | title = Socio-Cultural Aspects of Theravada Buddhism in Nepal | work = The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies | year = 1983 | access-date = 19 April 2012 | archive-date = 5 October 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131005064552/https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache%3A-D1GwWzwnb0J%3Aarchiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fjiabs%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F8607%2F2514+ven+aniruddha+nepal&hl=en&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESi7UvGTqtWcxhGkkXX0xYcBDKBG7i9cWlbDEc0A3Q37914n_D60UF3BGD69oA-lM4ITV9uiU7nFvR_RR_wOrOZalFzx7PONG1_9tZ_WkVbGZQlS0l2-9lB7yESd7JGJngX1_MRx&sig=AHIEtbTPapjCajNSZPIauHNVQ7QpgBWI4w | url-status = live }} Pages 89–90.</ref>

Outside the [[Kathmandu Valley]] in the 1940s, poets like [[Ganesh Lal Shrestha]] of [[Hetauda]] composed songs and put on performances during festivals.<ref>Bajracharya, Phanindra Ratna (2003). ''Who's Who in Nepal Bhasha.'' Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Academy. {{ISBN|99933-560-0-X}}. Page 225.</ref>

===The 1950s===
[[File:Nepal bhasa patrika fp.jpg|thumb|200px|''Nepal Bhasa Patrika'' daily newspaper dated 5 November 1960.]]
Following the overthrow of the [[Rana dynasty]] and the advent of democracy in 1951, restrictions on publication in Newar were removed. Books, magazines and newspapers appeared. A daily newspaper ''[[Nepal Bhasa Patrika]]'' began publication in 1955.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://npi10month.blogspot.com/2010/02/history-of-nepali-journalism.html| title = History of Nepali Journalism| publisher = Nepal Press Institute| date = 15 February 2010| access-date = 21 April 2012| archive-date = 9 August 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180809032149/http://npi10month.blogspot.com/2010/02/history-of-nepali-journalism.html| url-status = live}}</ref> Textbooks were published and Newar was included in the curriculum. Nepal Rastriya Vidhyapitha recognised Newar as an alternative medium of instruction in the schools and colleges affiliated to it.

Literary societies like Nepal Bhasa Parisad were formed and Chwasa: Pasa returned from exile.<ref name="Shrestha"/> In 1958, Kathmandu Municipality passed a resolution that it would accept applications and publish major decisions in Newar in addition to the Nepali language.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sandhya Times|newspaper=Sandhya Times|date=1 July 1997 }}</ref>

====Second dark age====

Democracy lasted for a brief period, and Newar and other languages of Nepal entered a second Dark Age with the dissolution of parliament and the imposition of the [[Panchayat (Nepal)|Panchayat]] system in 1960. Under its policy of "one nation, one language", only the Nepali language was promoted, and all the other languages of Nepal were suppressed as "ethnic" or "local" languages.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whelpton |first=John |title=A History of Nepal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KoNT6tjk9mQC&q=1946 |access-date=3 July 2013 |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521804707 |page=183 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323054458/https://books.google.com/books?id=KoNT6tjk9mQC&q=1946 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1963, Kathmandu Municipality's decision to recognize Newar was revoked. In 1965, the language was also banned from being broadcast over Radio Nepal.<ref>{{cite news|last=Timalsina|first=Ramji|title=Language and Political Discourse in Nepal|url=http://koshistjames.edu.np/journal/CET_Journal_Vol3_No1.pdf|access-date=28 February 2012|newspaper=CET Journal|publisher=Itahari: Itahari Research Centre, Circle of English Teachers (CET)|date=Spring 2011|archive-date=15 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215035441/http://koshistjames.edu.np/journal/CET_Journal_Vol3_No1.pdf|url-status=dead}} Page 14.</ref> Those who protested against the ban were put in prison, including Buddhist monk [[Sudarshan Mahasthavir]].

The New Education System Plan brought out in 1971 eased out Nepal's other languages from the schools in a bid to diminish the country's multi-lingual traditions.<ref>{{cite web| last =Hangen| first =Susan| url =http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ps034.pdf| title =Creating a "New Nepal": The Ethnic Dimension| publisher =Washington: East-West Center| year =2007| access-date =19 February 2012| archive-date =11 October 2017| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20171011121202/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ps034.pdf| url-status =dead}}</ref> Students were discouraged from choosing their native language as an elective subject because it was lumped with technical subjects.<ref name="Hoek, Bert van den and Shrestha, Balgopal">{{cite news|author1=Hoek, Bert van den|author2=Shrestha, Balgopal|name-list-style=amp|title=Education in the Mother Tongue: The Case of Nepal Bhasa (Newari)|url=http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_22_01_06.pdf|access-date=22 April 2012|newspaper=CNAS Journal|date=January 1995|archive-date=22 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322193940/http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_22_01_06.pdf|url-status=live}} Page 75.</ref> Nepal's various languages began to stagnate as the population could not use them for official, educational, employment or legal purposes.

Birat Nepal Bhasa Sahitya Sammelan Guthi (Grand Nepal Bhasa Literary Conference Trust), formed in 1962 in Bhaktapur, and [[Nepal Bhasa Manka Khala]], founded in 1979 in Kathmandu, are some of the prominent organizations that emerged during this period to struggle for language rights. The names of these organizations also annoyed the government which, on one occasion in 1979, changed the name of Brihat Nepal Bhasa Sahitya Sammelan Guthi in official media reports.<ref>{{cite web| last =Maharjan| first =Harsha Man| url =http://www.socialinclusion.org.np/new/contentResources| title =They' vs 'We': A Comparative Study on Representation of Adivasi Janajati Issues in Gorkhapatra and Nepal Bhasa Print Media in the Post Referendum Nepal (1979–1990)| publisher =Social Inclusion Research Fund| year =2009| access-date =26 May 2012| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120926014004/http://socialinclusion.org.np/new/contentResources| archive-date =26 September 2012| url-status =dead}} Page 34.</ref>

Some lines by the famous poet [[Durga Lal Shrestha]] of this era are as follows:<ref>{{lang|new|नेपालभाषाया न्हूगु पुलांगु म्ये मुना ब्वः१}}</ref>
<blockquote>
:घाः जुयाः जक ख्वइगु खः झी
:स्याःगुलिं सः तइगु खः
:झी मसीनि ! झी मसीनि !
:धइगु चिं जक ब्वैगु खः

:We are crying because we are wounded
:We are shouting because of the pain
:All in all, we are demonstrating
:That we are not dead yet.
</blockquote>

====Post-1990 People's Movement====

After the [[1990 People's Movement]] that brought the Panchayat system to an end, the languages of Nepal enjoyed greater freedom.<ref>{{cite news|last=Eagle|first=Sonia|title=The Language Situation in Nepal|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/57090514/19/Newari-language-and-revitalisation|access-date=28 February 2012|newspaper=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development|publisher=Scribd|year=1999|archive-date=23 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323054434/https://www.scribd.com/document/57090514/Language-Nepal|url-status=live}} Page 310.</ref> The 1990 constitution recognized Nepal as a multiethnic and multilingual country. The Nepali language in the Devanagari script was declared the language of the nation and the official language. Meanwhile, all the languages spoken as native languages in Nepal were named national languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/documents/national_laws/constitution1990.htm#1|title=Constitution of Nepal 1990|publisher=Nepal Democracy|access-date=19 February 2012|year=2001|archive-date=19 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219173640/http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/documents/national_laws/constitution1990.htm#1|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1997, [[Kathmandu Metropolitan City]] declared that its policy to officially recognize Nepal Bhasa would be revived. The rest of the city governments in the Kathmandu Valley announced that they too would recognize it. However, critics petitioned the Supreme Court to have the policy annulled, and in 1999, the Supreme Court quashed the decision of the local bodies as being unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite news|last=Limbu|first=Ramyata|title=Attempt to Limit Official Language to Nepali Resented|url=http://ipsnews.net/print.asp?idnews=79142|publisher=IPS|access-date=21 April 2012|date=21 June 1999}}{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

====Post-2006 People's Movement====

A second People's Movement in 2006 ousted the Shah dynasty and Nepal became a republic which gave the people greater linguistic freedom. The 2007 Interim Constitution states that the use of one's native language in a local body or office shall not be barred.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccd.org.np/new/resources/interim.pdf|title=The Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2063 (2007)|publisher=UNDP Nepal|page=56|access-date=19 February 2012|date=January 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219220657/http://www.ccd.org.np/new/resources/interim.pdf|archive-date=19 February 2012}}</ref> However, this has not happened in practice. Organizations with names in Newar are not registered, and municipality officials refuse to accept applications written in the language.<ref>{{cite news|title= State affairs
 |url= http://www.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2013/07/06/letters/letter-to-the-editor/250875.html |access-date=14 May 2014|newspaper= The Kathmandu Post |date=7 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Jigu Nan Dhayegu Du |url=http://esandhyanhipau.com/epaper-archive.php |access-date=14 May 2014 |page=2 |newspaper=Sandhya Times |date=18 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202030913/http://esandhyanhipau.com/epaper-archive.php |archive-date=2 December 2013 }}</ref>

The restoration of democracy has been marked by the privatization of the media. Various people and organizations are working for the development of Newar. Newar has several newspapers, a primary level curriculum, several schools, several FM stations (selected time for Newar programs), regular TV programs and news (on Image TV Channel), Nepal Bhasa Music Award (a part of Image Award) and several websites (including a [[Wikipedia]] in Nepal Bhasa<ref>{{cite web|url=http://new.wikipedia.org/|title=Nepal Bhasa Wikipedia|publisher=new.wikipedia.org|access-date=6 December 2008|archive-date=14 February 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050214105531/http://new.wikipedia.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>).

The number of schools teaching Newar has increased, and Newar is also being offered in schools outside the Kathmandu Valley.<ref>{{cite news|last=Rai|first=Ganesh|title=९७ विद्यालयमा नेपालभाषा पढाइने ("Nepal Bhasa to be taught in 97 schools")|url=http://202.166.193.41/kantipur/news/news-detail.php?news_id=268100|access-date=21 April 2012|newspaper=Kantipur|date=11 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023111557/http://202.166.193.41/kantipur/news/news-detail.php?news_id=268100|archive-date=23 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Outside Nepal Mandala===
Inscriptions written in Newar occur across [[Nepal Mandala]] and outside.

In [[Gorkha District|Gorkha]], the Bhairav Temple at Pokharithok Bazaar contains an inscription dated [[Nepal Sambat]] 704 (1584&nbsp;AD), which is 185 years before the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley by the [[Gorkha Kingdom]]. The Palanchowk Bhagawati Temple situated to the east of Kathmandu contains an inscription recording a land donation dated Nepal Sambat 861 (1741&nbsp;AD).<ref>Hridaya, Chittadhar (ed.) (1971). ''Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Jatah.'' Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Page 113.</ref>

In [[Bhojpur, Nepal|Bhojpur]] in east Nepal, an inscription at the Bidyadhari Ajima Temple dated Nepal Sambat 1011 (1891&nbsp;AD) records the donation of a door and [[tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]]. The Bindhyabasini Temple in [[Bandipur]] in west Nepal contains an inscription dated Nepal Sambat 950 (1830&nbsp;AD) about the donation of a tympanum.<ref>''Jhee'' (February–March 1975). Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Bikas Mandal. Page 9.</ref>

Outside Nepal, Newar has been used in [[Tibet]]. Official documents and inscriptions recording votive offerings made by [[Newar]] traders have been found in [[Lhasa]].<ref>Hridaya, Chittadhar (ed.) (1971). ''Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Jatah.'' Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Pages 255–256.</ref> A copper plate dated Nepal Sambat 781 (1661&nbsp;AD) recording the donation of a tympanum is installed at the shrine of Chhwaskamini Ajima (Tibetan: [[Palden Lhamo]]) in the [[Jokhang]] Temple.<ref>Hridaya, Chittadhar (ed.) (1971). ''Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Jatah.'' Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Page 47.</ref>

== Literature ==

{{Main|Newari literature}}
[[File:Poem written in Newar by Briddhi Lakshmi.svg|thumb|''ka kha yā mye'' ("a song of [[Ka (Indic)|''ka'']] and [[Kha (Indic)|''kha'']]"), a Newar language poem written by [[Briddhi Lakshmi|Briddhi Lakhmi]], the queen consort of [[Bhaktapur]].{{Sfn|Tuladhar|2000|p=64}}]]
[[File:Grahas (Seizers), Six Folios From a Book of Charms LACMA M.82.169.11.jpg|thumb|A folio from a Book of Charms written in the [[Bhujimol script]] from the 16th century. ]]
Newar literature has a long history. It has one of the oldest literatures of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] (together with Chinese, Tibetan, Tangut, Burmese, Yi, etc.)

=== Drama ===
[[Drama]]s are traditionally performed in open Dabu (stage). Most of the traditional dramas are tales related to deities and demons. Masked characters and music are central elements to such dramas. Most of them are narrated with the help of songs sung at intervals. Such dramas resemble dance in many cases. The theme of most dramas is the creation of a social well-being with morals illustrating the rise, turbulence, and fall of evil. There is fixed dates in the [[Nepal Sambat]] (Nepal Era) calendar for the performance of specific drama. Most of the dramas are performed by specific [[Guthi]]s.

=== Poetry ===
[[Poetry]] writing constituted a splendid part of medieval Malla aristocracy. Many of the kings were well-renowned poets. [[Siddhidas Mahaju]] and [[Chittadhar Hridaya]] are two great poets in the language.

=== Prose fiction ===
Prose [[fiction]] in Newar is a relatively new field of literature compared to other fields. Most fiction was written in poetry form until the medieval era. Consequently, almost all prose fiction belongs to the modern Newar era. Collections of short stories in Newar are more popular than novels.

=== Story ===
The art of verbal [[folklore|story]]telling is very old in Newar. There are a variety of mythical and social stories that have aided in establishing the norm of Kathmandu valley. Stories ranging from the origin of Kathmandu valley to the temples of the valley and the important monuments have been passed down verbally in Newar and very few exist in written form. However, with an increase in the literacy rate and an awareness among the people, folklore stories are being written down. Stories on other topics are also becoming popular.

== Dialects ==

Kansakar (2011)<ref>Kansakar, Tej R. 2011. ''A sociolinguistic survey of Newar / Nepal Bhasa''. Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN), Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.</ref> recognizes three main Newar dialect clusters.
*Western: Tansen (Palpa), Butwal, Nepalgunj, Old Pokhara, Dumre, Bandipur, Ridhi (Gulmi), Baglung, Dotili / Silgadi
*'''Central''': [[Kathmandu]], [[Lalitpur District, Nepal|Lalitpur]], [[Bhaktapur]], Thimi, Kirtipur, Chitlang, Lele, Balaju, Tokha, Pharping, Thankot, Dadikot, Balami, Gopali, Bungamati, [[Badegaon]], Pyangaon, Chapagaon, Lubhu, Sankhu, Chakhunti, Gamtsa Gorkha, Badikhel (Pahari), [[Kavrepalanchok District]] dialects (Banepa, Nala, Sangaa, Chaukot, Panauti, Dhulikhel, Duti), Khampu, Khopasi
*'''Eastern''': Chainpur, Dharan, [[Dolakhae dialect|Dolakha]], Sindhupalchok, Taplejung, Terhathum, Bhojpur, Dhankuta, Narayangadh, Jhapa, Ilam

Kansakar (2011) also gives the following classification of Newar dialects based on verb conjugation morphology.
*Central
**Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Kirtipur, Chitlang, Lele
**Bhaktapur, Thimi
*Eastern
**Dolakha, Tauthali, Jethal, Listikot, Doti
**Pahari (Badikhel)

Kapali (1141 [[Nepal Sambat|N.S.]]) gives the following classification of Nepal Bhasa dialects based on mutual intelligibility.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kapali |first1=Rukshana |title=नेपालभाषा लेखन सहयोगी |publisher=Self published |isbn=978-9937-0-9396-5 |pages=9–12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Kapali |first1=Rukshana |title=नेपाल भाषा कार्यान्वयन कसरी गर्न सकिन्छ? |url=https://www.setopati.com/opinion/262746 |website=Setopati |access-date=1 April 2022 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401051657/https://www.setopati.com/opinion/262746 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Nepa Valley (Kathmandu Valley)
** Eastern – includes the region of Bhaktapur, Sakwa and seven villages of Kavre.
** Western – includes Kathmandu and Lalitpur
*Dwalkha- includes Dolakha and Charikot of Dolakha district, Tauthali and Jethal of Sindupalchok district, and Duti of Kavre district.
* Smaller dialects based on locality
**Pyang gaan, a village in Lalitpur
* Smaller dialects based on caste group
** Gopali
** Balami
** Pahari

Other ways Nepal Bhasa is classified are as follows:-
;Bhaktapur
:Also known as ''Khwapey Bhāy'' {{lang|new|ख्वपय् भाय्}}, this dialect is more archaic than the standard. Variations exist in the use of this form of language in Bhaktapur, Banepa, Panauti, and Dhulikhel.
;Chitlang
:This dialect is used in [[Chitlang]], a place south of Kathmandu valley in Makawanpur district. This is one of the biggest Newar bastions at Chitlang. Balami caste predominates there.
;[[Dolakha Newar language|Dolakha]] 
:This is the most preserved form of the language and resembles the old Newar.
;Kathmandu-Lalitpur
:Kathmandu dialect, also known as ''Yenmi Bhāy'' {{lang|new|येँमि भाय्}}, is one of the dominant forms of the language and very close to the standard form of the language used in academia and media. It is also the most widely used dialect. It is spoken especially in [[Kathmandu]].  Lalitpur dialect, also known as ''Yeley Bhāy'' {{lang|new|यलय् भाय्}}, is the most dominant form of language and is the standard form of language used in academics and media. It is also very widely used dialect. It is especially spoken in [[Lalitpur District, Nepal|Lalitpur]]. Due to the similarity between Kathmandu and Lalitpur dialects, it is often grouped as one. Almost 95% of Nepal Bhasa publications are in this dialect.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Prajapati |first1=Subhash Ram |title=Bibliography of Nepalbhasa Dictionaries |date=22 June 2020 |url=https://www.subhash.com.np/bibliography-of-nepal-bhasa-dictionaries/ |access-date=3 November 2021 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103055544/https://www.subhash.com.np/bibliography-of-nepal-bhasa-dictionaries/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
;Pahari
:Pahari variation of Nepal Bhasa is spoken among the Pahari caste.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shrestha |first1=Omkareshwor |title=A Grammar of Pahari, PhD Dissertation |date=2010 |publisher=Tribhuvan University |url=https://archive.org/details/AGrammarOfPahariPhDDissertationByOmkareshworShrestha/ |access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref>
;Pyangaan
:A variation of Nepal Bhasa spoken in [[Pyaangaan]] town of [[Lalitpur District, Nepal|Lalitpur district]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Tulasi Lal |title=नेपालभाषाया प्यांगां भाषिका |publisher=Ratna Printing Press |url=https://archive.org/details/nepalbhashayapyangabhashikatulasilalsingh/ |access-date=3 November 2021 |ref=pyangaan}}</ref>

[[Religion]]s play a [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]]-like role in dialectical diversity though they are minor. It has been recorded from the [[Malla period]]. There are some vocabulary differences used among Newar Hindus and Buddhists but the dialects of Patan and Kathmandu are similar. [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] were present at that age and few words in [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] of Newar differs. With the recent growth of [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], other religions, and [[atheism]] in Nepal, the diversity in the speech registers regarding religious terminology has become more extended, such as omitting the word ''dyaḥ'' ({{lang|new|द्यः}}, '[[Deva (Hinduism)|god]]') after the name of a deity by many people whereas it is retained in [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]].

==Phonology==
=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br/>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
!([[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo]]-)[[Alveolo-palatal consonant|<br>palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Breathy voice|murmured]]</small>
|{{IPA link|mʱ}}<sup>1</sup>
|{{IPA link|nʱ}}<sup>1</sup>
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="4" |[[Stop consonant|Stop]]/<br>[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t}}
|{{IPA link|ʈ}}<sup>2</sup>
|{{IPA link|tɕ}}
|{{IPA link|k}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPA link|pʰ}}
|{{IPA link|tʰ}}
|{{IPA link|ʈʰ}}<sup>2</sup>
|{{IPA link|tɕʰ}}
|{{IPA link|kʰ}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|d}}
|{{IPA link|ɖ}}<sup>2</sup>
|{{IPA link|dʑ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Breathy voice|murmured]]</small>
|{{IPA link|bʱ}}
|{{IPA link|dʱ}}
|{{IPA link|ɖʱ}}<sup>2</sup>
|{{IPA link|dʑʱ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡʱ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
|{{IPA link|s}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|h}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Tap and flap consonants|Tap]]
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
| ({{IPA link|ɾ}})
| {{IPAblink|ɽ}}<sup>2</sup>
|
|
|
|-
!<small>[[Breathy voice|murmured]]</small>
|
|{{IPAblink|ɾʱ}}<sup>2</sup>
|{{IPAblink|ɽʱ}}<sup>2</sup>
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|w}}
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|-
!<small>[[Breathy voice|murmured]]</small>
|{{IPA link|wʱ}}<sup>1</sup>
|{{IPA link|lʱ}}<sup>1</sup>
|
|{{IPA link|jʱ}}<sup>1</sup>
|
|
|}
# Only in Kathmandu Newar.
# Only in Dolakha Newar.

; Notes
* Marginal phonemes are in parentheses.
* Allophonic variants are in Square brackets.
* Tap consonants mainly occur as word-medial alternates of /{{IPA|t}}/, /{{IPA|d}}/, /{{IPA|dʱ}}/ or /{{IPA|ɖ}}/ (in Dolakha only).
* /{{IPA|s}}/ can be heard as [{{IPA|ɕ}}] when occurring before front vowels/glide /{{IPA|i, e, j}}/.
* In Kathmandu Newar, /{{IPA|ŋ}}/ only occurs as word-final.
* Affricates /{{IPA|tɕ, dʑ}}/ can also shift to retracted sounds [{{IPA|t̠s̠, d̠z̠}}] when occurring before back vowels.

=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |[[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="3" |[[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="3" |[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
|- align="center"
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}}
|{{IPA link|iː}}
|{{IPA link|ĩ}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|u}}
|{{IPA link|uː}}
|{{IPA link|ũ}}
|- align="center"
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}}
|{{IPA link|eː}}
|{{IPA link|ẽ}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|o}}
|{{IPA link|oː}}
|{{IPA link|õ}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
|
|
|({{IPA link|ə}})
|({{IPA link|əː}})
|({{IPA link|ə̃}})
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA link|ɔ}}~{{IPA link|ɑ}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA link|ɔː}}~{{IPA link|ɑː}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA link|ɔ̃}}~{{IPA link|ɑ̃}}
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|
| {{IPA link|ɛː}}<sup>1</sup>
| {{IPA link|ɛ̃}}<sup>1</sup>
|
|
|
|- align="center"
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| 
| {{IPA link|æː}}<sup>1</sup>
| {{IPA link|æ̃}}<sup>1</sup>
|{{IPA link|a}}
|{{IPA link|aː}}
|{{IPA link|ã}}
|}
# Only in Kathmandu Newar.

* In Kathmandu Newar, the back vowel sounds /{{IPA|ɔ~ɑ}}/ occur as [{{IPA|ɔ}}], [{{IPA|ə}}], or [{{IPA|ɑ}}].
* In Dolakha Newar, the back vowel sounds /{{IPA|ɔ~ɑ}}/, can occur [{{IPA|ɑ}}], [{{IPA|ʌ}}], or [{{IPA|ə}}].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dolakhā Newār|last=Genetti|first=Carol|publisher=London & New York: Routledge.|year=2003|location=The Sino-Tibetan Languages|pages=353–370}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Kathmandu Newar (Nepāl Bhāśā)|last=Hargreaves|first=David|publisher=London & New York: Routledge.|year=2003|location=The Sino-Tibetan Languages|pages=371–384}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Newār (Nepāl Bhāsā)|last1=Hale|first1=Austin|last2=Shrestha|first2=Kedar P.|location=München |publisher=LINCOM|year=2006|series=Languages of the World/Materials|volume=256|pages=1–22 }}</ref>
* /{{IPA|o, oː}}/ and /{{IPA|u}}/ can also be heard as [{{IPA|ɔ, ɔː}}], and [{{IPA|ʊ}}].
* The following nasal vowels can also be distinguished in vowel length as /{{IPA|ĩː ẽː ɔ̃ː ãː õː ũː}}/.

==== Diphthongs ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |[[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" |[[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" |[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!<small>oral</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
!<small>oral</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
!<small>oral</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Diphthong]]
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA|ui}}
|{{IPA|uĩ}}
|
|
|
|
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPA|ei}}
|{{IPA|eĩ}}
|{{IPA|ɔi}}
|{{IPA|ɔĩ}}
|{{IPA|ɔu}}
|{{IPA|ɔũ}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|
|{{IPA|ai}}
|{{IPA|aĩ}}
|{{IPA|au}}
|{{IPA|aũ}}
|}

==Writing systems==
[[File:Pratap inscription.jpg|thumb|200px|Detail of King Pratap Malla's inscription at Kathmandu Durbar Square of 1654&nbsp;AD written in Nepal Lipi.]]
[[File:Ranjana prayer wheels.jpg|thumb|200px|Prayer wheels with the mantra "Om Mani Padme Hum" in Ranjana script at Swayambhu, Kathmandu.]]
{{Main|Nepal alphabets}}
Nepal Bhasa is currently written in Nepal Lipi, Ranjana Lipi and Devanagari script. The script originally used, ''Nepal Lipi'' or "Nepalese script", fell into disuse at the beginning of the 20th century when writing in the language and the script was banned, which resulted in emergence of Devanagari script.{{Sfn|Tuladhar|2000|p=14}} However, in past decades attempts are being made for revival.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bajracharya |first1=Srizu |title=After being largely replaced by Devanagari, Nepal Bhasa scripts are making a comeback |url=https://kathmandupost.com/art-culture/2019/07/28/after-being-largely-replaced-by-devanagari-nepal-bhasa-scripts-are-making-a-comeback |access-date=16 December 2021 |agency=The Kathmandu Post |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216134306/https://kathmandupost.com/art-culture/2019/07/28/after-being-largely-replaced-by-devanagari-nepal-bhasa-scripts-are-making-a-comeback |url-status=live }}</ref>

Nepal Lipi, also known as ''Nepal Akha'',<ref>[[Siegfried Lienhard|Lienhard, Siegfried]] (1992). ''Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns.'' New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. {{ISBN|81-208-0963-7}}. Page 2.</ref> emerged in the 10th century. Over the centuries, a number of variants of Nepali Lipi have appeared.

Nepal has been written in a variety of [[abugida]] scripts:
*[[Brahmi script]]
*[[Gupta script]]
*[[Kutila|Kutila script]]
*[[Prachalit script]]
*[[Ranjana script]]
*[[Bhujimol|Bhujinmol script]]
*Kunmol script
*Kwenmol script
*[[Litumol script]]
*Hinmol script
*[[Golmol script]]
*Pachumol script
*Devanagari script

Devanagari is the most widely used script at present, as it is common in Nepal and India. [[Ranjana script]] was the most widely used script to write Classical Nepalese in ancient times. It is experiencing a revival due to the recent rise of cultural awareness. The [[Prachalit script]] is also in use. All used to write Nepal but Devanagari are descended from a script called the [[Nepal script]].{{citation needed|date=December 2019}}

===Ranjana alphabet===
Classical Nepalese materials written in Ranjana can be found in present-day Nepal, East Asia, and Central Asia.

====Consonants====
Special consonant in Nepal omitted.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| [[File:Ranjana k.svg|24px]] k क|| [[File:Ranjana kh.svg|24px]] kʰ ख|| [[File:Ranjana g.svg|24px]] g ग|| [[File:Ranjana gh.svg|24px]] gʱ घ|| [[File:Ranjana ng.svg|24px]] ŋ ङ
|-
| [[File:Ranjana c.svg|24px]] t͡ɕ च|| [[File:Ranjana ch.svg|24px]] t͡ɕʰ छ|| [[File:Ranjana j.svg|24px]] d͡ʑ ज|| [[File:Ranjana jh.svg|24px]] d͡ʑʱ झ|| [[File:Ranjana ny.svg|24px]] ɲ ञ
|-
| [[File:Ranjana tt.svg|24px]] ʈ ट|| [[File:Ranjana tth.svg|24px]] ʈʰ ठ|| [[File:Ranjana dd.svg|24px]] ɖ ड|| [[File:Ranjana ddh.svg|24px]] ɖʱ ढ|| [[File:Ranjana nn.svg|24px]] ɳ ण
|-
| [[File:Ranjana t.svg|24px]] t त|| [[File:Ranjana th.svg|24px]] tʰ थ|| [[File:Ranjana d.svg|24px]] d द|| [[File:Ranjana dh.svg|24px]] dʱ ध|| [[File:Ranjana n.svg|24px]] n न
|-
| [[File:Ranjana p.svg|24px]] p प|| [[File:Ranjana ph.svg|24px]] pʰ फ|| [[File:Ranjana b.svg|24px]] b ब|| [[File:Ranjana bh.svg|24px]] bʱ भ|| [[File:Ranjana m.svg|24px]] m म
|-
| [[File:Ranjana y.svg|24px]] y य|| [[File:Ranjana r.svg|24px]] r र|| [[File:Ranjana l.svg|24px]] l ल|| [[File:Ranjana v.svg|24px]] w व|| style="background:#dddddd;"|
|-
| [[File:Ranjana sh.svg|24px]] ɕ श|| [[File:Ranjana ss.svg|24px]] ʂ ष|| [[File:Ranjana s.svg|24px]] s̪ स|| [[File:Ranjana h.svg|24px]] h ह|| style="background:#dddddd;"|
|}

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|-
| [[File:Ranjana ksh.svg|24px]] kʂ क्ष|| [[File:Ranjana tr.svg|24px]] t̪r त्र|| [[File:Ranjana jny.svg|24px]] d͡ʑɲ ज्ञ
|}

====Vowels====
{{Multiple image|width=270
|image1=Kakaa.JPG|caption1=Vowel diacritics applied to {{IPA|[kə]}}
|image2=Gagaa.JPG|caption2=Vowel diacritics applied to {{IPA|[ɡə]}} 
|image3=Babaa.JPG|caption3=Vowel diacritics applied to {{IPA|[bə]}}}}

There are 3 series of vowel diacritics – the {{IPA|[kə]}}-like system, the {{IPA|[ɡə]}}-like system, and the {{IPA|[bə]}}-like system.
* Use the {{IPA|[kə]}}-like system when applying to {{IPA|[kə]}}, {{IPA|[d͡ʑə]}}, {{IPA|[mʱə]}}, {{IPA|[hʲə]}}, {{IPA|[kʂə]}}, and {{IPA|[d͡ʑɲə]}}
* Use the {{IPA|[ɡə]}}-like system when applying to {{IPA|[ɡə]}}, {{IPA|[kʰə]}}, {{IPA|[ɲə]}}, {{IPA|[ʈʰə]}}, {{IPA|[ɳə]}}, {{IPA|[tʰə]}}, {{IPA|[dʱə]}}, and {{IPA|[ɕə]}}
* Use the {{IPA|[bə]}}-like system when applying to {{IPA|[bə]}}, {{IPA|[ɡʱə]}}, {{IPA|[ŋə]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ɕə]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰə]}}, {{IPA|[d͡ʑʱə]}}, {{IPA|[ʈə]}}, {{IPA|[ɖə]}}, {{IPA|[ɖʱə]}}, {{IPA|[tə]}}, {{IPA|[də]}}, {{IPA|[nə]}}, {{IPA|[nʱə]}}, {{IPA|[pə]}}, {{IPA|[pʰə]}}, {{IPA|[bə]}}, {{IPA|[bʱə]}}, {{IPA|[mə]}}, {{IPA|[jə]}}, {{IPA|[rə]}}, {{IPA|[hʳə]}}, {{IPA|[lə]}}, {{IPA|[lʱə]}}, {{IPA|[wə]}}, {{IPA|[wʱə]}}, {{IPA|[ʂə]}}, {{IPA|[sə]}}, {{IPA|[hə]}}, {{IPA|[trə]}}

Note that many of the consonants mentioned above (e.g. {{IPA|[bʱə]}}, {{IPA|[ɖʱə]}}, {{IPA|[ɡʱə]}}, etc.) occur only in loan words and mantras.

====Consonant-free vowels====

====Numerals====
{{Main|Newar numerals}}
*The numerals used in Ranjana script are as follows (from 0 to 9):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| [[File:Ranjana 0.svg|24px]] 0 || [[File:Ranjana 1.svg|24px]] 1 || [[File:Ranjana 2.svg|24px]] 2 ||[[File:Ranjana 3.svg|24px]] 3 || [[File:Ranjana 4.svg|24px]] 4 || [[File:Ranjana 5.svg|24px]] 5 ||[[File:Ranjana 6.svg|24px]] 6 || [[File:Ranjana 7.svg|24px]] 7 || [[File:Ranjana 8.svg|24px]] 8 || [[File:Ranjana 9.svg|24px]] 9
|}

===Devanagari orthography===
Modern Newar is written generally with the Devanagari script, although formerly it was written in the Ranjana and other scripts. The letters of the Nagari alphabet are traditionally listed in the order [[vowel]]s (monophthongs and [[diphthong]]s), [[anusvara]] and [[visarga]], [[stop consonant|stops]] ([[plosive]]s and [[Nasal stop|nasal]]s) (starting in the back of the mouth and moving forward), and finally the [[Liquid consonants|liquid]]s and [[fricative]]s, written in [[IAST]] as follows (see the tables below for details):

:a ā i ī u ū ṛ ṝ ḷ ḹ; e ai o au
:ṃ ḥ
:k kh g gh ṅ; c ch j jh ñ; ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ; t th d dh n; p ph b bh m
:y r l v; ś ṣ s h

Kathmandu Newar does not use ñ for the palatal nasal but instead writes this sound with the ligature {{angle bracket|ny}} as for example in the word ''nyā'' 'five'. Orthographic vowel length (i vs ī and u vs ū) represents a difference of vowel length while the vowels with no orthographic length (a and ā) is indicated with the visarga (e.g. ''khāḥ'' ('''IPA: {{IPA|/kʰaː/}}''') 'is').

====Vowels====
The vowels, called ''mā ākha'' (माआखः), meaning "mother letters", used in Newar are:

{|border="2" class="wikitable" align="center" width="550"
|-
!Orthography||अ ||अः || आ||आः || इ || ई || उ ||  ऊ ||ऋ ||ॠ|| ऌ|| ॡ||   ए||    ऐ ||  ओ ||   औ || अँ||  अं ||  अय्  ||  आय्  ||  एय्
|- align = center
|Roman||a||a:|| aa||aa: || i ||ii|| u || uu  || ri|| rii ||  lri|| lrii ||  e ||  ai || o || au || an || aN||ay||aay||ey
|-align="center"

|}

Even though ऋ, ॠ, ऌ, ॡ are present in Newar, they are rarely used. Instead, some experts suggest including अय् (ay) and आय् (aay) in the list of vowels.<ref>''Nepal Bhasa Wyaakarana'' (page 2) by Tuyubahadur Maharjan, published by Nepal Bhasa Academy</ref>

====Consonants====
The consonants, called ''bā ākha'' (बाआखः), meaning "father letters", used in Newar are:

{|class="wikitable" align="center" width="250"
|-
!|क  || ख   || ग  ||  घ  ||   ङ  ||  ङ्ह
|-align="center"
| {{IPA|/kə/}} || {{IPA|/kʰə/}} || {{IPA|/gə/}} || {{IPA|/gʱə/}} ||{{IPA|/ŋə/}} ||{{IPA|/ŋʱə/}}
|-
!|च  ||  छ ||  ज  ||  झ  ||   ञ || ञ्ह
|-align="center"
| {{IPA|/t͡ɕə/}} || {{IPA|/t͡ɕʰə/}} || {{IPA|/d͡ʑə/}} || {{IPA|/d͡ʑʱə/}} || {{IPA|/ɲə/}} || {{IPA|/ɲʱə/}}
|-
!|ट ||   ठ ||   ड ||   ढ ||   ण || ण्ह
|-align="center" 
| {{IPA|/ʈə/}}|| {{IPA|/ʈʰə/}}|| {{IPA|/ɖə/}}|| {{IPA|/ɖʱə/}}|| {{IPA|/ɳə/}} || {{IPA|/ɳʱə/}}
|-
!|त ||   थ  ||  द ||  ध ||  न || न्ह
|-align="center" 
| {{IPA|/tə/}}|| {{IPA|/tʰə/}}|| {{IPA|/də/}}|| {{IPA|/dʱə/}}||  {{IPA|/nə/}} ||  {{IPA|/nʱə/}}
|-
!|प ||   फ ||   ब ||  भ  ||    म ||  म्ह
|-align="center"
| {{IPA|/pə/}} || {{IPA|/pʰə/}} || {{IPA|/bə/}} || {{IPA|/bʱə/}} ||   {{IPA|/mə/}} || {{IPA|/mʱə/}}
|-
!|य ||ह्य ||   र ||ह्र ||    ल  ||ल्ह ||  व || व्ह 
|-align="center"
|{{IPA|/jə/}}|| {{IPA|/hjə/}} || {{IPA|/rə/}} || {{IPA|/hrə/}} ||   {{IPA|/lə/}} || {{IPA|/lʱə/}} ||  {{IPA|/wə/}}  || {{IPA|/wʱə/}}
|-
!|     श  || ष ||   स  || ह   ||
|-align="center"
|{{IPA|/ɕə/}} || {{IPA|/ʂə/}}||  {{IPA|/sə/}}||  {{IPA|/hə/}}||
|-
! क्ष || त्र ||   ज्ञ ||
|-align="center"
|  {{IPA|/kʂə/}} ||  {{IPA|/t̪rə/}} || {{IPA|/d͡ʑɲə/}} ||
|-
|}

ङ्ह, ञ्ह, ण्ह, न्ह, म्ह, ह्य, ह्र, ल्ह and व्ह are sometimes included in the list of consonants as they have a specific identity in Nepal.

The use of ङ and ञ was very common in the old form of language. However, in the new form, especially in writing, the use of these characters has diminished. The use of ण, त, थ, द, ध, न, श, ष, क्ष, त्र, ज्ञ is limited by the new grammar books to the loan words only.

====Complex/compound consonants====
Besides the consonants mentioned above, combined consonants called ''chinā ākha'' (चिना आखः) are used.

====Numerals====
{{Main|Newari numerals}}
*The same numerals in Devanagari are:
{|class="wikitable" align=center
|-
|+ '''In Devanāgarī'''
|- style="font-size:14pt;"
| ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४
| ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९
|-
| 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4
| 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-
|}

===Romanization===
'''Nepala Bhasa Roman Transliteration (NBRT)''' was introduced in 2021, with some modifications to [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration]].<ref name="nbrt">{{cite book |last1=Kapali |first1=Rukshana |title=Nepala Bhasa Roman Transliteration (NBRT)|date=13 December 2021 |isbn=978-9937-1-1040-2|url=https://archive.org/details/978-9937-1-1040-2/ |access-date=16 December 2021}}</ref>

==Grammar==
{{cleanup|section|reason=This section may need to be rewritten. |date=April 2019}}
Newar language is one of the few Tibeto-Burman languages with a [[clusivity]] distinction.

=== Noun cases ===
Noun cases in Newar have six cases and are differentiated based on whether the term in question is animate or inanimate. The following charts provides case endings that can be affixed on the end of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in IAST transliteration for contemporary and old (or "classical") Newar.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Noun Case Endings in Contemporary Newar<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malla |first=Kamal P. |title=The Newar Language: A Working Outline |publisher=Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa |year=1985 |location=Tokyo |pages=31–32}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hale |first1=Austin |title=Newar (Nepāl Bhāsā) |last2=Shrestha |first2=Kedār |publisher=Lincom Europa |year=2006 |location=Münich |pages=23–36}}</ref>
|
|''Inanimate''
| colspan="2" |''Animate/non-honorific''
| colspan="2" |''Animate/honorific''
|-
|'''Case'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|'''[[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]/[[Ergative case|Ergative]]'''
|<nowiki>-ṃ, -ḥṃ</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-ṃ, -ḥṃ</nowiki>
|(-sa-) -ṃ, 

-ḥṃ,
|<nowiki>-ṃ, -ḥṃ</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-pisaṃ, </nowiki>

-pisaḥṃ
|-
|'''[[Absolutive case|Absolutive]]'''
|<nowiki>-ø</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-ø</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-ta</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-ø</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-pīṃ</nowiki>
|-
|'''[[Sociative case|Sociative]]'''
|X
|<nowiki>-yāke, -ike</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-tayke</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yāke, -ike</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-pīṃke</nowiki>
|-
|'''[[Dative case|Dative]]'''
|<nowiki>-yāta</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yāta, -ta</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-tayta, -ita</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yāta</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-pīṃta</nowiki>
|-
|'''[[Genitive case|Genitive]]'''
|<nowiki>-yā</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yā</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-tay</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yā</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-pini</nowiki>
|-
|'''[[Locative case|Locative]]'''
|<nowiki>-e, -ay, -ī</nowiki>
|X
|X
|X
|X
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Noun Case Endings in Old Newar<ref>{{Cite book |last=Otter |first=Felix |title=A Course in Reading Classical Newari: Selections from the Vetālapañcaviṃśati |publisher=xasia eBooks |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-946742-94-4 |location=Heidelberg |pages=11–28}}</ref>
| 
|''Inanimate''
| colspan="2" |''Animate/non-honorific''
| colspan="2" |''Animate/honorific''
|-
|'''Case'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|'''Instrumental/Ergative'''
|<nowiki>-n</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-n</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-taseṃ</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-n, -seṃ</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-paniseṃ</nowiki>
|-
|'''Absolutive'''
|<nowiki>-ø</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-ø</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-ta, -to</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-ø</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-pani</nowiki>
|-
|'''Sociative'''
|<nowiki>-va</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-va</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-mis(a)va</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-va</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-panis(a)va</nowiki>
|-
|'''Dative'''
|<nowiki>-taṃ, -yātā</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-taṃ, -yātaṃ</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-mistaṃ</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yātaṃ</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-panistaṃ</nowiki>
|-
|'''Genitive'''
|<nowiki>-yā</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yā</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-tas, -mis</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yā</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-panis</nowiki>
|-
|'''Locative'''
|<nowiki>-s</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-(s)ke, -yāke</nowiki>
|X
|<nowiki>-(s)ke, -yāke</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-paniske</nowiki>
|}

===Sentence structure===
<!-- More contributions requested -->
Statement sentence-<br />
This language is a [[Subject–object–verb|SOV]] ([[subject–object–verb]]) language. For instance, "My name is Bilat (Birat)" is "Jigu Na'aa Bilat Khaa'a " which word by word translation becomes, "My (Jigu) Name (Na'aa) Bilat is (Khaa'a)".

Interrogative sentence-<br/>
Wh-question:<br/>
In the case of Newar language, Wh-questions are rather "G-questions" with "when/which" being replaced by "Gublay/Gugu" respectively. There is an additional "Guli" which is used for "How much/How many". A S-word "Soo" is used for "who". "Chhoo/Schoo (with a silent 's')" is used for "What", and "Gathey" is used for "How".

===Affixes===

''Suffix''- "''Chaa''" and "''Ju''" are two popular suffixes. "''Chaa''" is added to signify "''junior''" or "''lesser''". But when added to a name, it is used derogatorily. For example, ''kya'ah-chaa'' means nephew where "''chaa''" is being added to ''kya'ah(son)''. When added to name like ''Birat'' for "''Birat-chaa''", it is being used derogatorily. The suffix "''ju''" is added to show respect. For example, "''Baa-ju''" means "''father-in-law''" where "''ju''" is added to "''Baa(father)''". Unlike "''chaa''", "''ju''" is not added to a first/last name directly. Instead, honorific terms like "''Bhaaju''" is added for males and "''Mayju''" for females. Example, "''Birat bhaaju''" for a male name (''Birat'') and "''Suja Mayju''" for a female name (''Suja'').

''Prefix'' – "''Tap'ah''" is added to denote "remote" or "distant" relative ('distance' in relationship irrespective of spatial extent). A distant (younger) brother (''kija'') becomes "''tap'ah-kija''". "''Tuh''" is added to denote "higher". Father (''baa'')'s senior brother is referred to as "''Tuh-baa''".

==Indo-Aryan loanwords==
Newar is one of the most Aryanized Sino-Tibetan languages. Below are some basic words borrowed from [[Indo-Iranian languages]]:<ref>From the review article on "Dictionary of classical Newari compiled from manuscript sources." With the financial support of Toyota Foundation, Japan, Nepal Bhasa Dictionary Committee. Cwasā Pāsā. Kathmandu: Modern Printing Press, Jamal 2000, pp.&nbsp;XXXV, 530. {{ISBN|99933-31-60-0}}"</ref>

{| class="wikitable" align=center
|-
! Words
! Origin (orig. word)
! Meaning
|-
|Abu
|[[Persian language|Persian]]
|Father 
|-
|Ākha
(आख)
|Sanskrit 
(Akshara)
|Letter 
|-
|La:h (ल:)
|Sanskrit (Jala:h)
|Water
|-
|Kaa:sa
|Sanskrit 
|Bronze
|-
|Ka:h
|Pali (Kana)
|Blind (Original meaning in Pali was "one-eyed")
|-
|Ka:n
(कं)
|Sanskrit 
(Kantaka:h)
|Thorn
|-
|Kaji
|Arabic
|leader
|-
|Kimi (कीमी)
|Sanskrit (Krmi)
|Hookworm
|-
|Khaapaa (खापा)
|Pali
|Door (Original meaning in Pali was "door panel")
|-
|Khicha: (खिचा)
|Sanskrit (Kukkura:h)
|Dog
|-
|Ga:n
(गं)
|Sanskrit 
(Ghanta)
|Bell
|-
|Dya:h
|Sanskrit (Dev)
|Deity
|-
|Naa:n
|Sanskrit 
(Nām)
|Name
|-
|Nhya:h
|Sanskrit (Na:sika)
|Nose
|-
|Bhay
(भाय्)
|Sanskrit 
(Bhasha)
|Language 
|-
|Dey (देय)
|Sanskrit
(Desh)
|country
|-
|Bhukha 
|Sanskrit 
(Bhukampa)
|Earthquake 
|-
|Manu
|Sanskrit 
(Manusya)
|Person 
|-
|Manda:h
(मन्द)
|Sanskrit 
(Mandala)
|Circle
|-
|Mhu:tu
|Sanskrit (Mukh)
|Mouth
|-
|Gha:h
|Sanskrit
(Ghata:h)
|Water pot
|-
|Dekhā
|Sanskrit 
(Dikshā)
|Initiation
|-
|Pukhuri
|Sanskrit
(Pukhkarini)
|Pool
|-
|Niga:h
|Sanskrit 
(Nagar)
|City
|-
|Gām
|Sanskrit 
(Grām)
|Village 
|-
|Lhā
|Sanskrit 
(Hasta)
|Hand
|}

==The Newar language and the Newar community==

[[Image:Newapolitics.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A wall slogan of Maoists using Nepal Bhasa]]
Nepal Bhasa is the native language of Newars. Newars form a very diverse community with people from Sino-Tibetan, ASI and ANI origin.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Metspalu|first=Mait|title=Shared and Unique Components of Human Population Structure and Genome-Wide Signals of Positive Selection in South Asia|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.11.010|pmid=22152676|pmc=3234374|volume=89|issue=6|date=Dec 2011|pages=731–44}}</ref>  Newars follow Hinduism and Buddhism, and are subdivided into 64 castes. The language, therefore, plays a central unifying role in the existence and perpetuation of the Newar community. The poet Siddhidas Mahaju concluded that the Newar community and its rich culture can only survive if the Newar language survives (भाषा म्वासा जाति म्वाइ).

The Newars enjoyed promotions in various areas since Kathmandu become the capital of the country as they rose in ranks throughout the government, royal courts and businesses.

Newar faced a decline during the Shah era when this language was replaced by Khas Kura (later renamed Nepali) as the national language and after the introduction of the "One nation, one language" policy of King Mahendra.

==See also==
{{Portal|Nepal|Languages}}
*[[Languages of Nepal]]
*[[List of Newar-language writers]]
*[[Nepal Bhasa journalism]]
*[[Newa (Unicode block)]]
*[[List of Nepal Bhasa films]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
*{{Cite book |last=Genetti |first=Carol |author-link=Carol Genetti |title=A Grammar of Dolakha Newar |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2007 |isbn=978-3-11-019303-9}}
*{{Cite book |last=Lienhard |first=Siegfried |author-link=Siegfried Lienhard |year=1992 |title=Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns |location=New Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas |isbn=81-208-0963-7 |hdl=10125/23034 |hdl-access=free }}
*{{Cite book |last=Tuladhar-Douglas |first=Will |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILl-AgAAQBAJ |title=Remaking Buddhism for Medieval Nepal: The Fifteenth-Century Reformation of Newar Buddhism |date=2007-01-24 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-24195-8 }}
*{{Cite book |last=Tuladhar |first=Premshanti |url=https://archive.org/details/NepalbhashaSahityayaItihasPremShantiTuladhar_201712 |title=Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Itihasa |publisher=[[Nepal Bhasa Academy]] |year=2000 |isbn=99933560-0-X |location=Lalitpur, Nepal |language=new |trans-title=The History of Nepal Bhasa Literature}}
*{{Cite book |last=Vaidya |first=Dr. Janak Lal |url=https://archive.org/details/nepalbhashaya-prachin-kavya-sirjana-by-janak-lal-vaidya |title=nepalbhasaya prachin kavya srijana |publisher=[[Nepal Academy]] |year=2002 |isbn=99933-50-32-X |location=Kathmandu |language=new |trans-title=Poetry Composition in Nepal Bhasa}}

==Further reading==
*Bendix, E. (1974) ‘Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman contact as seen through Nepali and Newari verb tenses’, International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics 3.1: 42–59.
*—— (1992) ‘The grammaticalization of responsibility and evidence: the interactional potential of evidential categories in Newari’, in J. Hill and J.T. Irvine (eds) Responsibility and Evidence in Oral Discourse, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Driem, G. van (1993) ‘The Newar verb in Tibeto-Burman perspective’, Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 26: 23–43.
*Genetti, C. (1988) ‘A syntactic correlate of topicality in Newari narrative’, in S. Thompson and J. Haiman (eds) Clause Combining in Grammar and Discourse, Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
*—— (1994) ‘A descriptive and historical account of the Dolakha Newari dialect’, Monumenta Serindica 24, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
*Hale, A. (1973) ‘On the form of the verbal basis in Newari’, in Braj Kachru et al. (eds) Issues in Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Henry and Renee Kahane, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
*—— (1980) ‘Person markers: finite conjunct and disjunct forms in Newari’, in R. Trail (ed.) Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics 7 (Pacific Linguistics Series A, no. 53), Canberra: Australian National University.
*—— (1985) ‘Noun phrase form and cohesive function in Newari’, in U. Piepel and G. Stickel (eds.) Studia Linguistica Diachronica et Synchronica, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
*—— (1986) ‘Users’ guide to the Newari dictionary’, in T. Manandhar (ed.) Newari–English Dictionary, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
*—— (1994) ‘Entailed kin reference and Newari -mha’, paper presented to the 27th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Paris, France.
*Hale, A. and Mahandhar, T. (1980) ‘Case and role in Newari’, in R. Trail (ed.) Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics 7 (Pacific Linguistics Series A, no. 53), Canberra: Australian National University.
*Hargreaves, D. (1986) ‘Independent verbs and auxiliary functions in Newari’ Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 12: 401–12.
*—— (1991) ‘The conceptual structure of intentional action: data from Kathmandu Newari’, Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 17: 379–89.
*—— (1996) ‘From interrogation to topicalization: PTB *la in Kathmandu Newar’, Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 19.2: 31–44.
* {{Cite journal|last=Hargreaves|first=David|date=2014-11-13|title=Review: Newār (Nepāl Bhāsā)|journal=Himalayan Linguistics|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.5070/h91224531|issn=1544-7502|doi-access=free}}
*Jørgenson, H. (1931) ‘A dictionary of the Classical Newari’, Det. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filologiske Meddelelser 23.1.
*—— (1941) ‘A grammar of the Classical Newari’, Det. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filologiske Meddelelser 27.3.
*Jos, L. K. (1992) [NS 1112] ‘Nep%l bh%M%y% bh%M%vaijñ%nika vyakaraNa’ (A linguistic grammar of nep%l bh%Ma (Newar)), Kathmandu: Lacoul Publications.
*Kansakar, T. R. (1982) ‘Morphophonemics of the Newari verb’, in T.R. Kansakar (ed.) Occasional Papers in Nepalese Linguistics 12–29. Linguistic Society of Nepal Publication No.1, Lalitpur, Nepal.
*—— (1997) ‘The Newar language: a profile’, New%h Vijñ%na: Journal of Newar Studies 1.1: 11–28.
*Kölver, U. (1976) ‘Satztypen und verbsubcategorisierung der Newari’, Structura 10, Munich: Fink Verlag.
*—— (1977) ‘Nominalization and lexicalization in Newari’, Arbeiten des Kölner Universalen-Projekts 30.
*Kölver, U. and Shresthacarya, I. (1994) A Dictionary of Contemporary Newari, Bonn: VGH Wissenschaftsverlag.
*Manandhar, T. (1986) Newari-English Dictionary, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
*Malla, K. P. (1982) Classical Newari Literature: A Sketch, Kathmandu: Educational Enterprise Pvt. Ltd.
*—— (1985) ‘The Newari language: a working outline’, Monumenta Serindica No. 14., Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
*Shakya, D. R. (1992) ‘Nominal and verbal morphology in six dialects of Newari’, unpublished masters thesis, University of Oregon.
*Shrestha, Uma (1990) ‘Social networks and code-switching in the Newar community of Kathmandu City’, unpublished PhD dissertation, Ball State University.
*Shresthacharya, I. (1976) ‘Some types of reduplication in the Newari verb phrase’, Contributions to Nepalese Studies 3.1: 117–27.
*—— (1981) ‘Newari root verbs’, Bibliotheca Himalayica 2.1, Kathmandu: [[Ratna Pustak Bhandar]].

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=new}}
{{Wikibooks|Nepal Bhasa}}
{{Wikitionary|Category:Newar language}}
* [[wikt:Category:Newar lemmas|List of Newar words]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary
* Michael Noonan, [http://www.uwm.edu/~noonan/Recent%20Language%20Contact.pdf Recent Language Contact in the Nepal Himalaya (PDF)].
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ranjana.htm Newari/Ranjana script page on Omniglot]
* [https://www.nepalbhasa.org Online Nepalbhasa Dictionary and Learning Tools nepalbhasa.org]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120822144418/http://www2.pair.com/webart/mysqllex/ntr_sword.html Online Nepal Bhasa dictionary] (archived 22 August 2012)
*[http://www.unicode.cafedeweb.com/ type in Nepali Unicode and Nepal bhasha]

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{{Newar}}
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