View source for Neurology

{{Short description|Medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system}}
{{About|the branch of medicine|the scientific study of the nervous system|Neuroscience|the journal|Neurology (journal){{!}}''Neurology'' (journal)}}
{{Redirect|Neurological sciences|the journal|Neurological Sciences (journal){{!}}''Neurological Sciences'' (journal)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox medical specialty
| title        = Neurology
| subdivisions =
| image        = [[File:PLoSBiol4.e126.Fig6fNeuron.jpg|225px]]
| caption      = A network of [[dendrite]]s from [[neuron]]s in a [[hippocampus]]
| system       = [[Nervous system]]
| diseases     = [[Neuropathy]], [[dementia]], [[stroke]], [[encephalopathy]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[epilepsy]], [[meningitis]], [[muscular dystrophy]], [[migraine]], [[attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder]], [[narcolepsy]]
| tests        = [[Computed axial tomography]], [[MRI scan]], [[lumbar puncture]], [[electroencephalography]]
| specialist   = Neurologist
| glossary     = [[Glossary of medicine]]
}}

'''Neurology''' (from {{langx|el|[[wikt:νεῦρον|νεῦρον (neûron)]]}}, "string, nerve" and the suffix [[wikt:-logia|-logia]], "study of") is the branch of [[specialty (medicine) |medicine]] dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the [[nervous system]], which comprises the [[Human brain|brain]], the [[spinal cord]] and the [[peripheral nervous system | peripheral nerves]].<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.acgme.org/Portals/0/PFAssets/ProgramRequirements/180_neurology_2016.pdf|title= ACGME Program Requirements for Graduate Medical Education in Neurology|last= ACGME|date= 1 July 2016|website= www.acgme.org|access-date= 10 January 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170113141847/https://www.acgme.org/Portals/0/PFAssets/ProgramRequirements/180_neurology_2016.pdf |archive-date=13 January 2017}}</ref> Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of [[neuroscience]], the scientific study of the [[nervous system]], using various techniques of [[neurotherapy]].<ref name="EEE Brain 2019"> IEEE Brain (2019). "Neurotherapy: Treating Disorders by Retraining the Brain". ''The Future Neural Therapeutics White Paper''. Retrieved 23.01.2025 from: https://brain.ieee.org/topics/neurotherapy-treating-disorders-by-retraining-the-brain/#:~:text=Neurotherapy%20trains%20a%20patient's%20brain,wave%20activity%20through%20positive%20reinforcement  </ref><ref name="International Neuromodulation Society_2024">International Neuromodulation Society, Retrieved 23 January 2025 from: https://www.neuromodulation.com/ </ref><ref name="Val Danilov Origin Neurostimulation_2024">Val Danilov I (2023). "The Origin of Natural Neurostimulation: A Narrative Review of Noninvasive Brain Stimulation Techniques." ''OBM Neurobiology'' 2024; 8(4): 260; https://doi:10{{Dead link|date=September 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}.21926/obm.neurobiol.2404260.</ref>

A '''neurologist''' is a [[physician]] specializing in neurology and trained to investigate, diagnose and treat [[neurological disorder]]s.<ref name=WorkWYourDoc>{{cite web|title=Working with Your Doctor|url= http://patients.aan.com/go/workingwithyourdoctor |publisher= American Academy of Neurology|access-date= 28 October 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140802015421/http://patients.aan.com/go/workingwithyourdoctor|archive-date= 2 August 2014}}</ref> Neurologists diagnose and treat myriad neurologic conditions, including [[stroke]], [[epilepsy]], [[Movement disorder|movement disorders]] such as [[Parkinson's disease]], [[List of infections of the central nervous system|brain infections]], autoimmune neurologic disorders such as [[multiple sclerosis]], [[Sleep disorder|sleep disorders]], brain injury, headache disorders like [[migraine]], [[Brain tumor|tumors of the brain]] and [[dementia]]s such as [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Neurological Disorders |url= https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/neurological-disorders |website= Johns Hopkins Department of Neurology |date=24 February 2020 |access-date=September 15, 2021 |archive-date=15 September 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210915234258/https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/neurological-disorders |url-status=live }}</ref> Neurologists may also have roles in [[clinical research]], [[clinical trial]]s, and [[basic research |basic]] or [[translational research]]. Neurology is a nonsurgical specialty, its corresponding [[surgical]] specialty is [[neurosurgery]].<ref name=WorkWYourDoc />

==History==
{{main|History of neurology}}
The academic discipline began between the 15th and 16th centuries with the work and research of many neurologists such as [[Thomas Willis]], [[Robert Whytt]], [[Matthew Baillie]], [[Charles Bell]], [[Moritz Heinrich Romberg]], [[Duchenne de Boulogne]], [[William A. Hammond]], [[Jean-Martin Charcot]], [[C. Miller Fisher]] and [[John Hughlings Jackson]]. Neo-Latin ''neurologia'' appeared in various texts from 1610 denoting an anatomical focus on the nerves (variably understood as vessels), and was most notably used by Willis, who preferred Greek νευρολογία.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Janssen|first=Diederik F|date=2021-04-10|title=The etymology of 'neurology', redux: early use of the term by Jean Riolan the Younger (1610)|journal=Brain|volume=144|issue=4|language=en|article-number=awab023|doi=10.1093/brain/awab023|pmid=33837748|issn=0006-8950|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mehta|first1=Arpan R|last2=Mehta|first2=Puja R|last3=Anderson|first3=Stephen P|last4=MacKinnon|first4=Barbara L H|last5=Compston|first5=Alastair|date=2021-04-10|title=Reply: The etymology of 'neurology', redux: early use of the term by Jean Riolan the Younger (1610)|journal=Brain|volume=144|issue=4|language=en|article-number=awab024|doi=10.1093/brain/awab024|pmid=33837768|pmc=7610959|issn=0006-8950}}</ref> 

==Training==
{{Infobox Occupation
| name= Neurologist
| image= 
| caption=
| official_names= Physician, Medical Practitioner
<!------------Details------------------->
| type= [[Profession]]
| activity_sector= Medicine
| competencies=
| formation= [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] or [[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine|D.O.]] (US), [[M.B.B.S.]] (UK), D.M. (Doctorate of Medicine) (India), M.B. B.Ch. B.A.O. (Republic of Ireland)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1927/en/act/pub/0025/index.html |title=Medical Practitioners Act, 1927 |publisher=Irishstatutebook.ie |date=28 May 1927 |access-date=30 March 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230232634/http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1927/en/act/pub/0025/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medicalcouncil.ie/ |title=Medical Council – Medical Council |publisher=Medicalcouncil.ie |date=15 February 2010 |access-date=30 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125093106/http://www.medicalcouncil.ie/ |archive-date=25 November 2015 }}</ref>
| employment_field= Hospitals, Clinics
| related_occupation=
}}
[[File:Edward Flatau.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Polish people|Polish]] neurologist [[Edward Flatau]] greatly influenced the developing field of neurology. He published a human brain atlas in 1894 and wrote a fundamental book on migraines in 1912.]] [[File:Charcot1893.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Jean-Martin Charcot]] is considered one of the fathers of neurology.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Jean-Martin Charcot: The Father of Neurology |date=12 November 2014 |pmc=3064755 | pmid=20739583 |doi=10.3121/cmr.2009.883 |volume=9 |issue=1 |vauthors=Kumar DR, Aslinia F, Yale SH, Mazza JJ |journal=Clin Med Res |pages=46–9}}</ref>]] In the United States and Canada, neurologists are physicians who have completed a postgraduate training period known as [[Residency (medicine)|residency]] specializing in neurology after graduation from [[medical school]]. This additional training period typically lasts four years, with the first year devoted to training in [[internal medicine]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Length of Residencies |url=https://residency.wustl.edu/residencies/length-of-residencies/ |website=Washington University Medical School |access-date=September 15, 2021 |archive-date=16 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016232533/https://residency.wustl.edu/residencies/length-of-residencies/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On average, neurologists complete a total of eight to ten years of training.  This includes four years of medical school, four years of residency and an optional one to two years of fellowship.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.cma.ca/Assets/assets-library/document/en/advocacy/Neurology-e.pdf|title = Neurologist Profile|access-date = 23 February 2017|website = Education Portal|archive-date = 24 February 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170224055128/https://www.cma.ca/Assets/assets-library/document/en/advocacy/Neurology-e.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref>

While neurologists may treat general neurologic conditions, some neurologists go on to receive additional training focusing on a particular subspecialty in the field of neurology.  These training programs are called [[Fellowship (medicine)|fellowships]], and are one to three years in duration.  Subspecialties in the United States include brain injury medicine, [[clinical neurophysiology]], [[epilepsy]], neurodevelopmental disabilities, [[neuromuscular medicine]], [[pain medicine]], [[sleep medicine]], neurocritical care, vascular neurology (stroke),<ref>{{cite web|title=ABMS Guide to Medical Specialties|url=http://www.abmsdirectory.com/pdf/Resources_guide_physicians.pdf|publisher=American Board of Medical Specialties|access-date=26 November 2012|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923131832/https://www.abmsdirectory.com/pdf/Resources_guide_physicians.pdf}}</ref> [[behavioral neurology]], headache, neuroimmunology<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nutma |first1=E. |last2=Willison |first2=H. |last3=Martino |first3=G. |last4=Amor |first4=S. |date=September 2019 |title=Neuroimmunology – the past, present and future |journal=Clinical and Experimental Immunology |volume=197 |issue=3 |pages=278–293 |doi=10.1111/cei.13279 |issn=0009-9104 |pmc=6693969 |pmid=30768789}}</ref> and infectious disease, [[movement disorder]]s, neuroimaging, neurooncology, and neurorehabilitation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neurology Fellowships Directory |url=https://www.aan.com/Fellowship |access-date=2024-06-05 |website=www.aan.com}}</ref>

In Germany, a compulsory year of psychiatry must be done to complete a residency of neurology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thiels|first=Cornelia|date=December 2013|title=Neurology in the German training system for psychiatrists – a personal view|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=203|issue=6|pages=399–400|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.113.126516|pmid=24297784|issn=0007-1250|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In the United Kingdom and Ireland, neurology is a subspecialty of general (internal) medicine. After five years of medical school and two years as a Foundation Trainee, an aspiring neurologist must pass the examination for [[Membership of the Royal College of Physicians]] (or the Irish equivalent) and complete two years of core medical training before entering specialist training in neurology.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Tuarez|first=Jaimar|date=October 28, 2020|title="How long does it take to become a neurologist in the UK?"|url=https://neurotray.com/how-long-does-it-take-to-become-a-neurologist-in-the-uk/|url-status=live|website=neurotray.com|access-date=4 December 2021|archive-date=4 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204170237/https://neurotray.com/how-long-does-it-take-to-become-a-neurologist-in-the-uk/}}</ref> Up to the 1960s, some intending to become neurologists would also spend two years working in psychiatric units before obtaining a diploma in psychological medicine.  However, that was uncommon and, now that the [[MRCPsych]] takes three years to obtain, would no longer be practical. A period of research is essential, and obtaining a higher degree aids career progression. Many found it was eased after an attachment to the Institute of Neurology at [[Queen Square, London|Queen Square]], London. Some neurologists enter the field of rehabilitation medicine (known as [[physiatry]] in the US) to specialise in neurological rehabilitation, which may include stroke medicine, as well as traumatic brain injuries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is a Physiatrist |url=https://www.aapmr.org/about-physiatry/about-physical-medicine-rehabilitation/what-is-physiatry |access-date=2025-10-18 |website=www.aapmr.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Physical examination==
{{Main|Neurological examination}}
During a [[neurological examination]], the neurologist reviews the patient's health history with special attention to the patient's neurologic complaints.  The patient then takes a neurological exam. Typically, the exam tests mental status, function of the [[cranial nerves]] (including vision), strength, coordination, reflexes, sensation and gait. This information helps the neurologist determine whether the problem exists in the nervous system and the clinical localization. Localization of the pathology is the key process by which neurologists develop their differential diagnosis. Further tests may be needed to confirm a diagnosis and ultimately guide therapy and appropriate management.  Useful adjunct imaging studies in neurology include [[CT scan]]ning and [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI).  Other tests used to assess muscle and nerve function include [[nerve conduction studies]] and [[electromyography]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neurological examinations - Mayo Clinic |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/neurological-exam/about/pac-20587319 |access-date=2025-10-18 |website=www.mayoclinic.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Clinical tasks==
Neurologists examine patients who are referred to them by other physicians in both the [[inpatient]] and [[outpatient]] settings. Neurologists begin their interactions with patients by taking a comprehensive [[medical history]], and then performing a [[physical examination]] focusing on evaluating the nervous system. Components of the [[neurological examination]] include assessment of the patient's [[cognitive function]], [[cranial nerves]], motor strength, [[Sensory nervous system|sensation]], [[reflexes]], [[Motor coordination|coordination]], and [[gait]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-28 |title=The role of a neurologist |url=https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/neurologist |access-date=2025-10-18 |website=www.healthdirect.gov.au |language=en-AU}}</ref>

In some instances, neurologists may order additional [[diagnostic tests]] as part of the evaluation. Commonly employed tests in neurology include imaging studies such as [[computed axial tomography]] (CAT) scans, [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI), and [[ultrasound]] of major blood vessels of the head and neck. Neurophysiologic studies, including [[electroencephalography]] (EEG), needle [[electromyography]] (EMG), [[nerve conduction studies]] (NCSs) and [[evoked potentials]] are also commonly ordered.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Neurological Diagnostic Tests and Procedures Fact Sheet|url=https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Fact-Sheets/Neurological-Diagnostic-Tests-and-Procedures-Fact|access-date=4 December 2021|archive-date=4 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204175121/https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Fact-Sheets/Neurological-Diagnostic-Tests-and-Procedures-Fact}}</ref> Neurologists frequently perform [[lumbar puncture]]s to assess characteristics of a patient's [[cerebrospinal fluid]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Jane |first=Louis A. |title=Lumbar Puncture |date=2025 |work=StatPearls |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557553/ |access-date=2025-10-18 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=32491485 |last2=Wray |first2=Anton A.}}</ref>  Advances in [[genetic testing]] have made genetic testing an important tool in the classification of inherited neuromuscular disease and diagnosis of many other neurogenetic diseases. The role of genetic influences on the development of acquired neurologic diseases is an active area of research.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neurological Diagnostic Tests and Procedures {{!}} National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke |url=https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/neurological-diagnostic-tests-and-procedures |access-date=2025-10-18 |website=www.ninds.nih.gov |language=en}}</ref>

===Conditions and treatments===
Some of the commonly encountered conditions treated by neurologists include headaches, [[radiculopathy]], [[neuropathy]], stroke, [[dementia]], [[seizure]]s and [[epilepsy]], [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[Tourette's syndrome]], [[multiple sclerosis]], [[head trauma]], [[sleep disorder]]s, [[neuromuscular disease]]s, and various infections and tumors of the nervous system.<ref>LaFaver K, LaFrance WC, Price ME, Rosen PB, Rapaport M (2021). "Treatment of functional neurological disorder: current state, future directions, and a research agenda". ''CNS Spectrums''. 2021;26(6):607-613. doi:10.1017/S1092852920002138 </ref>  Neurologists are also asked to evaluate unresponsive patients on [[life support]] to confirm [[brain death]].<ref name="Wijdicks_Page_131">{{cite book |last1=Wijdicks |first1=Eelco F.M. |title=The Comatose Patient |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-933123-9 |page=131 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HpCtAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA131#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>

Treatment options vary depending on the neurological problem. They can include referring the patient to a [[physiotherapist]], prescribing medications, or recommending a surgical procedure.

Some neurologists specialize in certain parts of the nervous system or in specific procedures. For example, clinical neurophysiologists specialize in the use of EEG and [[Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring|intraoperative monitoring]] to diagnose certain neurological disorders.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.acns.org/ |title=American Clinical Neurophysiology Society |publisher=Acns.org |access-date=30 March 2015 |archive-date=24 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324151533/http://www.acns.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Other neurologists specialize in the use of [[electrodiagnostic medicine]] studies – needle EMG and NCSs.  In the US, physicians do not typically specialize in all the aspects of clinical neurophysiology – i.e. sleep, EEG, EMG, and NCSs.  The American Board of Clinical Neurophysiology certifies US physicians in general clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, and intraoperative monitoring.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abcn.org/ |title=American Board of Clinical Neurophysiology, Inc |publisher=Abcn.org |access-date=30 March 2015 |archive-date=22 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322065435/http://www.abcn.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The American Board of Electrodiagnostic Medicine certifies US physicians in [[electrodiagnostic medicine]] and certifies technologists in nerve-conduction studies. Sleep medicine is a subspecialty field in the US under several medical specialties including [[anesthesiology]], [[internal medicine]], [[family medicine]], and neurology.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abms.org/member-boards/specialty-subspecialty-certificates/ |title=Specialty and Subspecialty Certificates |publisher=Abms.org |access-date=30 March 2015 |archive-date=23 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200123231140/https://www.abms.org/member-boards/specialty-subspecialty-certificates/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Neurosurgery is a distinct specialty that involves a different training path and emphasizes the surgical treatment of neurological disorders.

Also, many nonmedical doctors, those with doctoral degrees (usually PhDs) in subjects such as biology and chemistry, study and research the nervous system. Working in laboratories in universities, hospitals, and private companies, these neuroscientists perform clinical and laboratory experiments and tests to learn more about the nervous system and find cures or new treatments for diseases and disorders.

A great deal of overlap occurs between [[neuroscience]] and neurology. Many neurologists work in academic training hospitals, where they conduct research as neuroscientists in addition to treating patients and teaching neurology to [[medical student]]s. 

[[Neurotherapy]] involves systemic targeted delivery of an energy stimulus to a specific neurological zone or methods that retrain how the brain functions.<ref name="EEE Brain 2019" /><ref name="International Neuromodulation Society_2024" /><ref name="Val Danilov Origin Neurostimulation_2024" /> 

===General responsibilities===
Neurologists are responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, and management of all the conditions mentioned above. When surgical or endovascular intervention is required, the neurologist may refer the patient to a [[neurosurgeon]] or an [[Interventional neuroradiology|interventional neuroradiologist]]. Neurologists frequently care for people with hereditary ([[genetics|genetic]]) diseases when the major manifestations are neurological, as is frequently the case. [[Lumbar puncture]]s are frequently performed by [[neurologists]]. Some neurologists may develop an interest in particular subfields, such as stroke, [[dementia]], [[movement disorders]], [[neurointensive care]], headaches, [[epilepsy]], [[sleep disorders]], chronic [[pain]] management, [[multiple sclerosis]], or [[neuromuscular]] diseases.

===Overlapping areas===
Some overlap also occurs with other specialties, varying from country to country and even within a local geographic area. Acute [[traumatic brain injury|head trauma]] is most often treated by neurosurgeons, whereas [[sequelae]] of head trauma may be treated by neurologists or [[Physical medicine and rehabilitation|specialists in rehabilitation medicine]]. Although stroke cases have been traditionally managed by internal medicine or hospitalists, the emergence of vascular neurology and [[interventional neuroradiology]] has created a demand for stroke specialists. The establishment of [[Joint Commission]]-certified stroke centres has increased the role of neurologists in stroke care in many primary, as well as tertiary, hospitals. Some cases of nervous system [[infectious disease]]s are treated by infectious disease specialists. Most cases of headache are diagnosed and treated primarily by [[general practitioner]]s, at least the less severe cases. Likewise, most cases of [[sciatica]] are treated by general practitioners, though they may be referred to neurologists or surgeons (neurosurgeons or [[Orthopedic surgery|orthopedic surgeons]]). [[Sleep disorders]] are also treated by [[Pulmonology|pulmonologists]] and [[psychiatrists]]. [[Cerebral palsy]] is initially treated by [[Pediatrics|pediatricians]], but care may be transferred to an adult neurologist after the patient reaches a certain age. [[Physical medicine and rehabilitation]] physicians may treat patients with neuromuscular diseases with electrodiagnostic studies (needle EMG and nerve-conduction studies) and other diagnostic tools. In the United Kingdom and other countries, many of the conditions encountered by older patients such as movement disorders, including Parkinson's disease, stroke, dementia, or gait disorders, are managed predominantly by specialists in [[geriatric medicine]].

[[Clinical neuropsychology|Clinical neuropsychologists]] are often called upon to [[Neuropsychological assessment|evaluate]] brain-[[Human behavior|behavior]] relationships for the purpose of assisting with [[differential diagnosis]], planning [[Physical medicine and rehabilitation|rehabilitation]] strategies, documenting [[cognitive]] strengths and weaknesses, and measuring change over time (e.g., for identifying abnormal [[aging]] or tracking the progression of a [[dementia]]).

===Relationship to clinical neurophysiology===
In some countries such as the United States and Germany, [[neurologists]] may subspecialize in [[clinical neurophysiology]], the field responsible for EEG and [[Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring|intraoperative monitoring]], or in electrodiagnostic medicine [[nerve conduction study|nerve conduction studies]], EMG, and [[evoked potentials]]. In other countries, this is an autonomous [[Specialty (medicine)|specialty]] (e.g., United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain).

===Overlap with psychiatry===
{{Further|Psychoneuroimmunology|Neuropsychiatry}}

In the past, prior to the advent of more advanced diagnostic techniques such as [[MRI]] some neurologists have considered psychiatry and neurology to overlap. Although modern physicians accept that brain chemistry plays a role in [[mental illness]], traditionally they are classified separately from neurological disorders, and treated by [[psychiatrists]]. In a 2002 review article in the ''[[American Journal of Psychiatry]]'', Professor Joseph B. Martin, Dean of [[Harvard Medical School]] and a neurologist by training, wrote, "the separation of the two categories is arbitrary, often influenced by beliefs rather than proven scientific observations. And the fact that the brain and mind are one makes the separation artificial anyway".<ref name="pmid11986119">{{cite journal
|author=Martin JB
|title=The integration of neurology, psychiatry, and neuroscience in the 21st century
|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry
|volume=159
|issue=5
|pages=695–704
|date=May 2002
|pmid=11986119
|doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.695
}}</ref>

[[Neurological disorders]] often have [[psychiatric]] manifestations, such as post-stroke depression, depression and [[dementia]] associated with [[Parkinson's disease]], mood and cognitive dysfunctions in Alzheimer's disease, and [[Huntington disease]], to name a few. Hence, the sharp distinction between neurology and psychiatry is not always on a biological basis. The dominance of [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic theory]] in the first three-quarters of the 20th century has since then been largely replaced by a focus on pharmacology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kandel|first=Eric R.|date=1998|title=A New Intellectual Framework for Psychiatry|url=http://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.155.4.457|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=155|issue=4|pages=457–469|doi=10.1176/ajp.155.4.457|pmid=9545989|issn=0002-953X|access-date=9 June 2021|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117144615/https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/ajp.155.4.457|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Despite the shift to a medical [[Conceptual model|model]], brain science has not advanced to a point where scientists or [[clinicians]] can point to readily discernible pathological lesions or genetic abnormalities that in and of themselves serve as reliable or predictive [[biomarkers]] of a given mental disorder.

==Neurological enhancement==
The emerging field of neurological enhancement highlights the potential of therapies to improve such things as workplace efficacy, attention in school, and overall happiness in personal lives.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Hamilton Roy | date = 2011 | title = Looking at things in a different perspective created the idea of ethics of neural enhancement using noninvasive brain stimulation | journal = Neurology | volume = 76 | issue = 2| pages = 187–193 | doi = 10.1212/WNL.0b013e318205d50d | pmc = 3030230 | pmid=21220723}}</ref> However, this field has also given rise to questions about [[neuroethics]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Medicine}}
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order and add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
{{div col|small=no|gap=1em|colwidth=30em}}
* [[American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology]]
* [[American Osteopathic Board of Neurology and Psychiatry]]
* ''[[Developmental Neurorehabilitation]]'', a peer-reviewed medical journal
* [[List of neurologists]]
* [[List of women neuroscientists]]
* [[Neuroepigenetics]]
* [[Neurohospitalist]], a physician interested in inpatient neurological care
{{div col end}}
* [[Neurotherapy]]
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Medicine}}
{{Neuroscience}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Neurology| ]]