View source for Neo-fascism

{{short description|Post–World War II ideology}}
{{about|fascism after World War II|Nazi movements after World War II|Neo-Nazism}}
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[[File:Golden Dawn members at rally in Athens 2015.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Members of the Greek neo-fascist organisation [[Golden Dawn (Greece)|Golden Dawn]] in 2015]]
{{neo-fascism}}

'''Neo-fascism''' is a [[Aftermath of World War II|post-World War II]] [[Far-right politics|far-right ideology]] which includes significant elements of [[fascism]]. Neo-fascism usually includes [[ultranationalism]], [[ultraconservatism]], [[racial supremacy]], [[right-wing populism]], [[authoritarianism]], [[Nativism (politics)|nativism]], [[xenophobia]], and [[anti-immigration]] sentiment, as well as opposition to [[social democracy]], [[parliamentarianism]], [[Marxism]], [[communism]], [[socialism]], [[liberalism]], [[neoliberalism]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castelli Gattinara |first1=Pietro |last2=Forio |first2=Caterina |last3=Albanese |first3=Marco |date=1 January 2013 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269613450 |title=The appeal of neo-fascism in times of crisis. The experience of CasaPound Italia |journal=[[Journal of Comparative Fascist Studies]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=234–258 |doi=10.1163/22116257-00202007 |doi-access=free |quote=Previous research has established that there is a connection between economic crises and the emergence of fascism, and that the critique of neo-liberalism and market economy constitutes a central feature of neo-fascist groups.|hdl=10451/23243 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> and [[liberal democracy]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Peter |last1=Fritzsche |title=Terrorism in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy: Legacy of the '68 Movement or 'Burden of Fascism'? |journal=[[Terrorism and Political Violence]] |date=1 October 1989 |issn=0954-6553 |pages=466–481 |volume=1 |issue=4 |doi=10.1080/09546558908427039}}</ref> 

== History ==
{{fascism sidebar|variants}}
According to [[Jean-Yves Camus]] and [[Nicolas Lebourg]], neo-fascism emerged in 1942 after [[Nazi Germany]] [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the USSR]] and decided to reorient its [[Propaganda in World War II|propaganda]] on a Europeanist ground.<ref name=":1"/> Europe then became both the [[myth]] and the [[utopia]] of the neo-fascists, who abandoned previous theories of racial inequalities within the [[white race]] to share a common [[Pan-European nationalism|euro-nationalist]] stance in the [[aftermath of World War II]], embodied in [[Oswald Mosley]]'s [[Europe a Nation]] policy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Laqueur |first=Walter |title=Fascism: Past, Present, Future |date=1997 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780198025276 |pages=93–94 |language=en}}</ref> The following chronology can therefore be delineated: an ideological gestation before 1919; the historical experience of [[fascism]] between 1919 and 1942, unfolded in several phases; and finally neo-fascism from 1942 onward.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Camus |first1=Jean-Yves |title=Far-Right Politics in Europe |last2=Lebourg |first2=Nicolas |date=20 March 2017 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=9780674971530 |pages=9–10, [https://books.google.com/books?id=_j5YDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 38] |no-pp=y |language=en}}</ref>

Drawing inspiration from the [[Italian Social Republic]], institutional neo-fascism took the form of the [[Italian Social Movement]] (MSI). It became one of the chief reference points for the European far-right until the late 1980s,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ignazi |first=Piero |title=Extreme Right Parties in Western Europe |date=2003 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780198293255 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref> and "the best (and only) example of a Neofascist party", in the words of political scientist [[Cas Mudde]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Casadio |first=Massimiliano Capra |date=2014 |title=The New Right and Metapolitics in France and Italy |journal=[[Journal for the Study of Radicalism]] |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=45–86 |doi=10.14321/jstudradi.8.1.0045 |issn=1930-1189 |jstor=10.14321/jstudradi.8.1.0045 |s2cid=144052579}}</ref> At the initiative of the MSI, the [[European Social Movement]] was established in 1951 as a pan-European organization of like-minded neo-fascist groups and figures such as the [[Francoist]] [[FET y de las JONS|Falange]], [[Maurice Bardèche]], [[Per Engdahl]], and [[Oswald Mosley]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c5opW1yV7FcC&pg=PA592 |title=The Oxford handbook of fascism |last=Bosworth |first=R. J. B. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-929131-1 |page=592 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Other organizations like [[Jeune Nation]] called in the late 1950s for an extra-parliamentarian insurrection against the regime in what amounts to a remnant of pre-war fascist strategies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gautier |first=Jean-Paul |title=Les extrêmes droites en France: De 1945 à nos jours |trans-title=The extreme right in France: From 1945 to the present day |date=2017 |publisher=Syllepse |isbn=9782849505700 |pages=40–41 |language=fr}}</ref> The main driving force of neo-fascist movements was what they saw as the defense of a Western civilization from the rise of both communism and the [[Third World]], in some cases the loss of the colonial empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sedgwick |first=Mark |title=Key Thinkers of the Radical Right: Behind the New Threat to Liberal Democracy |date=2019 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780190877613 |pages=79 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1961, Bardèche redefined the nature of fascism in a book deemed influential in the European far-right at large entitled {{lang|fr|Qu'est-ce que le fascisme?}} (''What Is Fascism?''). He argued that previous fascists had essentially made two mistakes in that they focused their efforts on the methods rather than the original "idea"; and they wrongly believed that fascist society could be achieved via the nation-state as opposed to the construction of Europe. According to him, fascism could survive the 20th century in a new [[metapolitical]] guise if its theorists succeed in building inventive methods adapted to the changes of their times; the aim being the promotion of the core politico-cultural fascist project rather than vain attempts to revive doomed regimes:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bar-On |first=Tamir |title=Where Have All The Fascists Gone? |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781351873130 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5KoDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT14 PT14] |language=en }}</ref> In addition, Bardèche wrote: "The single party, the secret police, the public displays of Caesarism, even the presence of a [[Führer]] are not necessarily attributes of fascism. ... The famous fascist methods are constantly revised and will continue to be revised. More important than the mechanism is the idea which fascism has created for itself of man and freedom. ... With another name, another face, and with nothing which betrays the projection from the past, with the form of a child we do not recognize and the head of a young Medusa, the Order of Sparta will be reborn: and paradoxically it will, without doubt, be the last bastion of Freedom and the sweetness of living."<ref>Bardèche, Mauriche (1961). ''Qu'est-ce que le fascisme?''. Paris: Les Sept Couleurs. pp. 175–176.</ref>

In the spirit of Bardèche's strategy of disguise through framework change, the MSI had developed a policy of ''inserimento'' (insertion, [[entryism]]), which relied on gaining political acceptance via the cooperation with other parties within the democratic system. In the political context of the [[Cold War]], [[anti-communism]] began to replace [[anti-fascism]] as the dominant trend in liberal democracies. In Italy, the MSI became a support group in parliament for the Christian Democratic government in the late 1950s–early 1960s, but was forced back into "political ghetto" after anti-fascist protests and violent street clashes occurred between radical leftist and far-right groups, leading to the demise of the short-lived fascist-backed [[Tambroni Cabinet]] in July 1960.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Fella|first1=Stefano|title=Re-inventing the Italian Right: Territorial Politics, Populism and 'post-fascism'|last2=Ruzza|first2=Carlo|date=2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134286348|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R6CjdfEXpPUC&pg=PA15 13–16]|no-pp=y|language=en}}</ref>

The [[psychologist]] David Pavón-Cuéllar, of the [[Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo]], has argued that the emergence of [[neoliberalism]] in the late-twentieth century prompted neoliberalist politicians to utilize neo-fascism as a means to remove all limits to capital (including [[labor laws]], [[social rights]] and [[tariffs]]). According to Pavón-Cuéllar, this is done by employing the [[aestheticization of politics]] and by using the [[narcissism of small differences]] to find a [[Outgroup (sociology)|target for hate]], maintain a [[social hierarchy]] instead of protecting all individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pavón-Cuellar|first=David|year=2020|title=Turning from Neoliberalism to Neo-Fascism: Universalization and Segregation in the Capitalist System|journal=Desde el Jardín de Freud|publisher=[[National University of Colombia]]|volume=20|pages=19–38|doi=10.15446/djf.n20.90161|s2cid=226731094|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Causes and description ==
A number of historians and political scientists have pointed out that the situations in a number of European countries in the 1980s and 1990s, in particular France, Germany and Italy, were in some significant ways analogous to the conditions in Europe in the period between World War I and World War II that gave rise to fascism in its many national guises. Constant economic crises including high unemployment, a resurgence of nationalism, an increase in ethnic conflicts, and the geo-political weakness of national regimes were all present, and while not an exact one-to-one correspondence, circumstances were similar enough to promote the beginning of neo-fascism as a new fascist movement. Because intense nationalism is almost always a part of neo-fascism, the parties which make up this movement are not pan-European, but are specific to each country they arise in; other than this, the neo-fascist parties and other groups have many ideological traits in common.<ref>Golsan, Richard J. "Introduction" in Golsan (1998), pp.2–6</ref>

While certainly fascistic in nature, it is claimed by some that there are differences between neo-fascism and what can be called "historical fascism", or the kind of neo-fascism which came about in the immediate [[aftermath of World War II]]. Some historians claim that contemporary neo-fascist parties are not anti-democratic because they operate within their country's political system. Whether that is a significant difference between neo-fascism and historical fascism is doubted by other scholars, who point out that [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] worked within the existing political system of the [[Weimar Republic]] to obtain power, although it took an anti-democratic but constitutional process in the form of presidential appointment rather than election through the Reichstag. Others point to the current neo-fascists not being totalitarian in nature, but the organization of their parties along the lines of the ''[[Führerprinzip]]'' would seem to indicate otherwise. Historian [[Stanley G. Payne]] claims that the differences in current circumstance to that of the interwar years, and the strengthening of democracy in European countries since the end of the war prevents a general return of historical fascism, and causes true neo-fascist groups to be small and remain on the fringe. For Payne, groups like the [[National Front (France)|National Front]] in France are not neo-fascists in nature, but are merely "right radical parties" that will, in the course of time, moderate their positions in order to achieve electoral victory.<ref>Golsan, Richard J. "Introduction" in Golsan (1998), pp. 6–7.</ref>

The problem of immigrants, both legal and illegal or irregular, whether called "foreigners", "foreign workers", "economic refugees", "ethnic minorities", "asylum seekers", or "aliens", is a core neo-fascist issue, intimately tied to their [[Nativism (politics)|nativism]], [[ultranationalism]], and [[xenophobia]], but the specifics differ somewhat from country to country due to prevailing circumstances. In general, the anti-immigrant impetus is strong when the economy is weak or unemployment is high, and people fear that outsiders are taking their jobs. Because of this, neo-fascist parties have more electoral traction during hard economic times. Again, this mirrors the situation in the interwar years, when, for instance, Germany suffered from incredible [[hyperinflation]] and many people had their life savings swept away. In the wake of the [[2008 financial crisis]], some neo-fascist groups likewise argued for a [[Third Position]] as an alternative to [[market capitalism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castelli Gattinara |first1=Pietro |last2=Forio |first2=Caterina |last3=Albanese |first3=Marco |date=1 January 2013 |title=The appeal of neo-fascism in times of crisis. The experience of CasaPound Italia |journal=[[Journal of Comparative Fascist Studies]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=234–258 |doi=10.1163/22116257-00202007 |doi-access=free |quote=We find that the crisis offers a whole new set of opportunities for the radical right to reconnect with its fascist legacy, and to develop and innovate crisis-related policy proposals and practices. The crisis shapes the groups' self-understanding and its practices of identity building, both in terms of collective rediscovery of the fascist regime's legislation, and in terms of promotion of the fascist model as a 'third way' alternative to market capitalism. Even more importantly, the [[financial crisis]] plays the role of the enemy against which the fascist identity is built, and enables neo-fascist movements to selectively reproduce their identity and ideology within its practices of protest, propaganda, and consensus building.|hdl=10451/23243 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In contemporary Europe, mainstream political parties see the electoral advantage the neo-fascist and far-right parties get from their strong emphasis on the supposed problem of the outsider, and are then tempted to co-opt the issue by moving somewhat to the right on the immigrant issue, hoping to slough off some voters from the hard right. In the absence in post-war Europe of a strong socialist movement, this has the tendency to move the political centre to the right overall.<ref>Judt (2005), pp.736–46</ref>

While both historical fascism and contemporary neo-fascism are xenophobic, nativist and anti-immigrant, neo-fascist leaders are careful not to present these views in so strong a manner as to draw obvious parallels to [[The Holocaust|historical events]]. Both [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] of France's National Front and [[Jörg Haider]]'s [[Freedom Party of Austria]], in the words of historian [[Tony Judt]], "revealed [their] prejudices only indirectly". Jews would not be castigated as a group, but a person would be specifically named as a danger who just happened to be a Jew.<ref name=judt>Judt (2005), pp. 742–746.</ref> The public presentation of their leaders is one principal difference between the neo-fascists and historical fascists: their programs have been "finely honed and 'modernized'" to appeal to the electorate, a "far-right ideology with a democratic veneer". Modern neo-fascists do not appear in "jackboots and brownshirts", but in suits and ties. The choice is deliberate, as the leaders of the various groups work to differentiate themselves from the brutish leaders of historical fascism and also to hide whatever bloodlines and connections tie the current leaders to the historical fascist movements. When these become public, as they did in the case of Haider, it can lead to their decline and fall.<ref>Wolin, Richard. "Designer Fascism" in Golan (1998), p.49</ref><ref name=judt/>

== International networks ==
In 1951, the [[New European Order]] (NEO) neo-fascist European-wide alliance was set up to promote [[pan-European nationalism]]. It was a more radical splinter group of the [[European Social Movement]]. The NEO had its origins in the 1951 [[Malmö]] conference, when a group of rebels led by [[René Binet (neo-Fascist)|René Binet]] and [[Maurice Bardèche]] refused to join the European Social Movement as they felt that it did not go far enough in terms of [[Racism|racialism]] and [[anti-communism]]. As a result, Binet joined with [[Gaston-Armand Amaudruz]] in a second meeting that same year in [[Zürich]] to set up a second group pledged to wage war on [[Communism|communists]] and [[Racism|non-white people.]]<ref>{{cite journal|title = German Nationalists and European Union|last = Tauber|first = Kurt P.|journal = [[Political Science Quarterly]]|issn = 0032-3195|volume = 74|issue = 4|year = 1959|pages = 564–89|doi = 10.2307/2146424|jstor = 2146424}}</ref>

[[File:Fascist shop Toledo.jpg|thumb|Francoist-Falangist and Nazi memorabilia in a shop in [[Toledo, Spain]]]]
Several [[Cold War]] regimes and international neo-fascist movements collaborated in operations such as assassinations and [[false flag]] bombings. [[Stefano Delle Chiaie]], who was involved in Italy's [[Years of Lead (Italy)|Years of Lead]], took part in [[Operation Condor]]; organizing the 1976 assassination attempt on [[Chile]]an Christian Democrat [[Bernardo Leighton]].<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm Documents concerning attempted assassination] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060607195322/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm |date=7 June 2006}} of [[Bernardo Leighton]], on the [[National Security Archive]] website.</ref> [[Vincenzo Vinciguerra]] escaped to [[Spain under Franco|Franquist Spain]] with the help of the [[SISMI]], following the 1972 Peteano attack, for which he was sentenced to life.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/documents/collection_gladio/Terrorism_Western_Europe.pdf |title=Terrorism Western Europe (PDF) |access-date=7 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209013035/http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/documents/collection_gladio/Terrorism_Western_Europe.pdf |archive-date=9 December 2006 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107215357/http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/documents/collection_gladio/Terrorism_Western_Europe.pdf |date=7 November 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/news/media_desk.htm#Gladio |title=Gladio |access-date=7 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209010857/http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/news/media_desk.htm#Gladio |archive-date=9 December 2006 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Along with Delle Chiaie, Vinciguerra testified in [[Rome]] in December 1995 before judge [[María Servini de Cubría]], stating that Enrique Arancibia Clavel (a former Chilean secret police agent prosecuted for crimes against humanity in 2004) and US expatriate [[Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional|DINA]] agent [[Michael Townley]] were directly involved in General [[Carlos Prats]]' assassination. Michael Townley was sentenced in Italy to 15 years of prison for having served as intermediary between the DINA and the Italian neo-fascists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2000/05/22/mun6.html |title=mun6 |publisher=Jornada.unam.mx |date=22 May 2000 |access-date=22 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422190743/http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2000/05/22/mun6.html |archive-date=22 April 2011 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The regimes of [[Francoist Spain]], [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s Chile and [[Alfredo Stroessner]]'s [[Paraguay]] participated together in [[Operation Condor]], which targeted political opponents worldwide. During the Cold War, these international operations gave rise to some cooperation between various neo-fascist elements engaged in a "[[Crusade]] against Communism".<ref name="Serac">"During this period we have systematically established close contacts with like-minded groups emerging in Italy, Belgium, Germany, Spain or Portugal, for the purpose of forming the kernel of a truly Western League of Struggle against Marxism." ([[Yves Guérin-Sérac]], quoted by [[Stuart Christie]], in ''[[Stefano Delle Chiaie]]: Portrait of a Black Terrorist'', London: Anarchy Magazine/Refract Publications, 1984. {{ISBN|0-946222-09-6}}, p. 27)</ref> Anti-[[Fidel Castro]] terrorist [[Luis Posada Carriles]] was condemned for the [[Cubana Flight 455]] bombing on 6 October 1976. According to the ''[[Miami Herald]]'', this bombing was decided on at the same meeting during which it was decided to target Chilean former minister [[Orlando Letelier]], who was assassinated on 21 September 1976. Carriles wrote in his autobiography that "we the Cubans didn't oppose ourselves to an isolated tyranny, nor to a particular system of our fatherland, but that we had in front of us a colossal enemy, whose main head was in Moscow, with its tentacles dangerously extended on all the planet."<ref>[http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/book/caminos-guerrero-5.htm Preface] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506135038/http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/book/caminos-guerrero-5.htm |date=6 May 2006}} to ''Los Caminos del Guerrero'', 1994.</ref>

The March 2015 International Russian Conservative Forum organized by pro-Putin [[Rodina (political party)|Rodina]]-party has been described as a neo-Fascist event by multiple sources.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://carnegie.ru/commentary/59513|work=[[Carnegie Moscow Center]]|quote=The St. Petersburg summit of conservative sympathizers with Russia has morphed into a gathering of fringe elements that are considered fascists even among the West’s extreme right|date=5 August 2025|title=Why the St. Petersburg Summit of the Kremlin's Friends Failed}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7SfEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22+International+Russian+Conservative+Forum%22+%22fascist%22&pg=PT316|title=Ultras|author=[[Tobias Jones (writer)]]|isbn=9781786697356|oclc=1114506566|quote="In march 2015 fascist groups from across Europe were invited to Saint Petersburg to the International Russian Conservative Forum."|date=5 August 2025 |publisher=Bloomsbury }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://khpg.org/en/1426778817|work=[[Kharkiv Human Rights Protection Group]]|date=5 August 2025|title=European Fascists & Neo-Nazis to meet to defend Russian interest}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4NRfDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22+International+Russian+Conservative+Forum%22+%22fascism%22&pg=PT38|author=[[Roger Griffin]]|title=Fascism|isbn=9781509520718|oclc=1005762204|quote="Fanatically patriotic neo-fascists from different countries attend international rallies [like] the International Russian Conservative Forum"|date=5 August 2025 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons }}</ref> The event was attended by fringe groups like [[Nordic Resistance Movement]] from Scandinavia but also by more mainstream [[Member of the European Parliament|MEPs]] from [[Golden Dawn (Greece)|Golden Dawn]] and [[National Democratic Party of Germany]]. In addition to Rodina, [[Russian Imperial Movement]] and [[Rusich Group]] were also in attendance. The event was attended by several notable American white supremacists including [[Jared Taylor]] and [[Brandon Russell]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://malcontentment.com/washingtons-defunct-atomwaffen-division-had-deep-ties-to-the-terrorist-org-russia-imperialist-movement/ |title=Washington's Defunct Atomwaffen Division had Deep Ties to the Terrorist Org, Russia Imperialist Movement |date=6 August 2022 |work=Malcontent News |url-access=subscription |quote=In 2015 while in St. Petersburg, [Russell] met with Taylor of American Renaissance and the leaders of the Nordic Resistance Movement of Sweden, the National Action group of Germany, CasPound of Italy, and Golden Dawn of Greece. |access-date=6 October 2022 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817000943/https://malcontentment.com/washingtons-defunct-atomwaffen-division-had-deep-ties-to-the-terrorist-org-russia-imperialist-movement/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://thesoufancenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/TSC-Report-Inside-the-Russian-Imperial-Movement-Practical-Implications-of-U.S.-Sanctions.pdf |work=[[Soufan Center]] |date=23 November 2024 |title=Inside The Russian Imperial Movement Practical Implications Of U.s. Sanctions |quote=In March 2015, several well-known American white supremacists, including Jared Taylor, spoke at the International Russian Conservative Forum in St. Petersburg. The event was organized by the Rodina party and heavily attended by RIM. |access-date=23 November 2024 |archive-date=23 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241123110059/https://thesoufancenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/TSC-Report-Inside-the-Russian-Imperial-Movement-Practical-Implications-of-U.S.-Sanctions.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://khpg.org/en/1427076064|work=[[Kharkiv Human Rights Protection Group]]|date=5 August 2025|title=Anti-fascist protesters detained, neo-Nazi sadist welcomed at Russian far-right forum}}</ref>
<!-- Do NOT include a list of == Alleged neo-fascist groups == as it is excessively subject to POV. -->

== Europe ==
=== Finland ===
In Finland, neo-fascism is often connected to the 1930s and 1940s fascist and pro-Nazi [[Patriotic People's Movement]] (IKL), its youth movement [[Blues-and-Blacks]] and its predecessor [[Lapua Movement]]. Post-war fascist groups such as [[Patriotic People's Movement (1993)]], [[Patriotic Popular Front]], [[For Independence|Patriotic National Movement]], [[Blue-and-Black Movement]] and many others consciously copy the style of the movement and look up to its leaders as inspiration. A [[Finns Party]] councillor and police officer in Seinäjoki caused small scandal wearing the fascist blue-and-black uniform.<ref>{{cite web|title=Finns Party splinter group dons colours of 1940s fascists|date=13 January 2021|url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/finns_party_splinter_group_dons_colours_of_1940s_fascists/11735369|publisher=[[Finnish Broadcasting Company]]|access-date=30 August 2022|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603080717/https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/finns_party_splinter_group_dons_colours_of_1940s_fascists/11735369|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=IKL:n kopio havittelee eduskuntapaikkoja Pohjanmaalla juhlittiin Vihtori Kosolan syntymäpäivää|url=https://www.hs.fi/suomi/art-2000003254386.html|work=[[Helsingin Sanomat]]|date=24 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ignazi |first=Piero |title=Extreme Right Parties in Western Europe |date=2003 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780198293255 |pages=160 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Suomen Sisu]] has been identified as neo-fascist and members of Suomen Sisu have given statements understood as condoning fascism such as [[Juho Eerola]] saying "a lot can be learned" from Mussolini.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Akkerman |first1=Tjitske |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ft8eDAAAQBAJ&dq=Finland+neo+fascism&pg=PA128 |title=Radical Right-Wing Populist Parties in Western Europe: Into the Mainstream? |last2=Lange |first2=Sarah L. de |last3=Rooduijn |first3=Matthijs |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-41978-5 |page=128 |language=en |access-date=6 April 2025}}</ref><ref name=civilsphere>{{cite book|title=The Nordic Civil Sphere|page=268|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9zIDwAAQBAJ&dq=suomen+sisu+olli+immonen&pg=PA268| author1=Jeffrey C. Alexander|author2=Anna Lund|author3=Andrea Voyer|date=7 January 2020 |isbn=978-1509538843|publisher=Polity}}</ref> Members of Suomen Sisu have risen to prominent positions: [[Jussi Halla-aho]] is Speaker of the Parliament and [[Olli Immonen]] is the General Secretary of the Finns Party.<ref name=civilsphere/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hs.fi/politiikka/art-2000009663011.html|title=Jussi Halla-aho eduskunnan puhemieheksi, Risikko ja Filatov varapuhemiehiksi |work=Helsingin Sanomat |date=21 June 2023 |access-date=7 July 2023}}</ref>

Neo-fascist "Awakening" conference is held annually in Finland, attracting some hundreds of white supremacists from around the globe. The event has been attended by fascists from around the world; [[Jared Taylor]] of [[American Renaissance (magazine)|American Renaissance]], [[Kevin MacDonald (evolutionary psychologist)|Kevin MacDonald]], representatives of the [[National Corps]] and others.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/heavyweights-from-the-white-nationalist-world-will-be-bonding-in-finland-this-weekend-heres-what-they-want/|title=White nationalists from around the world are meeting in Finland. Here's what you need to know|work=[[Vice News]]|date=27 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=3 June 2025 |title=Annual Finnish Fascist Conference Hosts Speakers From U. S., Finland, U.K., Croatia, And Sweden To Discuss Fascist Use Of AI, Demographic Replacement, Fertility Rates, Multiculturalism |url=https://www.memri.org/dttm/annual-finnish-fascist-conference-hosts-speakers-u-s-finland-uk-croatia-and-sweden-discuss |work=[[MEMRI]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=18 July 2025 |title=Police brace for far right gathering in Turku |url=https://yle.fi/a/3-10726159 |work=[[Finnish Broadcasting Company]] }}</ref>

=== France ===
{{expand section|date=July 2024}}
In France, the far-right [[National Rally]] party is of neo-fascist origin and is frequently accused of promoting anti-semitism and xenophobia.<ref name="europe-election-youth-far-right">{{cite news |last1=Edwards |first1=Christian |title=Why Europe's young people are flirting with the far right |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/06/25/europe/europe-election-youth-far-right-intl-cmd/index.html |access-date=8 July 2024 |work=CNN |publisher=Cable News Network |date=25 June 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="national-rally-france">{{Cite web |title=National Rally |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Rally-France |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref> The party was founded in 1972 to unify the French nationalist movement by [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust denier]]<ref name="holocaust-denial">{{cite news |title=Court upholds Jean-Marie Le Pen's Holocaust denial conviction |newspaper=[[The Times of Israel]] |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/court-upholds-jean-marie-le-pens-holocaust-denial-conviction/ |url-status=live |access-date=7 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124234115/https://www.timesofisrael.com/court-upholds-jean-marie-le-pens-holocaust-denial-conviction/ |archive-date=24 November 2023}}</ref><ref name="dismissing-holocaust">{{cite news |title=Jean-Marie Le Pen fined again for dismissing Holocaust as 'detail' |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/06/jean-marie-le-pen-fined-again-dismissing-holocaust-detail |url-status=live |access-date=7 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406180412/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/06/jean-marie-le-pen-fined-again-dismissing-holocaust-detail |archive-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]], who was its leader until his resignation in 2011. Jean-Marie Le Pen's daughter, [[Marine Le Pen]], has also been the party's leader and Marine Le Pen's niece, [[Marion Maréchal]] has repeated anti-Islam rhetoric such as "We know what we are and we know what we are not. We are not an Islamic nation."<ref>{{cite news |first1=Gabriel|last1=Gatehouse|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35003920 |title=Vive la difference – has France's Front National changed? |date=5 December 2015 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=17 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717051037/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35003920 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Pierre Bousquet]], a co-founder, was in the Nazi [[Waffen-SS]] during [[World War II]].<ref name="france-election-far-right-nazi-hunter-antisemitism">{{cite news |first=Sylvie |last=Corbet |title=Renowned Nazi hunter in France advises Jews to choose far right over far left in elections |url=https://apnews.com/article/france-election-far-right-nazi-hunter-antisemitism-dbe220c915894f6aded6f3547c05aae0 |access-date=8 July 2024 |archive-date=3 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240703172743/https://apnews.com/article/france-election-far-right-nazi-hunter-antisemitism-dbe220c915894f6aded6f3547c05aae0 |url-status=live |work=AP News |publisher=The Associated Press |date=3 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="rise-france-right">{{cite news |last1=Kirby |first1=Paul |title=The rise and rise of France's far right |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cn087x77g1dt?post=asset%3A74817d7b-7a89-42c3-9d5b-7941ebfbf819#post |access-date=8 July 2024 |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |date=30 June 2024 |language=en |archive-date=8 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240708085233/https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cn087x77g1dt?post=asset%3A74817d7b-7a89-42c3-9d5b-7941ebfbf819#post |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Germany ===
Since [[German reunification]] there has been an increase of support for fascism in [[Germany]], primarily led by the [[National Democratic Party of Germany]] and [[Alternative for Germany]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jlso/21/4/article-p611_10.xml|title=Alternative for Germany: Germany's new rightwing extremists|first=Thomas|last=Klikauer|date=15 December 2018|journal=Journal of Labor and Society|volume=21|issue=4|pages=611–629|via=brill.com|doi=10.1111/lands.12365|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 }}</ref> Both parties support the concept of [[ethnic nationalism]] such as the deportations of German citizens who belong to certain ethnicities.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/17506980221133518|title=Far-right anniversary politics and social media: The Alternative for Germany's contestation of the East German past on Twitter|first1=Ned|last1=Richardson-Little|first2=Samuel|last2=Merrill|first3=Leah|last3=Arlaud|date=1 December 2022|journal=Memory Studies|volume=15|issue=6|pages=1360–1377|via=SAGE Journals|doi=10.1177/17506980221133518}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/germany-afd-firestorm-distribute-fake-deportation-ticket-migrant-karlsruhe/|title=Germany's AfD sparks firestorm by distributing fake deportation tickets to migrants|date=14 January 2025|website=POLITICO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2025/01/14/german-police-investigate-afd-for-sending-out-deportation-tickets|title=German police investigate AfD for sending out 'deportation tickets'|date=14 January 2025|website=euronews}}</ref>

=== Greece ===
[[File:Golden Dawn demonstration 1.jpg|thumb|Golden Dawn demonstration in Greece, 2012 (''I will be found dead for Greece'' is written on the banner.)]]
After the onset of the [[Great Recession]] and economic crisis in Greece, a movement known as the [[Golden Dawn (political party)|Golden Dawn]], widely considered a neo-Nazi party, soared in support out of obscurity and won seats in [[Greece]]'s parliament, espousing a staunch hostility towards minorities, illegal immigrants and refugees. In 2013, after the murder of an anti-fascist musician by a person with links to Golden Dawn, the Greek government ordered the arrest of Golden Dawn's leader [[Nikolaos Michaloliakos]] and other Golden Dawn members on charges related to being associated with a criminal organization. Golden Dawn after emerging as a major political was engaged in numerous murder and criminal trials, such as the [[murder of Pavlos Fyssas]]. Following years long legal investigation [[Golden_Dawn_(Greece)#Dissolution_and_conviction_of_leadership|sentenced its leaders]] to prison.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/07/europe/golden-dawn-guilty-leadership-intl/index.html|title= Leaders of Greece's neo-Nazi group Golden Dawn found guilty of running criminal organization|author=Elinda Labropoulou|website= [[CNN]]|date= 7 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/world/greek-court-rules-far-right-golden-dawn-leaders-ran-a-crime-group-idUSKBN26S1AL/|title=Greek court rules far-right Golden Dawn leaders ran a crime group|author1=Renee Maltezou|author2=Lefteris Papadimas|website=reuters.com |date=7 October 2020 }}</ref>

In October, 2020, the court declared Golden Dawn to be a criminal organization, convicting 68 members of various crimes including murder. However, far-right politics continue to be strong in Greece, such as [[Ilias Kasidiaris]]' [[National Party – Greeks]], an Ultranationalist party. In 2021, Greek neo-Nazi youth attacked a rival group at a school in Greece.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ΕΠΑΛ Σταυρούπολης: Νέα επεισόδια στη Θεσσαλονίκη - Ναζί επιτέθηκαν σε διαδηλωτές|url=https://www.ieidiseis.gr/ellada/111874/epal-stavroypolis-nea-epeisodia-sti-thessaloniki-nazi-epitethikan-se-diadilotes|access-date=2021-09-29|website=www.ieidiseis.gr|date=29 September 2021 |language=el-gr}}</ref> Following the collapse of Golden Dawn, various neo-Fascist political parties emerged including [[Spartans (Greek political party)|the Spartans]].

=== Italy ===
{{see also|History of the Italian Republic}}
{{see also|Armed, far-right organizations in Italy}}
[[File:Giorgio Almirante crop.jpg|thumb|[[Giorgio Almirante]], leader of the [[Italian Social Movement]]]]
Italy was broadly divided into two political blocs following World War II: the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democrats]], who remained in power until the 1990s, and the [[Italian Communist Party]] (PCI), which was very strong immediately after the war and achieved a large consensus during the 1970s. With the beginning of the [[Cold War]], the [[Federal government of the United States|American]] and [[Government of the United Kingdom|British governments]] turned a blind eye to the refusal of Italian authorities to honor requested extraditions of [[Italian war criminals]] to [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], which they feared would benefit the PCI. With no event such as the [[Nuremberg trials]] taking place for Italian war crimes, the collective memory of the crimes committed by Italian fascists was excluded from public media, from textbooks in Italian schools, and even from the academic discourse on the Western side of the [[Iron Curtain]] throughout the Cold War.<ref>[[Alessandra Kersevan]] 2008: (Editor) Foibe – Revisionismo di stato e amnesie della repubblica. Kappa Vu. Udine.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pedaliu |first=Effie G. H. |author-link=Effie G. H. Pedaliu |year=2004 |title=Britain and the 'Hand-over' of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia, 1945–48 |url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/6783/ |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |volume=39 |issue=4, ''Collective Memory'' |pages=503–29 |doi=10.1177/0022009404046752 |issn=0022-0094 |jstor=4141408 |s2cid=159985182 |archive-date=9 August 2021 |access-date=1 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809222142/https://uwe-repository.worktribe.com/output/1057557 |url-status=dead |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The PCI was expelled from power in May 1947, a month before the Paris Conference on the [[Marshall Plan]], along with the [[French Communist Party]] (PCF).

In 1946, a group of [[Italian fascist]] soldiers founded the [[Italian Social Movement]] (MSI) to continue advocating the ideas of [[Benito Mussolini]]. The leader of the MSI was [[Giorgio Almirante]], who remained at the head of the party until his death in 1988. Despite attempts in the 1970s towards a "[[historic compromise]]" between the PCI and the DC, the PCI did not have a role in executive power until the 1980s. In December 1970, [[Junio Valerio Borghese]] attempted, along with Stefano Delle Chiaie, the ''[[Borghese Coup]]'' which was supposed to install a neo-fascist regime. Neo-fascist groups took part in various [[false flag]] terrorist attacks, starting with the December 1969 [[Piazza Fontana massacre]], for which [[Vincenzo Vinciguerra]] was convicted, and they are usually considered to have stopped with the 1980 [[Bologna railway bombing]].

In 1987, the reins of the MSI party were taken by [[Gianfranco Fini]], under whom in 1995 it was dissolved and transformed into the [[National Alliance (Italy)|National Alliance]] (AN). The party led by Fini distanced itself from Mussolini and fascism and made efforts to improve its relations with the Jewish community, becoming a conservative right-wing party until its merger with [[Silvio Berlusconi]]'s [[Forza Italia (1994)|Forza Italia]] into the [[Centre-right politics|centre-right]] party [[The People of Freedom]] in 2009. Neo-fascist parties in Italy include the [[Tricolour Flame]] (''Fiamma Tricolore''), the [[New Force (Italy)|New Force]] (''Forza Nuova''), the [[National Social Front]] (''Fronte Sociale Nazionale''), and [[CasaPound]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castelli Gattinara |first1=Pietro |last2=Forio |first2=Caterina |last3=Albanese |first3=Marco |date=1 January 2013 |title=The appeal of neo-fascism in times of crisis. The experience of CasaPound Italia |journal=Journal of Comparative Fascist Studies |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=234–258 |doi=10.1163/22116257-00202007 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10451/23243}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Andriola |first=Matteo Luca |url=http://www.edizionipaginauno.it/La-nuova-destra-in-Europa-seconda-edizione-Matteo-Luca-Andriola.php |title=La Nuova destra in Europa. Il populismo e il pensiero di Alain de Benoist |publisher=Edizioni paginauno |year=2019 |isbn=978-8899699369 |language=it}}</ref> The national-conservative [[Brothers of Italy]] (FdI), main heirs of MSI and AN, has been described as neo-fascist by several academics,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Benveniste |first1=Annie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mDelDAAAQBAJ |title=The Rise of the Far Right in Europe: Populist Shifts and 'Othering' |last2=Campani |first2=Giovanna |last3=Lazaridis |first3=Gabriella |publisher=Springer |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-1375-5679-0 |page=36 |access-date=5 November 2021 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Campani |first1=Giovanna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EjolDwAAQBAJ |title=Understanding the Populist Shift: Othering in a Europe in Crisis |last2=Lazaridis |first2=Gabriella |date=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-3173-2606-9 |page=45 |access-date=5 November 2021 |via=Google Books}}</ref> and it has some neo-fascist factions within their internal organization.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bruno |first1=Valerio Alfonso |last2=Downes |first2=James F. |last3=Scopelliti |first3=Alessio |date=12 November 2021 |title=Post-Fascism in Italy: 'So Why This Flame Mrs. Giorgia Meloni' |url=https://culturico.com/2021/11/12/post-fascism-in-italy-so-why-this-flame-mrs-giorgia-meloni/ |access-date=28 September 2022 |website=Cultorico}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Lowen |first=Mark |date=26 August 2022 |title=Giorgia Meloni: Far-right leader who's favourite to run Italy |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-62659183 |access-date=21 September 2022 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> The results of the [[2022 Italian general election]], in which FdI became the first party, have been variously described as Italy's first far-right-led government in the republican era and its most right-wing government since World War II.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Leali |first1=Giorgio |last2=Roberts |first2=Hannah |date=25 September 2022 |title=Italy on track to elect most right-wing government since Mussolini |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/italy-election-exit-poll-far-right-giorgia-meloni-brothers-of-berlusconi-salvini-mario-draghi/ |access-date=27 September 2022 |website=Politico}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Braithwaite |first1=Sharon |last2=DiDonato |first2=Valentina |last3=Fox |first3=Kara |last4=Mortensen |first4=Antonia |last5=Nadeau |first5=Barbie Latza |last6=Ruotolo |first6=Nicola |date=26 September 2022 |title=Giorgia Meloni claims victory to become Italy's most far-right prime minister since Mussolini |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/25/europe/italy-election-results-intl/index.html |access-date=26 September 2022 |publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=26 September 2022 |title=Italy election: Meloni says center-right bloc has 'clear' mandate |url=https://www.dw.com/en/italy-election-meloni-says-center-right-bloc-has-clear-mandate/a-63233616 |access-date=26 September 2022 |publisher=Deutsche Welle}}</ref> The [[Russia-Ukraine war]] has divided the Italian [[far right]], including neo-fascists, into three clusters: the pro-Western and [[Atlanticism|Atlanticist]] extreme right (e.g. ''[[CasaPound]]''), nostalgic and pro-Putin neo-fascism ([[New Force (Italy)|New Force]]), and an ideologically evolving collection of [[National Bolshevism|National Bolshevik]] and [[Eurasianism|Eurasianist]] militants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guerra |first=Nicola |date=2023 |title=The Russia-Ukraine war has shattered the Italian far right |journal=[[Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression]] |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=245–265 |doi=10.1080/19434472.2023.2206468 |s2cid=258645197}}</ref> Recent studies have studied the geopolitical role of Italian neofascism with some groups participating with CIA-backing in the Strategy of Tension during the Cold War where terrorists actions were aimed to keep Italy in NATO and prevent the Communist Party from coming to power <ref>{{cite book |last=Guerra |first=Nicola |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Italian-Far-Right-from-1945-to-the-Russia-Ukraine-Conflict/Guerra/p/book/9781032566252 |title=The Italian Far Right from 1945 to the Russia-Ukraine Conflict |publisher=Routledge |year=2024 |isbn=978-1-03-256625-2 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Portugal ===
After the fall of authoritarianism in [[Portugal]] after the [[Carnation Revolution]] of 1974, several neo-fascist groups arose such as the [[New Order (Portugal)]] which was created in 1978. A report by the European Parliament defined the ideology of the New Order as revolutionary fascist and hyper-nationalist.<ref>''[http://bookshop.europa.eu/en/committee-of-inquiry-into-the-rise-of-fascism-and-racism-in-europe-pbAX4686654/ Committee of Inquiry Into the Rise of Fascism and Racism in Europe: Report on the findings of the inquiry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202104732/http://bookshop.europa.eu/en/committee-of-inquiry-into-the-rise-of-fascism-and-racism-in-europe-pbAX4686654/ |date=2 February 2017}}'', European Parliament, Dec 1985, p. 58</ref> The group also had connections to [[Fuerza Nueva]] in Spain. The New Order was disbanded in 1982, however its activities continued to as late as 1985.

=== Romania ===
{{Main|Neo-Legionarism}}
In Romania, the ultra-nationalist movement which allied itself with the [[Axis powers]] and German National Socialism was the [[Iron Guard]], also known as the Legion of the Archangel Michael. There are some modern political organisations which consider themselves heirs of Legionarism, this includes [[Noua Dreaptă]] and the [[Everything For the Country Party]], founded by former Iron Guard members. The latter organisation was outlawed in 2015. Aside, from these Romanian organisations, the [[Sixty-Four Counties Youth Movement]] representing ultra-nationalism from the Hungarian minority is also present, especially in [[Transylvania]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Luiza |last=Ilie |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-romania-prosecutors-blast-idUSKBN0TK4YD20151201 |title=Romanian prosecutors arrest suspect for attempted blast |work=Reuters|access-date=2016-02-26|date= December 2015}}</ref> Other nationalistic and irredentist groups such as the [[Greater Romania Party]] do not originate from Legionarism, but in fact grew out of [[national communist]] tendencies from the era of [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]] (the party was founded by his "court poet" [[Corneliu Vadim Tudor]]).<ref>{{cite web |first=Markéta |last=Smrčková |url=http://www.cepsr.com/clanek.php?ID=360 |title=Comparison of Radical Right-Wing Parties in Bulgaria and Romania |publisher=Central European Political Studies Review |access-date=2016-02-26 |archive-date=11 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111042730/http://www.cepsr.com/clanek.php?ID=360 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[Romanian Hearth Union]] (UVR), which had around 4 million supporters in 1992, has been described as neofascist.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aDVFqf0uxt0C&q=The+Walls+Came+Tumbling+Down%3A+The+Collapse+of+Communism+in+Eastern+Europe|title=The Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe|first=Gale|last=Stokes|date=7 October 1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-987919-9 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Its political branch was the [[Romanian National Unity Party]],<ref name="auto">{{Cite web | url=http://www.edrc.ro/docs/docs/extremism_ro/04_extremism_ro_003.pdf | title=Principalele forþe extremiste: de la vatra Româneascã la punr ªi prm | language=ro | trans-title=The main extremist forces: from the Romanian hearth to the Punr and PRM | website=www.edrc.ro}}</ref> but had also ties to the [[Social Democracy Party of Romania]] (PDSR),<ref>{{cite book | url=https://tinread.biblioteca.ct.ro/opac/bibliographic_view/283526 | title=BJCT &#124; }}</ref> [[Greater Romania Party]] (PRM) and the [[Democratic Agrarian Party of Romania]] (PDAR).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://listanationala.ro/doctrina-nationalista/partidul-vatra-romaneasca-comunicat/ | title=Partidul Vatra Românească – Comunicat &#124; Lista Națională }}</ref> One of the founders of the UVR was the Romanian President [[Ion Iliescu]],<ref name="auto"/> who was still its member in 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hotnews.ro/iliescu-da-vina-pe-maghiari-pentru-conflictul-de-la-targu-mures-843044|title=Iliescu da vina pe maghiari pentru conflictul de la Targu Mures - HotNews.ro|date=25 March 2005}}</ref>

=== Russia ===
{{See also|Ruscism}}
In 1990, [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]] founded the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Russia]]. Its leader opposes democratic values, human rights, a multiparty system, and the rule of law. [[Encyclopedia Britannica]] considers Zhirinovsky to be a neo-fascist.<ref name="Fascism">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/fascism/Russia#ref742252 |title=Fascism |access-date=2022-04-02}}</ref> Zhirinovsky endorsed the forcible re-occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, and suggested [[nuclear waste]] should be dumped there.<ref>[http://www.baltictimes.com/news/articles/18220/ Russia threatens Baltic missile build-up], [[The Baltic Times]], 5 July 2007</ref> During the [[First Chechen War]] in the mid-1990s, he advocated hitting some [[Chechnya|Chechen]] villages with [[tactical nuclear weapon]]s.<ref>[http://www.rferl.org/specials/russianelection/archives/07-171299.asp Russian Parliamentary Election 1999] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214043842/http://www.rferl.org/specials/russianelection/archives/07-171299.asp |date=14 February 2008 }}, [[RFE/RL]], 17 December 1999</ref>

The [[Russian National Unity]] was a paramilitary organization which was founded by [[Alexander Barkashov]] in 1990. It used a left-pointed [[swastika]] and emphasizes the "primary importance" of Russian blood. Concerning [[Adolf Hitler]], the organizations's leader Barkashov declared: "I consider [Hitler] a great hero of the German nation and of all white races. He succeeded in inspiring the entire nation to fight against degradation and the washing away of national values."<ref name="Fascism"/> Before it was banned in 1999, and breakup in late 2000, the group estimated to have had approximately 20,000 to 25,000 members.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Blamires | first1=C. | last2=Jackson | first2=P. | title=World Fascism: A-K | publisher=ABC-CLIO | series=World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia | year=2006 | isbn=978-1-57607-940-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvD2rZSVau4C&pg=PA581 | access-date=2022-03-16|quote=the RNE was of substantial organizational strength before its breakup in late 2000 and was estimated to have had, on the eve of its fracture, approximately 20,000 to 25,000 members}}</ref> Alexander Barkashov along with other members of the Russian National Unity have engaged in religious activities and pro-Russian activism in the [[Russian-Ukrainian War]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Militant Right-Wing Extremism in Putin's Russia: Legacies, Forms and Threats|page=289|quote=RNE volunteer troops were closely linked with the Russian Orthodox army|first1=Miroslav|last1=Mareš|first2=Martin|last2=Laryš|first3=Jan|last3=Holzer|publisher=Routledge|year=2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mitrokhin |first=Nikolay |date=2015 |title=Infiltration, instruction, invasion: Russia's war in the Donbass |url=https://spps-jspps.autorenbetreuung.de/files/07-mitrokhin.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528025541/http://spps-jspps.autorenbetreuung.de/files/07-mitrokhin.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-28 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics and Society |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=219–249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jarzyńska |first=Katarzyna |date=24 December 2014 |title=Russian nationalists on the Kremlin's policy in Ukraine |url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/sites/default/files/commentary_156.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120070202/https://www.osw.waw.pl/sites/default/files/commentary_156.pdf |archive-date=2022-01-20 |url-status=live |journal=OSW Commentary, Centre for Eastern Studies |volume=156}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Laruelle | first=M. | title=In the Name of the Nation: Nationalism and Politics in Contemporary Russia | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US | series=The Sciences Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-230-10123-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Apq_AAAAQBAJ | quote=Russian National Unity underwent an internal coup d'etat in 2000. Several regional leaders decided to exclude Alexander Barkashov from his position as leader of the party, splitting up into multiple factions, none of which was able to step in to play a unifying role.... Barkashov, who had legal troubles for "hooliganism" in 2005, created a new party bearing his name in December of the following year but had no real success.}}</ref>

=== Serbia ===
A neo-fascist organization in Serbia was [[Obraz (organization)|Obraz]], which was banned on 12 June 2012 by the [[Constitutional Court of Serbia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics-article.php?yyyy=2012&mm=06&dd=12&nav_id=80718 |title=Constitutional Court Bans Right-Wing Organization |date=12 June 2012 |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106035920/http://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics-article.php?yyyy=2012&mm=06&dd=12&nav_id=80718 |archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Serbia and Montenegro: Country Report October 2003|publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|date=October 2003|page=28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Temerin: Sadašnjost ili Budućnost Vojvodine|last=Ilić|first=Vladimir|date=May 2012|page=5}}</ref>

Earlier, on 18 June 1990, [[Vojislav Šešelj]] organized the [[Serbian Chetnik Movement (1990)|Serbian Chetnik Movement]] (SČP) though it was not permitted official registration due to its obvious Chetnik identification. On 23 February 1991, it merged with the National Radical Party (NRS), establishing the [[Serbian Radical Party]] (SRS) with Šešelj as president and [[Tomislav Nikolić]] as vice president.<ref name=ramet359>{{cite book| last = Ramet| first = Sabrina P.| year = 2008| title = Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia at Peace and at War: Selected Writings, 1983–2007| publisher = LIT Verlag| location = Berlin| isbn = 978-3-03735-912-9|page = 359}}</ref> It was a Chetnik party,<ref>{{cite book| last = Cigar| first = Norman| year = 1995| title = Genocide in Bosnia: The Policy of "Ethnic Cleansing"| publisher = University of Minnesota Press| location = College Station| isbn = 978-1-58544-004-7|page = 201}}</ref> oriented towards neo-fascism with a striving for the territorial expansion of Serbia.<ref name=ramet359 /><ref>{{cite book| last = Bugajski| first = Janusz| author-link = Janusz Bugajski| title = Political Parties of Eastern Europe: A Guide to Politics in the Post-Communist Era| publisher = M. E. Sharpe| location = Armonk, New York| year = 2002| isbn = 978-0-7656-2016-3| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9gGKtLTQlUcC| pages = 415–16| access-date = 22 January 2019| archive-date = 13 March 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210313005240/https://books.google.com/books?id=9gGKtLTQlUcC| url-status = live}}</ref>

=== Slovakia ===
[[Kotleba – People's Party Our Slovakia]] is a far-right political party with views that are considered extremist and fascist. The Party's leader, [[Marian Kotleba]], is a former [[neo-Nazi]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35739551|title=Marian Kotleba and the rise of Slovakia's extreme right – BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=13 March 2016|date=2016-03-06|last1=Cameron|first1=Rob|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309014023/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35739551|archive-date=9 March 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}
</ref> who once wore a uniform modelled on that of the [[Hlinka Guard]], the militia of the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|1939–45 Nazi-sponsored Slovak State]]. He opposes [[Romani people]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/164704/marian-kotleba-stat-chrani-ciganskych-parazitov/|title=Marián Kotleba: Štát chráni cigánskych parazitov|last=Azet.sk|website=aktuality.sk|date=31 May 2010 |access-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926085130/http://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/164704/marian-kotleba-stat-chrani-ciganskych-parazitov/|archive-date=26 September 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> immigrants,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naseslovensko.net/nasa-praca/spustili-sme-peticiu-proti-prichodu-imigrantov-na-slovensko/|title=Spustili sme petíciu proti príchodu imigrantov na Slovensko!|website=Kotleba – Ľudová strana Naše Slovensko|access-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312162123/http://www.naseslovensko.net/nasa-praca/spustili-sme-peticiu-proti-prichodu-imigrantov-na-slovensko/|archive-date=12 March 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> the [[Slovak National Uprising]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spravy.pravda.sk/domace/clanok/304775-sefovia-krajov-sa-u-prezidenta-nezhodli-s-kotlebom-na-teme-snp/|title=Šéfovia krajov sa u prezidenta nezhodli s Kotlebom na téme SNP|agency=Reuters|website=Pravda.sk|language=sk-SK|access-date=13 March 2016|date=2014-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310042738/http://spravy.pravda.sk/domace/clanok/304775-sefovia-krajov-sa-u-prezidenta-nezhodli-s-kotlebom-na-teme-snp/|archive-date=10 March 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[NATO]], the [[United States]], and the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hn.hnonline.sk/svet-120/neustupujte-teroristom-hrozi-vam-diktat-bruselu-pise-kotleba-janukovycovi-603442|title=Neustupujte teroristom, hrozí vám diktát Bruselu, píše Kotleba Janukovyčovi {{!}} Svet {{!}} Hospodárske noviny – Denník o ekonomike a financiách|website=hn.hnonline.sk|date=31 January 2014 |access-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926142145/http://hn.hnonline.sk/svet-120/neustupujte-teroristom-hrozi-vam-diktat-bruselu-pise-kotleba-janukovycovi-603442|archive-date=26 September 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The party also endorses the [[Clero-fascism|clerical fascist]] war criminal and former Slovak President [[Jozef Tiso]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/408705/podcenujeme-vyznam-stability-a-hodnot-tvrdi-fico/|title=Fico: Podceňujeme hodnoty, Tiso bol vojnový zločinec|last=Azet.sk|date=21 January 2017 |access-date=16 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210123648/https://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/408705/podcenujeme-vyznam-stability-a-hodnot-tvrdi-fico/|archive-date=10 December 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

In 2003, Kotleba founded the far-right political party Slovak Community (Slovak: ''[[Slovenská pospolitosť|Slovenská Pospolitosť]]''). In 2007, the Slovak interior ministry banned the party from running and campaigning in elections. In spite of this ban, Kotleba's party got 8.04%<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://spravy.pravda.sk/parlamentne-volby-2016/|title=Parlamentné voľby 2016 – Voľby|website=Pravda.sk|language=sk-SK|access-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313123320/http://spravy.pravda.sk/parlamentne-volby-2016/|archive-date=13 March 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> of votes in the Slovak 2016 parliamentary elections. As of December 2022, voter support has dropped significantly to about 3.1%, under the 5% threshold required to enter parliament.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Volebné preferencie politických strán |url=https://www.focus-research.sk/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Volebne-preferencie-politickych-stran_DECEMBER-II.-2022.pdf |website=focus-research.sk |language=sk |date=12 January 2023}}</ref>

=== Turkey ===
{{See also|Grey Wolves (organization)}}
Grey Wolves is a Turkish [[ultranationalist]]<ref>Harry Anastasiou, ''The Broken Olive Branch: Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and the Quest for Peace in Cyprus'', Vol. 2, (Syracuse University Press, 2008), 152.</ref><ref>Martin van Bruinessen, ''Transnational aspects of the Kurdish question'', (European University Institute, Robert Schuman Centre, 2000), [https://books.google.com/books?id=secJAQAAMAAJ&q=Grey+Wolves+ultranationalist+inpublisher:University p. 27].</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Alexander |editor-first1= Yonah |title=Turkey : terrorism, civil rights, and the European Union |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge|location=London |isbn=9780415441636 |edition= 1st|editor-last2=Brenner|editor-first2= Edgar H. |editor-last3=Krause|editor-first3=Serhat Tutuncuoglu |page=6}}</ref> and neo-fascist<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005p. 674</ref><ref>Annual of Power and Conflict, by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">The Nature of Fascism, by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">Political Parties and Terrorist Groups, by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People, by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web|url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html|title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves|first=Martin A.|last=Lee|publisher=The Consortium|date=1997|access-date=16 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805180040/http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html|archive-date=5 August 2014|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |first=Thomas |last=Joscelyn |date=6 April 2005 |work=Weekly Standard |access-date=16 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713054325/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|archive-date=13 July 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> youth organization. It is the "unofficial militant arm" of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]].<ref name="Combs">{{cite book |last=Combs |first=Cindy C. |title=Encyclopedia of terrorism |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaterr00comb |url-access=limited |year=2007 |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |location=New York |isbn=9781438110196 |author2=Slann, Martin |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaterr00comb/page/n128 110] |quote=In 1992, when it emerged again as the MHO, it supported the government's military approach regarding the insurgency by the Kurdistan Worker's Party (PKK) in southeast Turkey and opposed any concessions to Kurdish separatists. .... The Grey Wolves, the unofficial militant arm of the MHP, has been involved in street killings and gunbattles.}}</ref> The Grey Wolves have been accused of [[terrorism]].<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674"/><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171"/><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45"/> According to Turkish authorities,{{Who|date=January 2013}} the organization carried out 694 murders during the [[Political violence in Turkey (1976–1980)|late-1970s political violence in Turkey]], between 1974 and 1980.<ref name=Terrorism>{{cite book |first1=Albert J. |last1=Jongman |first2=Alex Peter |last2=Schmid |title=Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories, & Literature |page=674}}</ref>

The nationalist political party [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]] founded by [[Alparslan Türkeş]] is also sometimes described as neo-fascist.<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-10338-2 |last=Michael |first=M. |title=Resolving the Cyprus Conflict: Negotiating History |date=2009-11-09}}</ref>{{pn|date=September 2025}}

=== United Kingdom ===
The [[British National Party]] (BNP) is a [[nationalist]] [[political party|party]] in the United Kingdom which espoused the ideology of [[fascism]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Renton |first=David |date=1 March 2005 |title='A day to make history'? The 2004 elections and the British National Party |journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=39 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/00313220500045170 |s2cid=144972650}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Thurlow |first=Richard C. |title=Fascism in Modern Britain |publisher=Sutton |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7509-1747-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vAWGAAAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Copsey |first=Nigel |title=Contemporary British Fascism: The British National Party and the Quest for Legitimacy |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |date=September 2009 |edition= 2nd |isbn=978-0-230-57437-3}}</ref><ref name="bnplondonbomb">{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=C |date=December 2008 |title=British National Party representations of Muslims in the month after the London bombings: Homogeneity, threat, and the conspiracy tradition |journal=[[British Journal of Social Psychology]] |volume=47 |issue=4 |doi=10.1348/014466607X264103 |last2=Finlay |first2=W. M. L. |pmid=18070375 |pages=707–726}}</ref> and [[anti-immigration]].<ref>{{cite web |title=BNP Policies – Immigration |url=https://www.bnp.org.uk/news/national/bnp-policies-%E2%80%93-immigration-1 |publisher=[[British National Party]] |access-date=26 November 2016 |date=24 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127024256/https://www.bnp.org.uk/news/national/bnp-policies-%E2%80%93-immigration-1 |archive-date=27 November 2016 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}
</ref> In the [[2009 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom|2009 European elections]], it gained two [[Member of the European Parliament|members of the European Parliament]] (MEPs), including former party leader [[Nick Griffin]].<ref>{{cite news |title=BNP secures two European seats |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8088381.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=26 November 2016 |date=8 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818222342/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8088381.stm |archive-date=18 August 2017 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Other British organisations described as fascist or neo-fascist include the [[National Front (UK)|National Front]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Paul |year=1981 |title=The New Fascists |location=London |publisher=Grant McIntyre |isbn=978-0330269537 |page=73}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Ryan |last=Shaffer |year=2013 |title=The Soundtrack of Neo-Fascism: Youth and Music in the National Front |journal=[[Patterns of Prejudice]] |volume=47 |number=4–5 |doi=10.1080/0031322X.2013.842289 |page=460 |s2cid=144461518}}</ref> [[Combat 18]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Nathan |last2=Corb |first2=Abbee |last3=Giannasi |first3=Paul |last4=Grieve |first4=John |title=The Routledge International Handbook on Hate Crime |date=2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781136684364 |page=147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8hgWBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA147 |language=en}}</ref> the [[English Defence League]],<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Dominic |last1=Alessio |first2=Kristen |last2=Meredith |year=2014 |title=Blackshirts for the Twenty–First Century? Fascism and the English Defence League |journal=Social Identities |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=104–118 |doi=10.1080/13504630.2013.843058 |s2cid=143518291}}</ref> and [[Britain First]].<ref name="Bienkov">{{Cite web |first=Adam |last=Bienkov |title=Britain First: The violent new face of British fascism |date=19 June 2014 |website=Politics.co.uk |url=http://www.politics.co.uk/news/2014/06/19/britain-first-the-violent-new-face-of-british-fascism |access-date=20 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211170024/http://www.politics.co.uk/news/2014/06/19/britain-first-the-violent-new-face-of-british-fascism |archive-date=11 December 2016 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news |last=Foxton |first=Willard |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-one/11207973/The-loathsome-Britain-First-are-trying-to-hijack-the-poppy-dont-let-them.html |title=The loathsome Britain First are trying to hijack the poppy – don't let them |date=4 November 2014 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |access-date=8 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105222205/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-one/11207973/The-loathsome-Britain-First-are-trying-to-hijack-the-poppy-dont-let-them.html |archive-date=5 November 2018 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}
</ref>

== Americas ==
=== Argentina ===
In Argentina, a notable advocate of neo-fascism was president [[María Estela Martínez de Perón]], who applied [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] policies under the fascist police organization [[Argentine Anticommunist Alliance|Triple A]] and [[Neoliberalism|economic market opening]] policies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Santucho |first=Julio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TUDjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22fascista%22+%22Isabel+peron%22 |title=Los últimos guevaristas: surgimiento y eclipse del Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo |trans-title=The Last Guevarists: Rise and Fall of the People's Revolutionary Army |date=1988 |publisher=Puntosur Editores |isbn=978-950-9889-17-0 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Finchelstein |first=Federico |date=2014-07-02 |title=When Neo-Fascism Was Power in Argentina |url=https://publicseminar.org/2014/07/when-neo-fascism-was-power-in-argentina/ |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=Public Seminar |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=M |first=Pedro N. Miranda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIsNAAAAYAAJ&q=%22fascista%22+%22Isabel+peron%22 |title=Terrorismo de estado: testimonio del horror en Chile y Argentina |date=1989 |publisher=Editorial Sextante |language=es}}</ref> Perón made a direct apology to fascism by performing the [[Roman salute]] in an appearance on the national radio network.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2007-01-14 |title=María Estela Martínez, 'Isabelita Perón' |language=es |work=[[El País]] |url=https://elpais.com/diario/2007/01/14/internacional/1168729204_740215.html |access-date=2023-12-13 |issn=1134-6582}}</ref> The [[National Reorganization Process]] has been described by some scholars as a fascist dictatorship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rizki |first=Cole |date=2020-10-01 |title=No State Apparatus Goes to Bed Genocidal Then Wakes Up Democratic |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/radical-history-review/article/2020/138/82/166692/No-State-Apparatus-Goes-to-Bed-Genocidal-Then |journal=Radical History Review |volume=2020 |issue=138 |pages=82–107 |doi=10.1215/01636545-8359271 |s2cid=224990803 |issn=0163-6545 |quote=On March 24, 1976, the Argentine military staged a coup d'état and established a fascist dictatorship that perpetrated genocide for seven years. |access-date=29 August 2022 |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829004348/https://read.dukeupress.edu/radical-history-review/article/2020/138/82/166692/No-State-Apparatus-Goes-to-Bed-Genocidal-Then |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ie5tAAAAMAAJ |title=Report on Anti-semitism in Argentina |date=2006 |publisher=Social Research Center of DAIA |chapter=The use of the Nazi-Fascist Discourse by Argentinean Governments |access-date=29 August 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114153120/https://books.google.com/books?id=ie5tAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Global Latin America: into the twenty-first century |date=2016 |first1=Matthew C. |last1=Gutmann |first2=Jeff |last2=Lesser |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-96594-2 |location=Oakland, California |oclc=943710572 |quote=It was a sacrifice of some questionable lives to preserve the Proceso, the National Process of Reorganization to make Argentina conform to a right-wing fascist version of Catholicism.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Finchelstein |first=Federico |title=The ideological origins of the dirty war: fascism, populism, and dictatorship in twentieth century Argentina |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-993024-1 |location=Oxford |oclc=863194632 |quote=The Last Military dictatorship in Argentina (1976–1983) was many things. Outside its concentration camps it presented the facade of a typical authoritarian state. Within them, however, it was fascist.}}</ref>

=== Brazil ===
The Brazilian government of [[Jair Bolsonaro]] is cited as the rising point of neo-fascism in South America in the 21st century,<ref name="Löwy">{{cite web |last=Löwy |first=Michael |date=24 October 2019 |title=Neofascismo: um fenômeno planetário – o caso Bolsonaro |url=http://www.ihu.unisinos.br/78-noticias/593814-neofascismo-um-fenomeno-planetario-o-caso-bolsonaro |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Revista IHU Online |publisher=Instituto Humanitas Unisinos}}</ref><ref name="Viel">{{cite web |last=Viel |first=Ricardo |date=29 July 2019 |title=Manuel Loff: "O bolsonarismo é o neofascismo adaptado ao Brasil do século 21" |url=https://apublica.org/2019/07/o-bolsonarismo-e-o-neofacismo-adaptado-ao-brasil-do-seculo-21/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Agências Pública}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pereira |first=Roni |title=Dissecando o neofascismo de Jair Bolsonaro |url=https://ronikurono.jusbrasil.com.br/artigos/635153860/dissecando-o-neofascismo-de-jair-bolsonaro |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Jusbrasil}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=12 November 2018 |title=O governo Bolsonaro, o neofascismo e a resistência democrática |url=https://diplomatique.org.br/o-governo-bolsonaro-o-neofascismo-e-a-resistencia-democratica/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Le Monde Diplomatique}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Filho |first=João |date=17 November 2019 |title=Novo projeto de poder de Bolsonaro, a Aliança pelo Brasil é o primeiro partido neofascista do país |url=https://theintercept.com/2019/11/17/alianca-pelo-brasil-bolsonaro-neofascista/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=The Intercept Brasil}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Caldeira |first=Gabriel |date=1 June 2020 |title=Bolsonarismo está mais radical, diz estudioso de neofascismo |url=https://www.terra.com.br/noticias/bolsonarismo-esta-mais-radical-diz-estudioso-de-neofascismo,a23691794639a6d9f4a077bed4ac3677hozxmwal.html |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Terra}}</ref><ref name="Bonavides">{{cite web |last=Bonavides |first=Natália |date=23 March 2020 |title=O lado mais sombrio do neofascismo do governo Bolsonaro |url=https://congressoemfoco.uol.com.br/opiniao/forum/o-lado-mais-sombrio-do-neofascismo-do-governo-bolsonaro/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Congresso em Foco}}</ref> based on the [[Denialism|denial]] of science, bellicose rhetoric and authoritarian measures that withdraw rights from the population linked to a strongly [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] economic policy.<ref name="PMC7139254">{{cite journal |last=de Souza |first=Marcelo |year=2020 |title=The land of the past? Neo-populism, neo-fascism, and the failure of the left in Brazil |journal=Political Geography |volume=83 |article-number=102186 |doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2020.102186 |pmc=7139254 |pmid=32292250}}</ref><ref name="poder360">{{cite web |last=Guaracy |first=Thales |date=18 January 2020 |title=Bolsonaro faz do negacionismo um instrumento político, escreve Thales Guaracy |url=https://www.poder360.com.br/opiniao/governo/bolsonaro-faz-do-negacionismo-um-instrumento-politico-escreve-thales-guaracy/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Poder360}}</ref><ref name="OGlobo">{{cite web |last=Chacra |first=Guga |date=15 May 2020 |title=O negacionismo de Bolsonaro entrará para a história da pandemia |url=https://blogs.oglobo.globo.com/guga-chacra/post/o-negacionismo-de-bolsonaro-entrara-para-historia-da-pandemia.html |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=O Globo}}</ref><ref name="RevistaEpoca">{{cite web |last=Gherman |first=Michel |date=28 March 2020 |title=Bolsonaro, O negacionista: politica e ciência em tempos de Corona |url=https://epoca.globo.com/michel-gherman/coluna-bolsonaro-negacionista-politica-ciencia-em-tempos-de-corona-24332846 |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Revista Época}}</ref><ref name="Bonavides" /> As a result of factors such as [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|opposition to Workers' Party]], fear and reaction to the [[2013 protests in Brazil|2013 protests]], as well as the [[2008 financial crisis]] and [[2014 Brazilian economic crisis]], Jair Bolsonaro emerged as a viable option, not because of a well-defined strategic project, but almost accidentally.<ref name=":01">CORDEIRO, Andrey Ferreira (2020). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OPH0DwAAQBAJ&dq=Lulismo,+bolsonarismo+e+a+crise+brasileira:+do+desenvolvimento+dependente+a++uma+pol%C3%ADtica+auton%C3%B4mica&pg=PA141 "Lulismo, bolsonarismo e a crise brasileira: do desenvolvimento dependente a uma política autonômica"]. Em: BARBOSA, Fabio; etal; O pânico como política: o Brasil no imaginário do Lulismo em crise. Mauad Editora, Rio de Janeiro.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rocha |first=Igor |date=3 September 2019 |title=Governo Bolsonaro: ala "técnica" é, também, ideológica |url=https://entendendobolsonaro.blogosfera.uol.com.br/2019/09/03/ala-tecnica-do-governo-bolsonaro-e-tambem-ideologica/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |website=entendendobolsonaro.blogosfera.uol.com.br |language=pt-br |quote=É necessário ter em mente que todas as "alas" da base deste e de outros governos é ideológica e isso, em si, não é um problema. Afirmar o contrário apenas indica que alguns comportamentos ideológicos de muitos agentes do governo Bolsonaro se tornaram senso comum, sendo naturalizados a ponto de, mesmo ideológicos, não serem percebidos dessa maneira.}}</ref> In this way, the multiplicity of groups that make up the Bolsonarism, the different wings (military, ideological, religious, capital, etc.) present pragmatic disagreements, strategies, objectives and distinct methods.<ref name=":0" /> The core of this Brazilian neo-fascism converged its interests and rhetoric with [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] [[Fundamentalism|religious fundamentalism]] and both allied themselves with military sectors and liberal [[think tanks]],<ref name="PMC7139254" /> so that within [[Jair Messias Bolsonaro|bolsonarism]] there is a power bloc made up of non-fascist conservatives and [[Far-right politics|far-right]] neo-fascists; although still without the support of the broad and fanatical mass movement which was the basis of European fascism.<ref name="PMC7139254" />

=== United States ===
{{See also|Fascism in North America|Alt-right|Radical right (United States)|Donald Trump and fascism}}

Groups which are identified as neo-fascist in the [[United States]] generally include [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] organizations and movements such as the [[Proud Boys]],<ref>Belam, Martin and Gabatt, Adam (September 30, 2020) [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/30/proud-boys-who-are-far-right-group-that-backs-donald-trump "Proud Boys: who are the far-right group that backs Donald Trump?"] ''[[The Guardian]]''</ref> the [[National Alliance (United States)|National Alliance]], and the [[American Nazi Party]]. The [[Institute for Historical Review]] publishes [[negationist]] historical papers which are often [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Institute for Historical Review / Holocaust denial / History / Auschwitz-Birkenau |url=https://www.auschwitz.org/en/history/holocaust-denial/the-institute-for-historical-review/ |access-date=2025-09-28 |website=www.auschwitz.org}}</ref> The [[alt-right]]—a loosely connected coalition of individuals and organizations which advocates a wide range of [[Far-right politics|far-right]] ideas, from [[Dark Enlightenment|neo-reactionism]] to [[white nationalism]]—is often included under the [[umbrella term]] "neo-fascist" because alt-right individuals and organizations advocate a radical form of authoritarian [[ultranationalism]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Motadel |first=David |date=2017-08-17 |title=The United States was never immune to fascism. Not then, not now {{!}} David Motadel |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/aug/17/fascism-history-united-states |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227024947/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/aug/17/fascism-history-united-states |archive-date=27 February 2018 |access-date=2017-11-27 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

== Oceania ==
=== Australia and New Zealand ===
[[Christchurch mosque shootings#Perpetrator|Brenton Harrison Tarrant]], the [[Australia]]n perpetrator of the [[Christchurch mosque shootings]] at [[Al Noor Mosque, Christchurch|Al Noor Mosque]] and [[Linwood Islamic Centre]] in [[Christchurch]], [[New Zealand]], was an admitted fascist who followed [[eco-fascism]] and admired [[Oswald Mosley]]. Mosley was the leader of the [[British fascism|British fascist]] organization called the [[British Union of Fascists]] (BUF) in the 1930s, and he is quoted in the shooter's manifesto ''The Great Replacement'' (named after [[The Great Replacement conspiracy theory|the French far-right theory of the same name]]).<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://time.com/5552664/new-zealand-massacre-fascism/ |title=What Historians of Fascism Think About The Suspected New Zealand Shooter's Declaration of Extremism |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |last=Waxman |first=Olivia B. |access-date=1 April 2019 |date=17 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/new-zealand-killer-says-his-role-model-was-nazi-allied-british-fascist |title=New Zealand killer says his model was Nazi-allied British fascist |work=[[The Forward]]/[[Times of Israel]] |access-date=1 April 2019 |date=15 March 2019}}</ref>

== Africa ==
=== South Africa ===
The [[Economic Freedom Fighters]] are a self-described [[Pan-Africanism|pan-Africanist]] [[political party]] founded in 2013 by the expelled former [[African National Congress Youth League]] (ANCYL) President [[Julius Malema]], and his allies.<ref name="Dispatch">{{cite news |title=Malema launches his Economic Freedom Fighters |first=Meggan |last=Saville |url=http://www.dispatch.co.za/malema-launches-his-economic-freedom-fighters/ |newspaper=Dispatch Online |date=12 July 2013 |access-date=16 July 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725200305/http://www.dispatch.co.za/malema-launches-his-economic-freedom-fighters/ |archive-date=25 July 2013}}</ref> Malema and the party have frequently courted controversy for engaging in [[Racism in South Africa#Racism against white Africans|anti-White]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |year=2016 |title=Morning in South Africa |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |page=187 |quotation=Often explicitly antiwhite in its rhetoric, it [the EFF] would expropriate without compensation white-owned property...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Megan |year=2016 |title=Performing Whitely in the Postcolony: Afrikaners in South African Theatrical and Public Life |publisher=[[University of Iowa Press]] |page=62 |quotation=Several events added fuel to the fire: the increasing popularity of Julius Malema's antiwhite political party, the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF)...}}</ref> and [[Indian South Africans|anti-Indian]] [[racism]].<ref name=INDIE>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/group-to-take-juliusmalema-to-court-for-racist-rant-15526571 |title=Group to take #JuliusMalema to court for racist rant {{!}} IOL News |last=Mngoma |first=Nosipho |date=18 June 2018 |website=www.iol.co.za |publisher=The Mercury |language=en |access-date=1 January 2019}}</ref> In November 2019, the Professor of International Relations at [[University of the Witwatersrand]], Vishwas Satgar, defined them as a manifestation of a new phenomenon, 'Black Neofascism'.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Black Neofascism? The Economic Freedom Fighters in South Africa |date=November 2019 |last=Satgar |first=Vishwas |journal=Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne de Sociologie |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=580–605 |doi=10.1111/cars.12265 |pmid=31692263 |s2cid=207894048}}</ref>

== Asia ==
=== India ===
{{main|Hindutva|Hindu terrorism|Akhand Bharat}}
{{See also|Violence against Muslims in independent India|Violence against Christians in India}} 

=== Indonesia ===
[[Adolf Hitler]]'s propaganda which advocated the hegemony of "Greater Germany" inspired similar ideas of "Indonesia Mulia" (esteemed [[Indonesia]]) and "Indonesia Raya" (great Indonesia) in the former [[Dutch colony]]. The first fascist party was the Partai Fasis Indonesia (PFI). [[Sukarno]] admired [[Nazi Germany]] under Hitler and its vision of happiness for all: "It's in the Third Reich that the Germans will see Germany at the apex above other nations in this world," he said in 1963.<ref>{{cite news |first=Aboeprijadi |last=Santoso |date=20 July 2008 |title=Fascism in Indonesia, no big deal? |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/07/20/fascism-indonesia-no-big-deal.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109235949/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/07/20/fascism-indonesia-no-big-deal.html |archive-date=9 January 2014 |access-date=9 January 2014 |newspaper=[[The Jakarta Post]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref> He stated that Hitler was 'extraordinarily clever' in 'depicting his ideals': he spoke about Hitler's rhetorical skills, but denied any association with [[Nazism]] as an ideology, saying that Indonesian nationalism was not as narrow as Nazi nationalism.<ref>[https://sydney.edu.au/arts/indonesian/docs/Hons_Thesis_Mirela_Suciu_2008.pdf Signs of Anti-Semitism in Indonesia], Eva Mirela Suciu, Department of Asian Studies, [[The University of Sydney]], 2008</ref>

=== Israel ===
In Israel, various fascist movements exist. Notably, [[Kahanism]] gained influence as the conflict between Israel and Palestine continues to persist.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sprinzak |first=Ehud |title=Kach and Meir Kahane: The Emergence of Jewish Quasi-Fascism I: Origins and Development |year=1985 |isbn= |pages=15–21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fact Sheet: Meir Kahane & The Extremist Kahanist Movement {{!}} IMEU |url=https://imeu.org/article/fact-sheet-meir-kahane-the-extremist-kahanist-movement |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=imeu.org}}</ref> The kahanist party [[Otzma Yehudit]] ("Jewish Power") has widely been described as fascist. Noted Israeli sociologist [[Eva Illouz]] has described the party leader of Otzma Yehudit, [[Itamar Ben-Gvir]], as representative of Jewish fascism.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 November 2022 |title=Eva Illouz, sociologue : « La troisième force politique en Israël représente ce que l'on est bien obligé d'appeler, à contrecœur, un "fascisme juif" » |trans-title=Eva Illouz, sociologist: "The third political force in Israel represents what we are reluctantly forced to call 'Jewish fascism'" |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2022/11/15/eva-illouz-sociologue-la-troisieme-force-politique-en-israel-represente-ce-que-l-on-est-bien-oblige-d-appeler-a-contrec-ur-un-fascisme-juif_6149891_3232.html |access-date=14 March 2025 |language=fr}}</ref> Ben-Gvir once kept a portrait of the Israeli terrorist and mass murderer [[Baruch Goldstein]] in his living room, sparking outrage.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Stephens |first=Bret |date=8 November 2022 |title=Opinion {{!}} Israel Has Serious Problems, but Impending Fascism Isn't One of Them |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/08/opinion/israel-election-fascism.html |access-date=14 March 2025 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In 1980, the [[Journal of Palestine Studies]] published an article describing the rise of fascist movements in Israel and support from governmental institutions.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1980 |title=Rising Spectre of Fascism in Israel |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2536567 |journal=[[Journal of Palestine Studies]] |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=181–187 |doi=10.2307/2536567 |jstor=2536567 |issn=0377-919X |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Japan ===
{{see also|Nippon Kaigi|Uyoku dantai}}
After World War II, neo-fascism and ultra-nationalism were ostracized from mainstream politics in Germany, while in [[Japan]], they were partially related to major right-wing conservative politics.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.jacobinmag.com/2021/10/japan-jsdf-remilitarization-article-9-us-foreign-policy-biden-asian-pivot |title= No, Japan Should Not Remilitarize |quote=Carrying the legacy of Japanese fascism, the LDP (and particularly Nippon Kaigi) is the knowing driver of both this growing racism and nationalism and Japan's swelling military fervor. The synthesis of remilitarization with reactionary politics is embodied in the party's longtime leader, Shinzō Abe, Japan's longest-serving prime minister, who retired only last year due to his declining health. |magazine=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]] |date=24 October 2021 |access-date=28 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Shinzo Abe and the long history of Japanese political violence |quote=As the French judge at the trial, Henri Bernard, noted, Japan's wartime atrocities 'had a principal author [Hirohito] who escaped all prosecution and of whom in any case the present defendants could only be considered accomplices.' The result was that whereas ultranationalism became toxic in post-war Germany, in Japan neo-fascism — centred around the figure of the emperor — retained its allure and became mainstream albeit sotto voce within Japan's ruling Liberal Democratic Party. |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/shinzo-abe-and-the-long-history-of-japanese-political-violence/ |work=[[The Spectator]] |date=9 July 2022 |access-date=3 March 2023}}</ref> Since 2006, all prime ministers of Japan's [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|LDP]] have been members of far-right ultranationalist [[Nippon Kaigi]].<ref name="2014 reshuffle">"[http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2994558 Abe's reshuffle promotes right-wingers]" (Korea Joongang Daily – 2014/09/05)</ref>

=== Mongolia ===
With [[Mongolia]] located between the larger nations [[Russia]] and [[China]], ethnic insecurities have driven many Mongolians to neo-fascism,<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1910893,00.html|title=Postcard: Ulan Bator – TIME |date=27 July 2009 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=30 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722010422/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1910893,00.html |archive-date=22 July 2009 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> expressing nationalism centered around [[Genghis Khan]] and [[Adolf Hitler]]. Groups advocating these ideologies include Blue Mongolia, [[Tsagaan Khas|Dayar Mongol]], and Mongolian National Union.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2446&Itemid=42 |title=Mongolia's leading English language news |publisher=The UB Post |access-date=30 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512064316/http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2446&Itemid=42 |archive-date=12 May 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Pakistan===
Pakistan's [[Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan]] is considered fascist by some analysts because of its engagement in [[Islamic extremism]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/250105-seven-theses-on-the-rise-of-fascism-in-pakistan |title=Seven theses on the rise of fascism in Pakistan |website=www.thenews.com.pk |date=29 November 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Radicalization in Pakistan: A Critical Perspective |first=Muhammad Shoaib |last=Pervez |page=2 |publisher=[[Routledge]]}}</ref>

=== Taiwan ===
{{main|National Socialism Association}}
The National Socialism Association (NSA) is a neo-fascist political organization founded in [[Taiwan]] in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi (許娜琦), a 22-year-old female political science graduate of [[Soochow University (Taipei)|Soochow University]]. The NSA views [[Adolf Hitler]] as its leader and often uses the slogan "Long live Hitler". This has brought them condemnation from the [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]], an international Jewish human rights centre.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/837697.html |title=Taiwan political activists admiring Hitler draw Jewish protests |work=[[Haaretz]] |access-date=22 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304123401/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/837697.html |archive-date=4 March 2010 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div-col}}
* [[Anti-fascism]] 
* [[Christian fascism]]
* [[Clerical fascism]]
* [[Islamofascism]]
* [[List of fascist movements]]
* [[National Bolshevism]]
* [[Palingenetic ultranationalism]]
* [[Para-fascism]]
* [[Post-fascism]]
* [[Post–World War II anti-fascism]]
* [[Third Position]]
{{div-col-end}}

==References==
'''Informational notes'''
{{notelist}}

'''Citations'''
{{reflist}}

'''Bibliography'''
* Golsan, Richard J. ed. (1998) ''Fascism's Return: Scandal, Revision and Ideology since 1980''. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. {{isbn|0-8032-7071-2}}.
* [[Tony Judt|Judt, Tony]] (2005) ''[[Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945]]''. New York, Penguin Press. {{isbn|1-59420-065-3}}.

'''Further reading'''<!-- These should be about neo-fascist movements after World War II proper. -->
* ''[[The Beast Reawakens]]'' by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, {{ISBN|0-316-51959-6}}).
* ''The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today'' by Geoff Harris, ([[Edinburgh University]] Press; new edition, 1994, {{ISBN|0-7486-0466-9}}).
* ''The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe'' by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, {{ISBN|0-582-23881-1}}).
* ''[[Fascism (book)|Fascism]]'' (Oxford Readers) by [[Roger Griffin]], 1995, {{ISBN|0-19-289249-5}}.
* ''[[The Italian Far Right from 1945 to the Russia-Ukraine Conflict]]'' Nicola Guerra, (London: Routledge, 2024, {{ISBN|978-1-03-256625-2}}).
* ''Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918–1985'' by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, {{ISBN|0-631-13618-5}}).
* ''[[Fascism Today: A World Survey]]'' by [[Angelo Del Boca]] (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969).
* ''Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe'' by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, {{ISBN|0-415-91058-7}}).
* ''Fascism: Contagion, Community, Myth'' by Nidesh Lawtoo (Michigan State University Press, 2019).
* ''Italian Neofascism: The Strategy of Tension and the Politics of Nonreconciliation'' by [[Anna Cento Bull]] (Berghahn Books, 2007).
* ''Mussolini and the Eclipse of Italian Fascism: From Dictatorship to Populism'' by R. J. B. Bosworth R. J. (Yale University Press, 2019, {{ISBN|978-0-3002-5582-9}}).
* ''The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis'' by Herbert Kitschelt ([[University of Michigan]] Press; reprint edition, 1997, {{ISBN|0-472-08441-0}}).
* ''The Routledge Companion to Italian Fascist Architecture: Reception and Legacy'' by Kay Bea Jones and Stephanie Pilat ([[Routledge]], 2020, {{ISBN|978-1-0000-6144-4}}).
* ''Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe'' edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay ([[Palgrave Macmillan]]; 1st edition, 2002, {{ISBN|0-312-29593-6}}).
* ''Transnational Neofascism in France and Italy'' by Andrea Mammone ([[Cambridge University Press]], 2015, {{ISBN|978-1-1070-3091-6}}).

== External links ==
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130930081524/http://www.themodernword.com/eco/eco_blackshirt.html Eternal Fascism: Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt], [[Umberto Eco]]'s list of 14 characteristics of fascism, published in 1995.
* [https://www.politicalresearch.org/2016/12/12/what-is-fascism-2/ What is Fascism?], some general ideological features by Matthew N. Lyons.
* [http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/berlet_fascism.html Fascism] by Chip Berlet.

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[[Category:Neo-fascism| ]]
[[Category:Far-right politics]]
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