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{{Short description|Esoteric doctrines and physical, mental, and spiritual practices in Taoism}}
{{Taoism}}
{{Infobox Chinese
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[[File:The Immortal Soul of the Taoist Adept.PNG|thumb|right|Development of the immortal embryo in the lower ''[[dantian]]'' of the Daoist cultivator]]
'''Neidan''', or '''internal alchemy''' ({{zh|t=內丹術|p=nèidān shù|s=內丹术|first=t}}), is an array of esoteric doctrines and physical, mental, and spiritual practices that [[Taoist]] initiates use to prolong life and create an immortal spiritual body that would survive after death.<ref>{{cite book|title=Daoism Handbook|last1=Skar|first1=Lowell|last2=Pregadio|first2=Fabrizio|year=2000|publisher=Brill|pages=464–497|isbn=9004112081}}</ref> Also known as '''Jindan''' ({{lang|zh|金丹}} "golden elixir"), inner alchemy combines theories derived from [[Chinese alchemy|external alchemy]] (''[[waidan]]'' {{lang|zh|外丹}}), correlative cosmology (including the [[Five Phases]]), the [[Ba gua|emblems]] of the ''[[Yijing]]'', and [[traditional Chinese medicine|medical theory]], with techniques of [[Taoist meditation]], [[daoyin]] gymnastics, and [[Taoist sexual practices|sexual hygiene]].<ref>(Baldrian-Hussein 2008, 762)</ref>

In ''neidan'', the human body becomes a cauldron (or [[Ding (vessel)|"ding"]]) in which the [[Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)|Three Treasures]] of [[Jing (TCM)|Jing]] ("Essence"), [[Qi]] ("Breath") and [[Shen (Chinese religion)|Shen]] ("Spirit") are cultivated for the purpose of improving physical, emotional and mental health, and ultimately returning to the primordial unity of the [[Tao]], i.e., attaining [[Xian (Taoism)|Taoist Immortality]]. It is believed the ''[[Xiuzhen Tu]]'' is such a cultivation map. In China, it is an important form of practice for most schools of [[Taoism]].

==Terminology==
The Chinese [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] ''nèidān'' combines the common word ''nèi'' {{linktext|lang=zh|內}} meaning "inside; inner; internal" with ''dān'' {{linktext|lang=zh|丹}} "cinnabar; vermillion; elixir; alchemy". The [[antonym]] of ''nèi'' is ''wài'' {{linktext|lang=zh|外}} "outside; exterior; external", and ''nèidān'' "internal elixir / alchemy" was coined from the earlier complementary term ''wàidān'' {{lang|zh|外丹}} "external elixir / alchemy".

Traditional Chinese medical [[Chinese alchemy|alchemical]] texts and sources ordinarily call ''neidan'' the ''jīndān dào'' {{lang|zh|金丹道}} or Way of the Golden Elixir. In [[Modern Standard Chinese]] usage, the term ''nèidān shù'' {{lang|zh|內丹術}} (with {{linktext|lang=zh|術}} "art; skill; technique; method") refers generally to internal alchemical practices for longevity by maintaining good health, and the prevention of pain and suffering.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dechar |first=Lorie |title=Five Spirits Alchemical Acupuncture for Psychological and Spiritual Healing |publisher=Lantern Books |year=2006 |isbn=9781590563274 |language=English}}</ref>

The date for the earliest use of the term ''neidan'' is uncertain. {{lang|zh|內丹}} or ''neidan'' had been mentioned in {{lang|zh|灵剑子}} by Xu Xun [[许逊]] in [[Jin dynasty (266–420)]], but on the other hand [[Arthur Waley]] proposed that it was first recorded in the 559 vow taken by [[Tiantai]] Buddhist patriarch [[Nanyue Huisi]] praying to successfully make an elixir that would keep him alive until the coming of [[Maitreya]].<ref>(Waley 1930: 14)</ref> Many scholars agreed, including [[Joseph Needham]] and [[Lu Gwei-djen]] who translated Huisi's vow to live as an ascetic in the mountains:
<blockquote>I am seeking for the longevity in order to defend the Faith, not in order to enjoy worldly happiness. I pray that all the saints and sages will come to my help, so that I may get some good magic mushrooms [''zhi'' {{lang|zh|芝}}], and numinous elixirs [''shendan'' {{lang|zh|神丹}}], enabling me to cure all illnesses and to stop both hunger and thirst. In this way I shall be able to practice continually the way of the Sutras and to engage in the several forms of meditations. I shall hope to find a peaceful dwelling in the depths of the mountains, with enough numinous elixirs and medicine to carry out my plans. Thus, by the aids of external elixirs [''waidan''] I shall be able to cultivate the elixir within [''neidan''].<ref>(Needham and Lu, 1983: 140)</ref></blockquote>Others believed that ''neidan'' first occurred in the biographies of Deng Yuzhi {{lang|zh|鄧郁之}} (fl. 483–493) and Su Yuanming {{lang|zh|蘇元明}} (fl. {{Circa|600}}). However, the authenticity of the relevant passages mentioned above is doubtful.<ref>(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 164–171 "pseudo-historical sources")</ref>

The term ''neidan'' was seldom used throughout the late [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) and [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|Five dynasties]] (907–960) period, and only became widespread around the beginning of the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279) period, when ''neidan'' evolved into a highly complex system in both its theoretical and practical aspects.<ref>(Baldrian-Hussein 2008: 763)</ref> Tang texts described internal alchemical practices with the words ''fúyào'' {{lang|zh|服藥}} "take drug/medicine" and ''chángshēng'' {{lang|zh|長生}} "long life, longevity; (Taoism) eternal life".<ref>(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 170)</ref> Liu Xiyue's {{lang|zh|劉希岳}} 988 ''Taixuan langranzi jindao shi'' {{lang|zh|太玄朗然子進道詩}} (Master Taixuan Langran's Poems on Advancing in the Tao) has the earliest datable mention of the terms ''neidan'' and ''waidan''.<ref>(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 174, 178, 180)</ref> The {{Circa|1019}} ''[[Yunji Qiqian]]'' Taoist anthology mentions the term ''neidan''.<ref>(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 178)</ref>

Early texts that mention ''neidan'' define it as synonymous or similar with some ''qi'' circulation techniques: Cultivation and Transmutation (''xiulian'' {{lang|zh|修煉}}), Embryonic Breathing (''[[Taixi (embryonic breathing)|taixi]]'' {{lang|zh|胎息}}), the Cyclical Elixir (''huandan'' {{lang|zh|還丹}}), the Golden Elixir (''jindan'' {{lang|zh|金丹}}), the Great Elixir (''dadan'' {{lang|zh|大丹}}), the Interior and Exterior Medicines (''nei/waiyao'' {{lang|zh|内外藥}}), the Inner and Outer Counterparts (''nei/waixiang'' {{lang|zh|内外象}}), and the Yin Elixir and Yang Elixir (''yindan'' {{lang|zh|陰丹}} and ''yangdan'' {{lang|zh|陽丹}}).<ref>(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 179–186)</ref>

Based upon the textual evidence, Farzeen Baldrian-Hussein concludes that in early texts, ''neidan'' refers to a specific technique, and by Song [[Emperor Zhenzong]]'s reign (997–1022), the term designates a group of techniques, expressed in specific alchemical language.<ref>(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 187)</ref>

It is sometimes transliterated using the older Wade–Giles system as ''Neitan'' in literature on western Alchemy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nozedar, Adele.|title=The illustrated signs & symbols sourcebook : an A to Z compendium of over 1000 designs|year=2010|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Incorporated |isbn=978-1-4351-6181-8|oclc=960951107}}</ref>

==History and development==
[[File:Chinese woodcut; Daoist internal alchemy (9) Wellcome L0038979.jpg|thumb|Chinese woodblock illustration of ''neidan'' "Putting the miraculous elixir on the ''ding'' tripod", 1615 ''[[Xingming guizhi]]'' (Pointers on Spiritual Nature and Bodily Life)]]
[[File:Chinese woodcut; Daoist internal alchemy (4) Wellcome L0038974.jpg|thumb|Chinese woodblock illustration of ''neidan'' "Cleansing the heart-mind and retiring into concealment", 1615 ''[[Xingming guizhi]]'']]

''Neidan'' is part of the Chinese alchemical meditative tradition that is said to have been separated into internal and external (''[[Chinese alchemy#Outer alchemy (Waidan)|Waidan]]'') at some point during the [[Tang dynasty]]. The ''Cantong qi'' ([[The Kinship of the Three]]) is the earliest known book on theoretical alchemy in China; it was written by the alchemist [[Wei Boyang]] in 142 AD. This text influenced the formation of n''eidan'', whose earliest existing texts date from the first half of the 8th century. The authors of several ''neidan'' articles refer to their teachings as the Way of the Golden Elixir (''jindan zhi dao''). The majority of Chinese alchemical sources is found in the ''Daozang'' ([[Taoist Canon]]), the largest collection of Taoist texts.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-25|title=Alchemical Classics IV: The Essentials of the Shortcut to the Great Achievement by Liu Hua Yang|url=https://purplecloudinstitute.com/alchemical-classics-iv-the-essentials-of-the-shortcut-to-the-great-achievement-by-liu-hua-yang/|access-date=2020-11-26|website=Purple Cloud|language=en-AU}}</ref>

''Neidan'' shares a significant portion of its notions and methods with classical Chinese medicine, ''[[fangshi]]'' and with other bodies of practices, such as [[meditation]] and the methods for "nourishing life" (''yangsheng''). What distinguishes alchemy from these related traditions is its unique view of the elixir as a material or immaterial entity that represents the original state of being and the attainment of that state. The ''neidan'' tradition of internal [[alchemy]] is practiced by working with the energies that were already present in the human body as opposed to using natural substances, medicines or elixirs, from outside of the body. The [[Shangqing School]] of Taoism played an important role in the emergence of ''neidan'' alchemy, after using Waidan mainly as a meditative practice, and therefore turning it from an external to an internal art.

==The Three Treasures==
{{Main|Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)}}
Internal alchemy focuses upon transforming the bodily ''sanbao'' "three treasures", which are the essential energies sustaining human life: 
*''[[Jing (TCM)|Jing]]'' {{linktext|lang=zh|精}} "nutritive essence, essence; refined, perfected; extract; soul, dark, animal instincts, demon; sperm, ovum, seed, Genetics"
*''[[Qi]]'' {{linktext|lang=zh|氣}} "acquired energy air food water vital energy, grey, force; air, vapour; breath; vigor; attitude"
*''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|Shen]]'' {{linktext|lang=zh|神}} "spirit; mind, glow, bright; god, deity; vitality supernatural abilities, higher intentions, supernatural being"
According to the 13th-century ''[[The Book of Balance and Harmony|Book of Balance and Harmony]]'':
:Making one's essence complete, one can preserve the body. To do so, first keep the body at ease, and make sure there are no desires. Thereby energy can be made complete.
:Making one's energy complete, one can nurture the mind. To do so, first keep the mind pure, and make sure there are no thoughts. Thereby spirit can be made complete.
:Making one's spirit complete, one can recover emptiness. To do so, first keep the will sincere, and make sure body and mind are united. Thereby spirit can be returned to emptiness. ... To attain immortality, there is nothing else but the refinement of these three treasures: essence, energy, spirit."<ref>(tr. Kohn 1956, 146)</ref>
When the "three treasures" are internally maintained, along with a balance of yin and yang, it is possible to achieve a healthy body and [[longevity]], which are the main goals of internal alchemy (Ching 1996, 395).

===Jing===
[[File:Teng Feng-Chou 2016.jpg|right|thumb|225px|Neidan practice]]
''[[Jing (Chinese medicine)|Jing]]'' "essence" referring to the primordial energies of the physical body. Based upon the idea that death and illness are caused by over straining and stressing of one's mind and body leads to the depletion of one's ''jing'', Daoist internal alchemy claims that preserving ''jing'' allows one to have a long, healthy and happy life, known classically as longevity in Chinese thought, if not [[immortality]].<ref>(Schipper 1993, 154)</ref>

===Qi===
''[[Qi]]'' or ''ch'i'' is defined as the "natural energy of the universe" and manifests in everyone and everything.<ref>(Carroll 2008)</ref> By means of internal alchemy, Taoists strive to maintain a positive free flow of ''qi'' through the body in paths or [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] moving to each individual organ.<ref>(Smith 1986, 201)</ref> as Stagnation of qi is a primary or root cause of many health conditions in traditional Chinese thinking.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhu |first=Bing |title=Diagnostics of Traditional Chinese Medicine |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |year=2010 |isbn=9781848190368 |location=Great Britain |language=English}}</ref>

Healing practices such as [[acupuncture]], [[Tui na]], [[Cupping therapy|cupping]] and [[Chinese herbology|herbal medicines]] are believed to open up the ''qi'' [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] throughout the body so that the ''qi'' can flow freely. Keeping ''qi'' in balance and flowing throughout the body promotes health; imbalance can lead to sickness.

===Shen===
''Shen'' is the original spirit of the body. To have good Shen is to look vital and glowing on the surface of the skin and the gloss and spark seen in the eyes. It is the hue on the leaf of a tree. Taoists try to become conscious of ''shen'' through contemplative practices, including meditation.<ref>(Smith 1986, 202)</ref>

==See also==

* [[Daoyin]]
* [[Bigu (avoiding grains)]]
* [[Liu Yiming]] (1734–1821)
* [[Neigong]]
* [[Neijia]]
* [[Neijing Tu]]
* [[Qigong]]

==Works cited==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite journal  |last=Baldrian-Hussein |first=Farzeen |year=1989 |title=Inner Alchemy: Notes on the Origin and Use of the Term ''Neidan'' |journal=Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie |volume=5 |pages=163–190 |doi=10.3406/asie.1989.947 }}
*{{Cite book |last=Baldrian-Hussein |first=Farzeen |chapter=Neidan |script-chapter=zh:內丹 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediataoi00preg_233/page/n36 762]–66 |title=The Encyclopedia of Taoism |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediataoi00preg_233 |url-access=limited |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge |location=London and New York |editor-last=Pregadio |editor-first=Fabrizio |isbn=978-0-7007-1200-7 }}.
*{{Cite book |last=Carroll |first=Robert Todd |year=2008 |chapter=Chi (Ch'i or qi)" Chi. |url=http://skepdic.com/chi.html |title=Skeptic's Dictionary }}
*{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Ching |first=Julia |year=1996 |title=East Asian Religions |editor-first=Willard G. |editor-last=Oxtoby |encyclopedia=World Religions, Eastern Traditions |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=346–467 }}
*{{Cite book |last=Kohn |first=Livia |year=1956 |title=Daoism and Chinese Culture |location=Cambridge, Mass. |publisher=Three Pines Press |pages=145–149 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Littleton |first=Scott C. |year=1999 |title=The Sacred East |publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers  }}
* {{Cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph and Lu Gwei-djen |year=1983 |title=Science and Civilisation in China |volume=Chemistry and Chemical Technology |chapter=Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiological Alchemy |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
*{{Cite book |author-link=Kristofer Schipper|last=Schipper |first=Kristofer |year=1993 |title=The Taoist Body |translator-first=Karen C. |translator-last=Duval |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=University of California Press }}
*{{Cite book |last1=Skar |first1=Lowell |last2=Pregadio |first2=Fabrizio |chapter=Inner Alchemy (''Neidan'') |pages=464–97 |title=Daoism Handbook |year=2000 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden and Boston |editor-last=Kohn |editor-first=Livia |isbn=9004112081 }}
*{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Huston |year=1986 |title=The World's Religions |location=New York |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers }}
*{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Laurence |year=1989 |title=Chinese Religion: An Introduction |location=Belmont, CA |publisher=Wadsworth }}
*{{Cite journal |last=Waley |first=Arthur |year=1930 |title=Notes on Chinese Alchemy (Supplementary to Johnson's ''A Study of Chinese Alchemy'') |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00090911 |s2cid=191324421 }}
{{refend}}

== References ==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeVI/Dao.htm ''Daoist Alchemy in the West: The Esoteric Paradigms''], Lee Irwin
* [https://www.goldenelixir.com/jindan.html "Taoist Alchemy"], Fabrizio Pregadio
* ''[https://www.goldenelixir.com/press/occ_03_jindan_history.html The Way of the Golden Elixir: An Introduction to Taoist Alchemy]'', Fabrizio Pregadio (PDF, free download)
* [http://www.alchemylab.com/golden_flower.htm ''Secret of the Golden Flower''], Walter Picca
* [https://www.calameo.com/read/001841462c9694249edd8/ An Shigao and Early Chinese Meditation Techniques], Phra Kiattisak Kittipanyo, ''DIRI Journal'' 1: 98–118.

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