View source for Naro language

{{Short description|Khoe language of Botswana and Namibia}}
{{For|the Nilo-Saharan language|Nara language}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Naro
| altname          = Nharo
| states           = [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]]
| ethnicity        = [[Ncoakhoe]]
| speakers         = roughly 10,000 (2011)<ref name=Brenzinger>Brenzinger, Matthias (2011) "The twelve modern Khoisan languages." In Witzlack-Makarevich & Ernszt (eds.), ''Khoisan languages and linguistics: proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Riezlern / Kleinwalsertal'' (Research in Khoisan Studies 29). Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.</ref><br>8,000 in Botswana
| date             = 2014
| ref              = e18
| speakers2        = and 1,000 in Namibia (2011)<ref name=Brenzinger/><br>about as many L2 speakers in Botswana<ref name=Brenzinger/>
| familycolor      = Khoisan
| fam1             = [[Khoe–Kwadi languages|Khoe–Kwadi]]
| fam2             = [[Khoe languages|Khoe]]
| fam3             = Kalahari (Tshu–Khwe)
| fam4             = West
| iso3             = nhr
| glotto           = naro1249
| glottorefname    = Naro
| notice           = IPA
}}

'''Naro''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|ɑr|oʊ}}, also '''Nharo''', is a [[Khoe languages|Khoe language]] spoken in [[Ghanzi District]] of [[Botswana]] and in eastern [[Namibia]]. It is one of the most-spoken of the Tshu–Khwe languages.  Naro is a trade language among speakers of different Khoe languages in [[Ghanzi District]]. There exists a [[dictionary]].

==Phonology==
Naro has the following consonant inventory (in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) as described by Miller (2011), whereas the orthographic symbols were proposed by Visser (2001):<ref>Visser originally wrote the palatal clicks with a base of {{angle bracket|ç}}, but switched to {{angle bracket|tc}} to make the language more accessible from English-language typewriters and keyboards.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Consonant phonemes of Naro
|-
! rowspan=2| 
! rowspan=2|[[labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan=2|[[Dental click|Dental<br>click]]
! colspan=3|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan=2|[[Lateral click|Lateral<br>click]]
! rowspan=2|[[Palatal click|Palatal<br>click]]
! rowspan=2|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan=2|[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! [[Stop consonant|stop]]
! [[affricate]]
! [[alveolar click|click]]
|-
! [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]] 
|{{IPA link|pʰ}} {{grapheme|ph}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǀʰ}} {{grapheme|ch}}
|{{IPA link|tʰ}} {{grapheme|th}}
|{{IPA link|tsʰ}} {{grapheme|tsh}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǃʰ}} {{grapheme|qh}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǁʰ}} {{grapheme|xh}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǂʰ}} {{grapheme|tch}}
|{{IPA link|kʰ}} {{grapheme|kh}}
|
|-
! [[Tenuis consonant|Tenuis]] 
|{{IPA link|p}} {{grapheme|p}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǀ}} {{grapheme|c}}
|{{IPA link|t}} {{grapheme|t}}
|{{IPA link|ts}} {{grapheme|ts}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǃ}} {{grapheme|q}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǁ}} {{grapheme|x}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǂ}} {{grapheme|tc}}
|{{IPA link|k}} {{grapheme|k}}
|
|-
! [[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]] 
|{{IPA link|b}} {{grapheme|b}}
|{{IPA link|ᶢǀ}} {{grapheme|dc}}
|{{IPA link|d}} {{grapheme|d}}
|{{IPA link|dz}} {{grapheme|z}}
|{{IPA link|ᶢǃ}} {{grapheme|dq}}
|{{IPA link|ᶢǁ}} {{grapheme|dx}}
|{{IPA link|ᶢǂ}} {{grapheme|dtc}}
|{{IPA link|ɡ}} {{grapheme|gh}}
|
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] 
|{{IPA link|m}} {{grapheme|m}}
|{{IPA link|ᵑǀ}} {{grapheme|nc}}
|{{IPA link|n}} {{grapheme|n}}
|
|{{IPA link|ᵑǃ}} {{grapheme|nq}}
|{{IPA link|ᵑǁ}} {{grapheme|nx}}
|{{IPA link|ᵑǂ}} {{grapheme|ntc}}
|
|
|-
! [[Glottalized click|Glottalized]]
|
|{{IPA link|ᵑǀˀ}} {{grapheme|cʼ}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ᵑǃˀ}} {{grapheme|qʼ}}
|{{IPA link|ᵑǁˀ}} {{grapheme|xʼ}}
|{{IPA link|ᵑǂˀ}} {{grapheme|tcʼ}}
|
|
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricated]]
|
|{{IPA|ǀkχ}} {{grapheme|cg}}
|{{IPA|tχ}} {{grapheme|tg}}
|{{IPA|tsχ}} {{grapheme|tsg}}
|{{IPA|ǃkχ}} {{grapheme|qg}}
|{{IPA|ǁkχ}} {{grapheme|xg}}
|{{IPA|ǂkχ}} {{grapheme|tcg}}
|({{IPA|kχ}} {{grapheme|kg}})
|
|-
! Fricated [[ejective]]
|
|{{IPA link|ǀkχʼ}} {{grapheme|cgʼ}}
|
|{{IPA link|tsʼ}} {{grapheme|tsʼ}}
|{{IPA link|ǃkχʼ}} {{grapheme|qgʼ}}
|{{IPA link|ǁkχʼ}} {{grapheme|xgʼ}}
|{{IPA link|ǂkχʼ}} {{grapheme|tcgʼ}}
|{{IPA link|kχʼ}} {{grapheme|kgʼ}}
|
|-
! [[Fricative]]
|{{IPA link|f}} {{grapheme|f}}
|
| colspan=3|{{IPA link|s}} {{grapheme|s}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|x}} {{grapheme|g}}
|{{IPA link|h}} {{grapheme|h}}
|-
! [[Flap consonant|Flap]]
|
|
|colspan=3|{{IPA link|ɾ}} {{grapheme|r}}
|
|
|
|
|}

The phonemes {{IPA|/kχ/}} and {{IPA|/kχʼ/}} (spelt ⟨kg⟩ and ⟨kgʼ⟩) only contrast for some speakers: ''kgʼám'' ‘mouth’ vs. ''kgʼáù'' ‘male’. The flap /ɾ/ only occurs word-medially except in loan words. The lateral /l/ is only found in loans, and is generally substituted by {{IPA|/ɾ/}} medially, and by {{IPA|/n/}} initially. Medial {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} may be {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}; they occur initially only in ''wèé'' ‘all, both’ and in ''yèè'' (an interjection).

=== Vowels ===
Naro has five vowel qualities, /a e i o u/'','' which may occur long (/aː eː iː oː uː/ spelt ⟨aa ee ii oo uu⟩)'','' nasalized ''(/''ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ/''),'' [[Pharyngealization|pharyngealized]] ''(''/aˤ eˤ iˤ oˤ uˤ/ , spelt ⟨a&#x331; e&#x331; i&#x331; o&#x331; u&#x331;⟩, and combinations of these (/ãˤ ẽː/ ⟨ã&#x331; ẽe⟩ etc.). There are three [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]]: high, mid, and low

=== Syllable structure ===
[[Syllable]]s are in general simple in Naro, with the maximal shape CV(V)C'','' where VV is a long vowel or diphthong. The only consonant that occurs in coda position is {{IPA|/m/}}, as in {{IPA|/ᵏǁám̀/}} ''xám̀'' ‘to smell’. However, long nasal vowels such as {{IPA|/ãː/}} may occur with an [[Epenthesis|excrescent]] {{IPA|[ŋ]}} as in {{IPA|[ãŋ]}}. [[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]] {{IPA|/m n/}} also occur, as in {{IPA|/n̩.nā/}} ''nna.'' Nasals such as {{IPA|/m/}} can also form syllable nuclei, as in {{IPA|/hḿḿ/}}.

== Orthography ==
Naro orthography uses the [[Latin alphabet]], and is partially based on the systems for [[Zulu language|Zulu]] and [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], especially as far as clicks are represented. [[Digraph (orthography)|Digraphs]] are used for clicks, and to represent affricates. Vowel length is represented by doubling of the vowel, whereas the orthography utilizes the tilde to represent nasality (⟨ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ⟩), and underline to represent pharyngealization. Tones are written with diacritics both on vowels and nasal consonants, with the exception of the mid tone, which is not represented (e.g. ⟨á a à ḿ m̀ ń ǹ⟩)''.''

Below is an overview of Naro clicks in both orthography and IPA (Visser 2001). The [[dental click]] is represented by ''c''. [[alveolar click]] by ''q'', [[palatal click]] by ''tc'', and [[lateral click]] by ''x''. All examples are from Visser (2001).

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ Naro clicks in orthography and IPA
|-
! Orthography || IPA || Example || Orthography || IPA || Example || Orthography || IPA || Example || Orthography || IPA || Example
|-
| ''c''|| ǀ || ''cõose'' 'owl'       || ''q''|| ǃ || ''qaò'' 'rise (sun, moon)'       || ''tc''|| ǂ || ''tcúú'' 'head'               || ''x''|| ǁ || ''xòa'' 'cave'
|-
| ''cg''|| ǀχ || ''cgàa'' 'flesh'    || ''qg''|| ǃχ || ''qgóé'' 'to run'              || ''tcg''|| ǂχ || ''tcgáí'' 'eye'             || ''xg''|| ǁχ || ''xgóà'' 'angry'
|-
| ''cg'<nowiki/>''|| ǀχʼ || ''cg’õè'' 'name'  || ''qg'<nowiki/>''|| ǃχʼ || ''qg’áó'' 'neck'             || ''tcg'<nowiki/>''|| ǂχʼ || ''tcg’áì'' 'sharp, spicy' || ''xg'''|| ǁχʼ || ''xg’ari'' 'to squeeze'
|-
| ''ch''|| ǀʰ || ''cóá '''child'     || ''qh''|| ǃʰ || ''qhàò'' 'people, tribe, kind' || ''tch''|| ǂʰ || ''tchàà'' 'wide'            || ''xh''|| ǁʰ || ''xhãya'' 'West, Namibia'
|-
| ''c'<nowiki/>''|| ǀ̃ˀ || ''c’áò'' 'blood'   || ''q'<nowiki/>''|| ǃ̃ˀ || ''q’óà'' 'afraid'             || ''tc'<nowiki/>''|| ǂ̃ˀ || ''tc’ubi'' 'egg'           || ''x'''|| ǁ̃ˀ || ''x’áà'' 'light (n.)'
|-
| ''dc''|| ǀ̬ || ''dcoàbà'' 'spider' || ''dq''|| ǃ̬ || ''dqàne'' 'chin'               || ''dtc''|| ǂ̬ || ''dtcìì'' 'fat (adj.)'      || ''dx''|| ǁ̬ || ''dxàí'' 'cheek'
|-
| ''nc''|| ⁿǀ̃ || ''nco̱à'' 'red'     || ''nq''|| ǃ̃ || ''nqàrè'' 'foot'               || ntc || ǂ̃ || ''ntcùú'' 'black'           || ''nx''|| ǁ̃ || ''nxào'' 'joke'
|}

==Dialects==
Naro is a [[dialect cluster]].
*ǀAmkwe
*ǀAnekwe
*Gǃinkwe
*ǃGingkwe
*Gǃokwe
*Qabekhoe ''or'' Qabekho ''or'' ǃKabbakwe
*Tsʼaokhoe ''or'' Tsaukwe ''or'' Tsaokhwe
*Tserekwe
*Tsorokwe
*Nǀhai-ntseʼe ''or'' Nǁhai ''or'' Tsʼao {{fix|text=Not the same as Ts'aokhoe?}}
and possibly [[ǂHaba language|ǂHaba]].

==Naro Language Project==
The Naro Language Project is a project currently being undertaken by the Reformed Church in [[Dekar|D'kar]] that aims to describe and develop an understanding of the Naro language, increase literacy by teaching Naro speakers to read and write their language and translate the [[Bible]] into Naro. The project was started in the 1980s. The Naro language project has, as of 2007, translated 70% of the Bible into the Naro language.

==Numerals==
Below are Naro numerals, from Visser (2001). Only 'one', 'two', and 'three' are native Naro numerals, while the rest have been borrowed from [[Nama language|Nama]]. Orthography is given first, followed by IPA in brackets.

# ''cúí'' /|úí/ 
# ''cám̀'' /|ám̀/ 
# ''nqoanà'' /ᵑǃōa̯nà/
# ''hàka'' /hàkā/ 
# ''koro'' /kōɾō/
# ''nqáné'' /ǃnáné/ 
# ''hõò'' /hṍò/ 
# ''kaisà'' /kāi̯sà/ 
# ''khòesí'' [kʰo᷅e̯sí/ 
# ''dìsí'' /dìsí/

==Bibliography==
*Visser, Hessel (2001) ''Naro Dictionary: Naro–English, English–Naro''. Gantsi, Botswana: Naro Language Project. {{ISBN|99912-938-5-X}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20161013023130/http://www.kuru.co.bw/naro_language_Project.html The Kuru Naro Language Project]
*[http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\ckh\kho&first=0 Naro basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database]

{{Khoisan}}
{{Languages of Botswana}}
{{Languages of Namibia}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Khoe languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Botswana]]