View source for Namibia

{{Short description|Country in Southern Africa}}
{{For|the newspaper|The Namibian}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use South African English|date=March 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Namibia
| common_name            = Namibia
| native_name            = {{collapsible list 
  |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:85%;
  |title = Name in national languages
| {{Infobox
| subbox=yes
| bodystyle=font-size:78%;font-weight:normal;
| rowclass1 = mergedrow 
| label1 = [[Afrikaans]]:
| data1  = {{lang|af|Republiek van Namibië}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_German.pdf|title=Communal Land Reform Act, German|publisher=[[Government of Namibia]]|access-date=18 February 2016}} {{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| rowclass2 = mergedrow
| label2 = [[German language|German]]:
| data2  = {{lang|de|Republik Namibia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Afrikaans.pdf|title=Communal Land Reform Act, Afrikaans|publisher=Government of Namibia|access-date=18 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225105003/http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Afrikaans.pdf|archive-date=25 February 2016}}</ref>
| rowclass3 = mergedrow 
| label3 = [[Khoekhoe language|Khoekhoegowab]]:
| data3  = {{lang|naq|Republiki Namibiab dib}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Nama.pdf|title=Communal Land Reform Act, Khoekhoegowab|publisher=Government of Namibia|access-date=18 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225104943/http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Nama.pdf|archive-date=25 February 2016}}</ref>
| rowclass4 = mergedrow 
| label4 = [[Owambo language|Oshiwambo]]:
| data4  = {{lang|kj|Orepublika yaNamibia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://baslerafrika.ch/wp-content/uploads/Neuerwerbungsliste-2013.pdf|title=Communal Land Reform Act, Oshiwambo|publisher=Government of Namibia|access-date=18 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160301124906/http://baslerafrika.ch/wp-content/uploads/Neuerwerbungsliste-2013.pdf|archive-date=1 March 2016}}</ref>
| rowclass5 = mergedrow 
| label5 = [[Herero language|Otjiherero]]:
| data5  = {{lang|hz|Orepublika yaNamibia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Herero.pdf|title=Communal Land Reform Act, Otjiherero|publisher=Government of Namibia|access-date=18 February 2016}} {{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| rowclass6 = mergedrow 
| label6 = [[Kwangali language|RuKwangali]]:
| data6  = {{lang|kwn|Republika zaNamibia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Rukwangali.pdf|title=Communal Land Reform Act, Rukwangali|publisher=Government of Namibia|access-date=18 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225104955/http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Rukwangali.pdf|archive-date=25 February 2016}}</ref>
| rowclass7 = mergedrow 
| label7 = [[Tswana language|Setswana]]:
| data7  = {{lang|tn|Rephaboliki ya Namibia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Setswana.pdf|title=Communal Land Reform Act, Setswana|publisher=Government of Namibia|access-date=18 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225105008/http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Setswana.pdf|archive-date=25 February 2016}}</ref>
| rowclass8 = mergedrow 
| label8 = [[Lozi language|siLozi]]:
| data8  = {{lang|loz| Namibia ye Lukuluhile}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Lozi.pdf|title=Communal Land Reform Act, Lozi|publisher=Government of Namibia|access-date=18 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225104949/http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Lozi.pdf|archive-date=25 February 2016}}</ref>
}}
}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Namibia.svg
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of Namibia.svg
| national_motto         = "Unity, Liberty, Justice"
| national_anthem        = "[[Namibia, Land of the Brave]]"[[File:Namibia, Land of the Brave.ogg]]
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:Namibia (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Namibia AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}}
| map_caption            = 
| capital                = [[Windhoek]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|22|34|S|17|5|E|type:city_region:NA}}
| largest_city           = capital
| official_languages     = English<ref>{{Cite web | title=Namibia - The World Factbook | url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia/ | access-date=2025-08-04 | website=www.cia.gov}}</ref>
| national_languages     = {{unbulleted list
|[[Afrikaans]]
|[[German language in Namibia|German]]
|[[Khoekhoe language|Khoekhoegowab]]
|[[Owambo language|Oshiwambo]]
|[[Herero language|Otjiherero]]
|[[Kwangali language|RuKwangali]]
|[[Tswana language|Setswana]]
|[[Lozi language|siLozi]]
}}
| regional_languages     = {{unbulleted list 
| [[ǃKung languages|ǃKung]]
| [[Gciriku language|Gciriku]]
| [[Mbukushu language|Thimbukushu]]
}}
| ethnic_groups          = {{ unbulleted list

| 93.2% [[Demographics of Namibia|African]]{{efn-ua|Includes all African ethnic groups}}

| 3.6% [[Coloured people in Namibia|Coloured]] and [[Basters]]

| 1.8% [[White Namibians|White]]

| 1.4% [[Asian people|Asian]] / other
}}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2023
| ethnic_groups_ref      = <ref name="Census2023">{{cite web|url=https://census.nsanamibia.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/2023-Population-and-Housing-Census-Main-Report-28-Oct-2024.pdf|title=Namibia 2023 Population and Housing Census Main Report|publisher=Namibia Statistics Agency|access-date=2024-10-30|pages=90–91|archive-date=10 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241110234059/https://census.nsanamibia.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/2023-Population-and-Housing-Census-Main-Report-28-Oct-2024.pdf}}</ref>
| religion               = {{unbulleted list
|{{Tree list}}
* 87.9% [[Christianity in Namibia|Christianity]]
** 43.7% [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia|Lutheranism]]
** 22.8% [[Catholic Church in Namibia|Catholicism]]
** 17.0% [[Diocese of Namibia|Anglicanism]]
** 4.4% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]]
{{Tree list/end}}
  |10.5% other
  |1.6% [[Irreligion|no religion]]}}
| religion_year          = 2023
| religion_ref           = <ref name=":3">{{citation-attribution|{{cite web|title=Namibia Demographic and Health Survey 2013|publisher=[[Ministry of Health and Social Services (Namibia)|Namibia Ministry of Health and Social Services]] and ICF International|date=September 2014|url=https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR298/FR298.pdf|access-date=5 July 2021|pages=29–30|archive-date=18 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618173209/https://www.dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR298/FR298.pdf|url-status=live}}}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Only people between 15 and 49 years of age were surveyed.}}
| demonym                = [[Demographics of Namibia|Namibian]]
| government_type        = Unitary [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]]<ref name="Dual" />
| leader_title1          = [[President of Namibia|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah]]
| leader_title2          = [[Vice President of Namibia|Vice President]]
| leader_name2           = [[Lucia Witbooi]]
| leader_title3          = [[Prime Minister of Namibia|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3           = [[Elijah Ngurare]]
| leader_title4          = [[Deputy-Prime Minister of Namibia|Deputy Prime Minister]]
| leader_name4           = Vacant
| leader_title5          = [[Chief Justice of Namibia|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name5           = [[Peter Shivute]]
| legislature            = [[Parliament of Namibia|Parliament]]
| upper_house            = [[National Council (Namibia)|National Council]]
| lower_house            = [[National Assembly (Namibia)|National Assembly]]
| sovereignty_type       = Independence from [[South Africa]]
| established_event1     = [[Constitution of Namibia|Constitution]]
| established_date1      = 9 February 1990
| established_event2     = [[Namibian War of Independence|Independence]]
| established_date2      = 21 March 1990
| area_km2               = 825,615
| area_rank              = 34th
| area_sq_mi             = 318,696 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| percent_water          = negligible
| population_census      = {{increase neutral}} 3,022,401 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/namibia-population/ |title=Namibia Population (2025) - Worldometer }}</ref><ref name="Census2023"/>
| population_census_year = 2025
| population_census_rank = 136th
| population_density_km2 = 3.7
| population_density_sq_mi = 1.4 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| population_density_rank = 
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $37.73 billion<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 145th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $12,370<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 117th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $14.21 billion<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 145th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $4,660<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 120th
| Gini                   = 59.1 <!-- number only -->
| Gini_year              = 2015
| Gini_change            = <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| Gini_ref               = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=NA|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate)|publisher=World Bank|access-date=20 January 2019|archive-date=28 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328164913/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=NA|url-status=live}}</ref>
| Gini_rank              = 
| HDI                    = 0.665 <!-- number only -->
| HDI_year               = 2023 <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year -->
| HDI_change             = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="HDI">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 136th
| currency               = [[Namibian dollar]] <br /> (NAD) <br /> [[South African rand]] (ZAR)
| time_zone              = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset             = +2
| date_format            = dd/mm/yyyy
| drives_on              = left<ref>{{cite web |title=List of left- & right-driving countries |url=https://www.worldstandards.eu/cars/list-of-left-driving-countries/ |website=WorldStandards}}</ref>
| calling_code           = [[+264]]
| cctld                  = [[.na]]
| footnote_a             = 
| today                  = 
}}

'''Namibia''',{{efn-ua|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Namibia.ogg|n|ə|ˈ|m|ɪ|b|i|ə}}<ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Roach|first=Peter|year=2011|title=Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary|edition=18th|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-15253-2}}</ref>}} officially the '''Republic of Namibia''',{{efn-ua|''Namibia is a sovereign and democratic state.''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://namiblii.org/akn/na/act/1990/constitution/eng%402014-10-13 |title=Namibian Constitution |date=21 March 1990 |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref>}} is a country in [[Southern Africa]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/namibia|title=Namibia|website=sahistory.org.za|date=4 March 2025}}</ref>  Its borders include the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west, [[Angola]] and [[Zambia]] to the north, [[Botswana]] to the east and [[South Africa]] to the south; in the northeast, approximating a [[quadripoint]],<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.info-namibia.com/info/namibias-geography |title=Namibias Geography|website=info-namibia.com|date=4 March 2025}}</ref> [[Zimbabwe]] lies less than 200 metres (660 feet) away along the [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] near [[Kazungula]], Zambia. Namibia's capital and largest city is [[Windhoek]].

Namibia is the driest country in [[sub-Saharan Africa]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/23/world/africa/namibia-eye-on-country-profile/index.html|title=Namibia country profile: moving on from a difficult past|author=Peter Shadbolt|publisher=CNN|date=24 October 2012|access-date=3 June 2018|archive-date=20 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220120821/https://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/23/world/africa/namibia-eye-on-country-profile/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and has been inhabited since prehistoric times by the [[Khoekhoe|Khoi]], [[San people|San]], [[Damara people|Damara]] and [[Nama people]]. Around the 14th century, [[immigration|immigrating]] [[Bantu peoples]] arrived as part of the [[Bantu expansion]]. From 1600 the [[Owambo people#History|Owambo]] formed kingdoms, such as [[Ondonga]] and [[Oukwanyama]].<ref name="Frieda 1991">{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Frieda-Nela |url=https://www.namibiadigitalrepository.com/files/original/e98ba4fc1c8f59083fee9dc64a32083e.pdf |title=Precolonial Communities of Southwestern Africa: A history of Owambo Kingdoms 1600-1920 |publisher=National Archives of Namibia |year=1991 |access-date=2024-03-07 |archive-date=2024-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307225349/https://www.namibiadigitalrepository.com/files/original/e98ba4fc1c8f59083fee9dc64a32083e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1884, the [[German Empire]] established rule over most of the territory, forming a colony known as [[German South West Africa]]. Between 1904 and 1908, German troops waged a punitive campaign against the [[Herero people|Herero]] and [[Nama people|Nama]] which escalated into the [[Herero and Nama genocide|first genocide]] of the 20th century. German rule ended during the [[First World War]] with a 1915 defeat by [[Union of South Africa|South Africa]]n forces. In 1920, after the end of the war, the [[League of Nations]] [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] administration of the colony to South Africa. The [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]], elected to power in 1948 in South Africa, applied [[apartheid]] to what was then known as [[South West Africa]].

In the later 20th century, uprisings and demands for political representation resulted in the [[United Nations]] assuming direct responsibility over the territory in 1966, but South Africa maintained {{lang|la|de facto}} rule until 1973. That year the UN recognised the [[South West Africa People's Organisation]] (SWAPO) as the official representative of the Namibian people.

Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the [[South African Border War]]. However, [[Walvis Bay]] and the [[Penguin Islands]] remained under South African control until 1994.

Namibia is a stable [[parliamentary democracy]]. Agriculture, [[Tourism in Namibia|tourism]] and the [[Mining in Namibia|mining industry]]&nbsp;– including mining for gem diamonds, [[Uranium mining|uranium]], [[Gold mining|gold]], [[Silver mining|silver]] and [[base metal]]s&nbsp;– form the basis of its [[Economy of Namibia|economy]], while the manufacturing sector is comparatively small. Despite significant [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth since its independence,<ref>{{Cite web|title=World Bank Open Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=NA|access-date=3 April 2024|website=World Bank Open Data|archive-date=3 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403153207/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=NA|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Poverty in Namibia|poverty]] and [[Wealth inequality|inequality]] remain significant in the country. 40.9% of the population is affected by [[Multidimensional Poverty Index|multidimensional poverty]],<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|year=2023|title=Multidimensional Poverty Index 2023|url=https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/Country-Profiles/MPI/NAM.pdf|access-date=3 April 2024|publisher=United Nations Development Programme Human Development Reports|archive-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313135944/https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/Country-Profiles/MPI/NAM.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and more than 400,000 people continue to live in [[informal housing]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 March 2021|title=Namibia's ghetto life: Half million live in shacks countrywide – The Namibian|work=The Namibian |url=https://www.namibian.com.na/203451/archive-read/Namibias-ghetto-life-Half-million-live-in-shacks-countrywide|access-date=3 April 2024|archive-date=12 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312183127/https://www.namibian.com.na/203451/archive-read/Namibias-ghetto-life-Half-million-live-in-shacks-countrywide}}</ref> [[Income disparity]] in the country is one of the world's highest with a [[Gini coefficient]] of 59.1 in 2015.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=World Bank Open Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=1W-NA&most_recent_value_desc=true|access-date=3 April 2024|website=World Bank Open Data|archive-date=3 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403153208/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=1W-NA&most_recent_value_desc=true|url-status=live}}</ref>

With a population of 3.1 million people, Namibia is one of the [[List of countries and territories by population density|most sparsely populated]] countries in the world. Since the end of the [[Cold War]], it has attracted notable immigration from Germany, Angola, and Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Migration to Namibia 1990-2017 |url=https://worldmapper.org/maps/migration-to-namibia-1990-2017/ |access-date=2025-01-20 |website=Worldmapper |language=en}}</ref> In 2021, German and Namibian diplomats created a "reconciliation agreement" acknowledging atrocities from the German colonial period.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rogers |first=Thomas |date=2023-03-09 |title=The Long Shadow of German Colonialism |url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2023/03/09/the-long-shadow-of-german-colonialism-thomas-rogers/ |access-date=2025-01-20 |work=The New York Review of Books |language=en |volume=70 |issue=4 |issn=0028-7504}}</ref>

Namibia is a member state of the [[United Nations]], the [[Southern African Development Community]], the [[African Union]] and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].

==History==
{{Main|History of Namibia}}

===Etymology===
The name of the country is derived from the [[Namib]] desert, the oldest desert in the world.<ref name=at1315>Spriggs, A. (2001) {{WWF ecoregion|name=Africa: Namibia|id=at1315}}</ref> The word ''Namib'' itself is of [[Khoikhoi language|Khoi]] origin and means "vast place". The name was chosen by [[Mburumba Kerina]], who originally proposed "Republic of Namib".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.namibian.com.na/127811/archive-read/The-Man-Who-Named-Namibia--Mburumba-Kerina|title=The Man Who Named Namibia- Mburumba Kerina|work=The Namibian|access-date=15 June 2021|archive-date=15 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615171358/https://www.namibian.com.na/127811/archive-read/The-Man-Who-Named-Namibia--Mburumba-Kerina|url-status=live}}</ref> Before Namibia became independent in 1990, its territory was known first as [[German South-West Africa]] (''Deutsch-Südwestafrika''), and then as [[South West Africa]], reflecting its colonial occupation by Germans and South Africans, respectively.

===Pre-colonial period===
The dry lands of Namibia have been inhabited since prehistoric times by the [[San people|San]], [[Damara people|Damara]], and [[Nama people|Nama]]. For thousands of years, the [[Khoisan]] peoples of Southern Africa maintained a [[nomad]]ic life, the [[Khoikhoi]] as pastoralists and the San people as [[hunter-gatherer]]s. Around the 14th century, immigrating [[Bantu people]] began to arrive during the [[Bantu expansion]] from central Africa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belda|first=Pascal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcsUr8BkqAUC&q=The+dry+lands+of+Namibia+have+been+inhabited+since+early+times+by+San,+Damara,+and+Nama.+Around+the+14th+century,+immigrating+Bantu+people+began+to+arrive+during+the+Bantu+expansion+from+central+Africa.&pg=PA14|title=Namibia|date=May 2007|publisher=MTH Multimedia S.L.|isbn=978-84-935202-1-2|access-date=19 October 2020|archive-date=18 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518174457/https://books.google.com/books?id=NcsUr8BkqAUC&q=The+dry+lands+of+Namibia+have+been+inhabited+since+early+times+by+San,+Damara,+and+Nama.+Around+the+14th+century,+immigrating+Bantu+people+began+to+arrive+during+the+Bantu+expansion+from+central+Africa.&pg=PA14#v=snippet&q=The%20dry%20lands%20of%20Namibia%20have%20been%20inhabited%20since%20early%20times%20by%20San%2C%20Damara%2C%20and%20Nama.%20Around%20the%2014th%20century%2C%20immigrating%20Bantu%20people%20began%20to%20arrive%20during%20the%20Bantu%20expansion%20from%20central%20Africa.&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

From the late 18th century onward, [[Oorlam people]] from Cape Colony crossed the [[Orange River]] and moved into the area that today is southern Namibia.<ref name="KDA">{{cite web|url=http://www.klausdierks.com/Biographies/Biographies_A.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015021238/http://www.klausdierks.com/Biographies/Biographies_A.htm|archive-date=15 October 2008|last=Dierks|first=Klaus|author-link=Klaus Dierks|title=Biographies of Namibian Personalities, A|access-date=24 June 2010}}</ref> Their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. They received the missionaries accompanying the Oorlam very well,<ref name="Dierks">{{cite web|last=Dierks|first=Klaus|author-link=Klaus Dierks|title=Warmbad becomes two hundred years|url=http://www.klausdierks.com/Warm_Bath/index.htm|website=Klausdierks.com|access-date=22 June 2010|archive-date=21 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821172028/http://www.klausdierks.com/Warm_Bath/index.htm}}</ref> granting them the right to use waterholes and grazing against an annual payment.{{sfn|Vedder|1997|p=177}} On their way further north, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the [[OvaHerero people|OvaHerero]] at Windhoek, [[Gobabis]], and [[Okahandja]], who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the [[German Empire]] deployed troops to the contested places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam, and Herero.{{sfn|Vedder|1997|p=659}}

In 1878, the [[Cape Colony|Cape of Good Hope]], then a British colony, annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore [[Penguin Islands]]; these became an integral part of the new [[Union of South Africa]] at its creation in 1910.

The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators [[Diogo Cão]] in 1485<ref>{{Cite web|last=Observador|title=Padrão português com 500 anos foi roubado da Namíbia no século XIX. Vai ser devolvido|url=https://observador.pt/2019/05/17/padrao-portugues-com-500-anos-foi-roubado-da-namibia-no-seculo-xix-vai-ser-devolvido/|access-date=7 December 2020|website=Observador|language=pt-PT|archive-date=6 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206022143/https://observador.pt/2019/05/17/padrao-portugues-com-500-anos-foi-roubado-da-namibia-no-seculo-xix-vai-ser-devolvido/|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Bartolomeu Dias]] in 1486, but the Portuguese did not try to claim the area. Like most of the interior of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century. At that time traders and settlers came principally from Germany and Sweden. In 1870, [[Finland|Finnish]] missionaries came to the northern part of Namibia to spread the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran religion]] among the [[Owambo people|Owambo]] and [[Kavango people]].<ref name="finnish-mission"/> In the late 19th century, [[Dorsland Trek]]kers crossed the area on their way from the [[South African Republic|Transvaal]] to Angola. Some of them settled in Namibia instead of continuing their journey.

===German rule===
{{see also|German South West Africa|Herero and Nama genocide}}
Namibia became a German colony in 1884 under [[Otto von Bismarck]] to forestall perceived British encroachment and was known as [[German South West Africa]] (''Deutsch-Südwestafrika'').<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=German South West Africa|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036573/German-South-West-Africa|access-date=15 April 2008|archive-date=11 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411130059/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036573/German-South-West-Africa|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Palgrave Commission]] by the British governor in [[Cape Town]] determined that only the natural deep-water harbour of Walvis Bay was worth occupying and thus annexed it to the Cape province of British South Africa.

In 1897, a [[1890s African rinderpest epizootic|rinderpest epidemic]] caused massive cattle die-offs of an estimated 95% of cattle in southern and central Namibia. In response the German colonisers set up a veterinary [[Cordon sanitaire (medicine)|cordon]] fence known as the [[Red Line (Namibia)|Red Line]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Lechler|first1=Marie|last2=McNamee|first2=Lachlan|date=December 2018|title=Indirect Colonial Rule Undermines Support for Democracy: Evidence From a Natural Experiment in Namibia|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414018758760|journal=Comparative Political Studies|volume=51|issue=14|pages=1864–1871 (p. 7–14)|doi=10.1177/0010414018758760|s2cid=158335936|issn=0010-4140|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515045624/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414018758760|archive-date=15 May 2023|access-date=2 June 2023|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> In 1907 this fence then broadly defined the boundaries for the first Police Zone.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lechler|first1=Marie|last2=McNamee|first2=Lachlan|date=December 2018|title=Indirect Colonial Rule Undermines Support for Democracy: Evidence From a Natural Experiment in Namibia|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414018758760|journal=Comparative Political Studies|volume=51|issue=14|pages=1865 (p. 8)|doi=10.1177/0010414018758760|s2cid=158335936|issn=0010-4140|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515045624/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414018758760|archive-date=15 May 2023|access-date=2 June 2023|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref>

From 1904 to 1907, the [[Herero people|Herero]] and the [[Nama people|Nama]] [[Herero Wars|took up arms]] against ruthless German settlers. In a calculated punitive action by the German settlers, [[Government of Namibia|government]] officials ordered the extinction of the natives in the OvaHerero and Nama genocide. In what has been called the "first genocide of the 20th century",<ref>{{cite web|author=David Olusoga|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/apr/18/pope-francis-armenian-genocide-first-20th-century-namibia|title=Dear Pope Francis, Namibia was the 20th century's first genocide|work=The Guardian|date=18 April 2015|access-date=26 November 2015|author-link=David Olusoga|archive-date=3 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603191720/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/apr/18/pope-francis-armenian-genocide-first-20th-century-namibia|url-status=live}}</ref> the Germans systematically killed 10,000 Nama (half the population) and approximately 65,000 Herero (about 80% of the population).<ref>Drechsler, Horst (1980). The actual number of deaths in the limited number of battles with the German Schutztruppe (expeditionary force) were limited; most of the casualties occurred after the fighting had ended. The German military governor [[Lothar von Trotha]] issued a punitive order. Many Herero died of disease and abuse in detention camps after being expelled. A substantial minority of Herero crossed the Kalahari desert into the British colony of Bechuanaland (modern-day Botswana), where a small community continues to live in western Botswana near to the border with Namibia. ''Let us die fighting'', originally published (1966) under the title ''Südwestafrika unter deutscher Kolonialherrschaft''. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.</ref><ref name="Adhikari" /> The survivors, when finally released from detention, were subjected to a policy of dispossession, deportation, forced labour, racial segregation, and discrimination in a system that in many ways foreshadowed the [[apartheid]] established by South Africa in 1948. Most Africans were confined to so-called native territories, which under South African rule after 1949 were turned into "homelands" ([[Bantustans]]).

Some historians have speculated that the downfall of the Herero in Namibia was a model for the [[Nazism|Nazi]]s in [[the Holocaust]].<ref name="Madley" /> The memory of what happened under German rule has contributed to shape the ethnic identity in independent Namibia and has kept its significance in today's relations with Germany.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Reinhart|last1=Kößler|first2=Henning|last2=Melber|chapter=Völkermord und Gedenken: Der Genozid an den Herero und Nama in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1904–1908|language=de|trans-title=Genocide and memory: the genocide of the Herero and Nama in German South-West Africa, 1904–08|title=Jahrbuch zur Geschichte und Wirkung des Holocaust|year=2004|pages=37–75|publisher=Campus Verlag|isbn=978-3-593-37282-2|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_b5iRhydlHUC&pg=PA37|access-date=7 June 2023|archive-date=23 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723080753/https://books.google.com/books?id=_b5iRhydlHUC&pg=PA37|url-status=live}}</ref>

The German minister for development aid apologised for the Namibian genocide in 2004. However, the German government distanced itself from this apology.<ref>{{cite web|author=Andrew Meldrum|title=German minister says sorry for genocide in Namibia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/aug/16/germany.andrewmeldrum|work=The Guardian|date=15 August 2004|access-date=12 December 2016|archive-date=4 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504204816/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/aug/16/germany.andrewmeldrum|url-status=live}}</ref> Only in 2021 did the [[Government of Germany|German government]] acknowledge the genocide and agree to pay €1.1 billion over 30 years in community aid.<ref>{{cite web|author=Philip Oltermann|title=Germany agrees to pay Namibia €1.1bn over historical Herero-Nama genocide|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/28/germany-agrees-to-pay-namibia-11bn-over-historical-herero-nama-genocide|work=The Guardian|date=28 May 2021|access-date=27 August 2023|archive-date=18 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518174436/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/28/germany-agrees-to-pay-namibia-11bn-over-historical-herero-nama-genocide|url-status=live}}</ref>

===South African mandate===
{{see also|South West Africa}}
During World War I, South African troops under General [[Louis Botha]] [[South West Africa campaign|occupied the territory]] and deposed the German colonial administration. The end of the war and the [[Treaty of Versailles]] resulted in South West Africa remaining a possession of South Africa, at first as a [[League of Nations mandate]], until 1990.<ref name=Rajagopal>{{cite book|last=Rajagopal|first=Balakrishnan|title=International Law from Below: Development, Social Movements and Third World Resistance|url=https://archive.org/details/internationallaw00raja|url-access=limited|year=2003|pages=[https://archive.org/details/internationallaw00raja/page/n66 50]–68|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-01671-1}}</ref> The mandate system was formed as a compromise between those who advocated for an Allied annexation of former German and Ottoman territories and a proposition put forward by those who wished to grant them to an international trusteeship until they could govern themselves.<ref name=Rajagopal/> It permitted the South African government to administer South West Africa until that territory's inhabitants were prepared for political self-determination.<ref name=Louis>{{cite book|last=Louis|first=William Roger|title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization|year=2006|pages=251–261|publisher=I.B. Tauris & Company, Ltd|location=London|isbn=978-1-84511-347-6}}</ref> South Africa interpreted the mandate as a veiled annexation and made no attempt to prepare South West Africa for future autonomy.<ref name=Louis/>{{multiple image
| image1            = Witbooi Hendrik.jpg
| width1            = 130
| image2            = SamuelMaharero.jpg
| width2            = 140
| footer            = [[Hendrik Witbooi (Nama chief)|Hendrik Witbooi]] (left) and [[Samuel Maharero]] (right) were prominent leaders against German colonial rule.
}}
As a result of the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization|Conference on International Organization]] in 1945, the League of Nations was formally superseded by the [[United Nations]] (UN) and former League mandates by a trusteeship system. Article 77 of the [[United Nations Charter]] stated that UN trusteeship "shall apply...to territories now held under mandate"; furthermore, it would "be a matter of subsequent agreement as to which territories in the foregoing territories will be brought under the trusteeship system and under what terms".<ref name=Vandenbosch>{{cite book|last=Vandenbosch|first=Amry|title=South Africa and the World: The Foreign Policy of Apartheid|url=https://archive.org/details/southafricaworld00vand|url-access=registration|year=1970|pages=[https://archive.org/details/southafricaworld00vand/page/207 207–224]|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|location=Lexington|isbn=978-0-8131-6494-6}}</ref> The UN requested all former League of Nations mandates be surrendered to its [[United Nations Trusteeship Council|Trusteeship Council]] in anticipation of their independence.<ref name=Vandenbosch/> South Africa declined to do so and instead requested permission from the UN to formally annex South West Africa, for which it received considerable criticism.<ref name=Vandenbosch/> When the UN General Assembly rejected this proposal, South Africa dismissed its opinion and began solidifying control of the territory.<ref name=Vandenbosch/> The UN General Assembly and Security Council responded by referring the issue to the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), which held a number of discussions on the legality of South African rule between 1949 and 1966.<ref name=First>{{cite book|last=First|first=Ruth|editor1-last=Segal|editor1-first=Ronald|title=South West Africa|year=1963|pages=169–193|publisher=Penguin Books, Incorporated|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8446-2061-9}}</ref>

South Africa began imposing ''[[apartheid]],'' its codified system of racial segregation and discrimination, on South West Africa during the late 1940s.<ref name="Crawford1">{{cite book|last=Crawford|first=Neta|title=Argument and Change in World Politics: Ethics, Decolonization, and Humanitarian Intervention|url=https://archive.org/details/argumentchangewo00craw|url-access=limited|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/argumentchangewo00craw/page/n350 333]–336|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-00279-0}}</ref> Black South West Africans were subject to [[pass laws]], curfews, and a host of residential regulations that restricted their movement.<ref name="Crawford1" /> Development was concentrated in the southern region of the territory adjacent to South Africa, known as the "[[Police Zone (South West Africa)|Police Zone]]", where most of the major settlements and commercial economic activity were located.<ref name="Devils">{{cite book|title=The Devils Are Among Us: The War for Namibia|url=https://archive.org/details/devilsareamongus00deni|url-access=limited|last1=Herbstein|first1=Denis|last2=Evenson|first2=John|publisher=Zed Books Ltd|year=1989|isbn=978-0-86232-896-2|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/devilsareamongus00deni/page/n26 14]–23}}</ref> Outside the Police Zone, indigenous peoples were restricted to theoretically self-governing [[Bantustan#Bantustans in South West Africa|tribal homelands]].<ref name="Devils" />

During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the accelerated [[decolonisation of Africa]] and mounting pressure on the remaining colonial powers to grant their colonies self-determination resulted in the formation of nascent nationalist parties in South West Africa.<ref name="Müller">{{cite book|last=Müller|first=Johann Alexander|title=The Inevitable Pipeline into Exile. Botswana's Role in the Namibian Liberation Struggle|year=2012|pages=36–41|publisher=Basler Afrika Bibliographien Namibia Resource Center and Southern Africa Library|location=Basel, Switzerland|isbn=978-3-905758-29-0}}</ref> Movements such as the [[South West African National Union]] (SWANU) and the [[South West African People's Organisation]] (SWAPO) advocated for the formal termination of South Africa's mandate and independence for the territory.<ref name="Müller" /> In 1966, following the ICJ's controversial ruling that it had no legal standing to consider the question of South African rule, SWAPO launched an armed insurgency that escalated into part of a wider regional conflict known as the [[South African Border War]].<ref name="Caprivi">{{cite book|last=Kangumu|first=Bennett|title=Contesting Caprivi: A History of Colonial Isolation and Regional Nationalism in Namibia|year=2011|pages=143–153|publisher=Basler Afrika Bibliographien Namibia Resource Center and Southern Africa Library|location=Basel|isbn=978-3-905758-22-1}}</ref>[[File:Foreign Observer identification badge in the 1989 Namibian election.jpg|thumb|Foreign Observer identification badge issued during the 1989 Namibian election]]In 1971 Namibian contract workers led a [[1971–72 Namibian contract workers strike|general strike against the contract system]] and in support of independence.<ref name="Moorsom1979">{{cite journal|last1=Moorsom|first1=Richard|date=April 1979|title=Labour Consciousness and the 1971–72 Contract Workers Strike in Namibia|journal=Development and Change|volume=10|issue=2|pages=205–231|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7660.1979.tb00041.x}}</ref> Some of the striking workers would later join SWAPO's [[People's Liberation Army of Namibia|PLAN]]<ref name="Devils2">{{cite book|last1=Herbstein|first1=Denis|url=https://archive.org/details/devilsareamongus00herb_929|title=The Devils Are Among Us: The War for Namibia|last2=Evenson|first2=John|publisher=Zed Books Ltd|year=1989|isbn=978-0-86232-896-2|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/devilsareamongus00herb_929/page/n26 14]–23|url-access=limited}}</ref> as part of the South African Border War.

===Independence===

As SWAPO's insurgency intensified, South Africa's case for annexation in the international community continued to decline.<ref name=Dobell>{{cite book|last=Dobell|first=Lauren|title=Swapo's Struggle for Namibia, 1960–1991: War by Other Means|year=1998|pages=27–39|publisher=P. Schlettwein Publishing Switzerland|location=Basel|isbn=978-3-908193-02-9}}</ref> The UN declared that South Africa had failed in its obligations to ensure the moral and material well-being of South West Africa's indigenous inhabitants, and had thus disavowed its own mandate.<ref name=Yusuf>{{cite book|last=Yusuf|first=Abdulqawi|title=African Yearbook of International Law, Volume I|year=1994|pages=16–34|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|location=The Hague|isbn=978-0-7923-2718-9}}</ref> On 12 June 1968, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution proclaiming that, in accordance with the desires of its people, South West Africa be renamed ''Namibia''.<ref name=Yusuf/> [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 269]], adopted in August 1969, declared South Africa's continued occupation of Namibia illegal.<ref name=Yusuf/><ref name="MAA">{{cite book|last=Peter|first=Abbott|author2=Helmoed-Romer Heitman|author3=Paul Hannon|title=Modern African Wars (3): South-West Africa|pages=5–13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t9Aj997IO9gC|isbn=978-1-85532-122-9|year=1991|publisher=Osprey Publishing}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In recognition of this landmark decision, SWAPO's armed wing was renamed the [[People's Liberation Army of Namibia]] (PLAN).<ref name=Camp>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Christian|title=National Liberation in Postcolonial Southern Africa: A Historical Ethnography of SWAPO's Exile Camps|date=October 2015|pages=73–89|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-107-09934-0}}</ref>

Namibia became one of several flashpoints for [[Cold War]] proxy conflicts in southern Africa during the latter years of the PLAN insurgency.<ref name=Hughes>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Geraint|title=My Enemy's Enemy: Proxy Warfare in International Politics|year=2014|pages=73–86|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton|isbn=978-1-84519-627-1}}</ref> The insurgents sought out weapons and sent recruits to the Soviet Union for military training.<ref name="Betram">{{cite book|last=Bertram|first=Christoph|title=Prospects of Soviet Power in the 1980s|year=1980|pages=51–54|publisher=Palgrave Books|location=Basingstoke|isbn=978-1-349-05259-2}}</ref> As the PLAN war effort gained momentum, the Soviet Union and other sympathetic states such as Cuba continued to increase their support, deploying advisers to train the insurgents directly as well as supplying more weapons and ammunition.<ref name=Vanneman>{{cite book|last=Vanneman|first=Peter|title=Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa: Gorbachev's Pragmatic Approach|url=https://archive.org/details/sovietstrategyin00vann|url-access=registration|year=1990|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sovietstrategyin00vann/page/41 41–57]|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|location=Stanford|isbn=978-0-8179-8902-6}}</ref> SWAPO's leadership, dependent on Soviet, Angolan, and Cuban military aid, positioned the movement firmly within the socialist bloc by 1975.<ref name="Dreyer">{{cite book|title=Namibia and Southern Africa: Regional Dynamics of Decolonization, 1945–90|last=Dreyer|first=Ronald|location=London|publisher=Kegan Paul International|year=1994|isbn=978-0-7103-0471-1|pages=73–87, 100–116, 192}}</ref> This practical alliance reinforced the external perception of SWAPO as a Soviet proxy, which dominated Cold War rhetoric in South Africa and the United States.<ref name="Devils"/> For its part, the Soviet Union supported SWAPO partly because it viewed South Africa as a regional Western ally.<ref name=Shultz>{{cite book|last=Shultz|first=Richard|title=Soviet Union and Revolutionary Warfare: Principles, Practices, and Regional Comparisons|url=https://archive.org/details/sovietunionrevo00shul/page/121|url-access=registration|year=1988|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sovietunionrevo00shul/page/121 121–123, 140–145]|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|location=Stanford, California|isbn=978-0-8179-8711-4}}</ref> 
[[File:SADF-Operations 4.jpg|thumb|left|South African troops patrol the border region for PLAN insurgents, 1980s.]]
Growing war weariness and the reduction of tensions between the superpowers compelled South Africa, Angola, and Cuba to accede to the [[Tripartite Accord (Angola)|Tripartite Accord]], under pressure from both the Soviet Union and the United States.<ref name=SACP>{{cite book|last1=Sechaba|first1=Tsepo|last2=Ellis|first2=Stephen|title=Comrades Against Apartheid: The ANC & the South African Communist Party in Exile|year=1992|pages=184–187|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-0-253-21062-3}}</ref> South Africa accepted Namibian independence in exchange for Cuban military withdrawal from the region and an Angolan commitment to cease all aid to PLAN.<ref name="James">{{cite book|title=A Political History of the Civil War in Angola: 1974–1990|last=James III|first=W. Martin|location=New Brunswick|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2011|orig-date=1992|isbn=978-1-4128-1506-2|pages=207–214, 239–245}}</ref> PLAN and South Africa adopted an informal ceasefire in August 1988, and a [[United Nations Transition Assistance Group]] (UNTAG) was formed to monitor the Namibian peace process and supervise the return of refugees.<ref name="Sitkowski">{{cite book|last=Sitkowski|first=Andrzej|title=UN peacekeeping: myth and reality|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|location=Westport, Connecticut|year=2006|pages=80–86|isbn=978-0-275-99214-9}}</ref> The ceasefire was broken after PLAN made a final incursion into the territory, possibly as a result of misunderstanding UNTAG's directives, in March 1989.<ref name="Clairborne">{{cite news|title=SWAPO Incursion into Namibia Seen as Major Blunder by Nujoma|last=Clairborne|first=John|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/04/07/swapo-incursion-into-namibia-seen-as-major-blunder-by-nujoma/7182b414-2fd3-4036-b3f8-be9debd58840/|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|location=Washington DC|date=7 April 1989|access-date=18 February 2018|archive-date=29 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429092224/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/04/07/swapo-incursion-into-namibia-seen-as-major-blunder-by-nujoma/7182b414-2fd3-4036-b3f8-be9debd58840/|url-status=live}}</ref> A new ceasefire was later imposed with the condition that the insurgents were to be confined to their external bases in Angola until they could be disarmed and demobilised by UNTAG.<ref name="Sitkowski"/><ref name=Demob>{{cite book|last1=Colletta|first1=Nat|last2=Kostner|first2=Markus|last3=Wiederhofer|first3=Indo|title=Case Studies of War-To-Peace Transition: The Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda|year=1996|pages=127–142|publisher=[[World Bank]]|location=Washington DC|isbn=978-0-8213-3674-8}}</ref>

By the end of the 11-month transition period, the last South African troops had been withdrawn from Namibia, all political prisoners granted amnesty, racially discriminatory legislation repealed, and 42,000 Namibian refugees returned to their homes.<ref name="Dreyer"/> Just over 97% of eligible voters participated in the country's first [[Namibian parliamentary election, 1989|parliamentary elections]] held under a [[universal franchise]].<ref name="NYT1989">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/15/world/namibia-rebel-group-wins-vote-but-it-falls-short-of-full-control.html|title=Namibia Rebel Group Wins Vote, But It Falls Short of Full Control|work=The New York Times|date=15 November 1989|access-date=20 June 2014|archive-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027123928/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/15/world/namibia-rebel-group-wins-vote-but-it-falls-short-of-full-control.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The United Nations plan included oversight by [[Election monitoring|foreign election observers]] in an effort to ensure a [[Election#Non-democratic elections|free and fair election]]. SWAPO won a plurality of seats in the [[Members of the Constituent Assembly of Namibia|Constituent Assembly]] with 57% of the popular vote.<ref name="NYT1989"/> This gave the party 41 seats, but not a two-thirds majority, which would have enabled it to draft the constitution on its own.<ref name="NYT1989"/>

The Namibian Constitution was adopted in February 1990. It incorporated protection for human rights and compensation for state expropriations of private property and established an independent judiciary, legislature, and an executive presidency (the constituent assembly became the national assembly). The country officially became independent on 21 March 1990.<ref>[https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/namibia-gains-independence Namibia gains Independence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211142900/https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/namibia-gains-independence |date=11 February 2023 }} – South African History Online</ref><ref name="finnish-mission"/> [[Sam Nujoma]] was sworn in as the first [[President of Namibia]] at a ceremony attended by [[Nelson Mandela]] of South Africa (who had been released from prison the previous month) and representatives from 147 countries, including 20 heads of state.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dierks|first=Klaus|author-link=Klaus Dierks|url=http://www.klausdierks.com/Chronology/132.htm|title=7. The Period after Namibian Independence|publisher=Klausdierks.com|access-date=21 August 2020|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523021428/http://www.klausdierks.com/Chronology/132.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1994, shortly before the first multiracial elections in South Africa, that country ceded Walvis Bay to Namibia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Treaty between the Government of the Republic of South Africa and the Government of the Republic of Namibia with respect to Walvis Bay and the off-shore Islands, 28 February 1994|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/TREATIES/ZAF-NAM1994OI.PDF|publisher=United Nations|access-date=29 June 2017|archive-date=19 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519121348/https://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/TREATIES/ZAF-NAM1994OI.PDF|url-status=live}}</ref>

===After independence===
Since independence Namibia has completed the transition from white minority apartheid rule to parliamentary democracy. [[Multiparty democracy]] was introduced and has been maintained, with local, regional and [[Elections in Namibia|national elections]] held regularly. Several registered political parties are active and represented in the National Assembly, although the [[SWAPO]] has won every election since independence.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country report: Spotlight on Namibia|publisher=[[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] Secretariat|url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/34580/34581/224187/250510spotlightonnamibia.htm|date=25 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705012456/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/34580/34581/224187/250510spotlightonnamibia.htm|archive-date=5 July 2010}}</ref> The transition from the 15-year rule of President [[Sam Nujoma|Nujoma]] to his successor [[Hifikepunye Pohamba]] in 2005 went smoothly.<ref name="IRIN">{{cite news|title=IRIN country profile Namibia|agency=[[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]]|url=http://www.irinnews.org/country.aspx?CountryCode=NA&RegionCode=SAF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217173041/http://www.irinnews.org/country.aspx?CountryCode=NA&RegionCode=SAF|archive-date=17 February 2010|access-date=12 July 2010|date=March 2007}}</ref>

Since independence, the Namibian government has promoted a policy of national reconciliation. It issued an amnesty for those who fought on either side during the liberation war. The civil war in Angola spilled over and adversely affected Namibians living in the north of the country. In 1998, [[Namibia Defence Force]] (NDF) troops were sent to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] as part of a [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) contingent. In 1999, the national government quashed a secessionist attempt in the northeastern [[Caprivi Strip]].<ref name="IRIN"/> The [[Caprivi conflict]] was initiated by the [[Caprivi Liberation Army]] (CLA), a [[Rebellion|rebel]] group led by [[Mishake Muyongo]]. It wanted the Caprivi Strip to secede and form its own society.<ref>{{cite web |title=UNHCR Web Archive |url=https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522035305/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df4be774.html |website=webarchive.archive.unhcr.org}}</ref>

In 2007, [[Twyfelfontein]] was inscribed as a cultural [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], a prehistoric site with one of the largest concentrations of rock engravings on the African continent.<ref>{{cite web |title=Twyfelfontein (Namibia) {{!}} African World Heritage Sites |url=https://www.africanworldheritagesites.org/cultural-places/rock-art-pre-history/twyfelfontein.html |website=www.africanworldheritagesites.org}}</ref> In December 2014, Prime Minister [[Hage Geingob]], the candidate of ruling SWAPO, won the [[2014 Namibian general election|presidential elections]], taking 87% of the vote. His predecessor, President [[Hifikepunye Pohamba]], also of SWAPO, had served the maximum two terms allowed by the constitution.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30285987|title=Namibian presidential election won by Swapo's Hage Geingob|publisher=BBC News|date=December 2014|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421133700/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30285987|url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2019, President Hage Geingob was [[2019 Namibian general election|re-elected]] for a second term, taking 56.3% of the vote.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50618516|title=Namibia's President Hage Geingob wins re-election|publisher=BBC News|date=December 2019|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=26 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226081154/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50618516|url-status=live}}</ref> On 4 February 2024, President Hage Geingob died and he was immediately succeeded by vice-president [[Nangolo Mbumba]] as new President of Namibia who finished the late President's term as it came to an end in March 2025.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hage Geingob death: Namibia's new President Mbumba sworn-in hours after predecessor dies|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68196412|date=4 February 2024|access-date=20 February 2024|archive-date=4 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204151557/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68196412|url-status=live}}</ref> SWAPO's first female presidential candidate, [[Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah]], was declared the winner of the [[2024 Namibian general election|2024 elections]] with 57% of the vote.<ref>{{cite news |title=Namibia election: Swapo's Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah elected first female president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c5yx0r14jrmo |work=www.bbc.com |date=4 December 2024}}</ref> On 21 March 2025, she  was sworn in as Namibia's new president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Namibia swears in first female president Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cly8ln5g12wo |work=www.bbc.com |date=21 March 2025}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Namibia}}

[[File:Namib Desert Namibia(2).jpg|thumb|Sand dunes of the [[Namib desert]]]]
[[File:SAC Namibia-cactus.jpg|thumb|[[Fish River Canyon]]]]
At {{convert|825615|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Rank Order&nbsp;– Area| website= cia.gov| publisher=CIA World Fact Book |url= https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html| place= US| access-date=12 April 2008|archive-date=9 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041128/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html}}</ref> Namibia is the world's 34th largest country (after [[Venezuela]]). It lies mostly between latitudes [[17th parallel south|17°]] and [[29th parallel south|29°S]] (a small area is north of 17°), and longitudes [[11th meridian east|11°]] and [[26th meridian east|26°E]].

The Namibian landscape consists generally of five geographical areas, each with characteristic [[Abiotic component|abiotic conditions]] and vegetation, with some variation within and overlap between them: the Central Plateau, the [[Namib]] Desert, the [[Great Escarpment, Southern Africa|Great Escarpment]], the [[Bushveld]], and the [[Kalahari Desert]].

Namibia is situated between the Namib and [[Kalahari Desert|Kalahari Deserts]]. Namibia has the least rainfall of any country in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite news| title= Land degradation causes poverty| last=Brandt|first=Edgar|newspaper=[[New Era (Namibia)|New Era]]|date=21 September 2012 |url= http://allafrica.com/stories/201209211357.html |access-date=30 September 2013|archive-date=20 October 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141020104012/http://allafrica.com/stories/201209211357.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Namib is a broad expanse of hyper-arid gravel plains and dunes that stretches along Namibia's entire coastline. It varies between {{cvt|100|and|200|km|mi|-1}} in width. Areas within the Namib include the Skeleton Coast and the [[Kaokoveld]] in the north and the extensive Namib Sand Sea along the central coast.<ref name=at1315/>

The Central Plateau runs from north to south, bordered by the [[Skeleton Coast]] (a coastal desert) to the northwest, the Namib Desert and its coastal plains to the southwest, the [[Orange River]] to the south, and the Kalahari Desert to the east. The Central Plateau is home to the highest point in Namibia at [[Königstein, Namibia|Königstein]] elevation {{cvt|2573|m|ft mi|sigfig=3}}.<ref name="elevation">{{cite web| url= http://landsat.usgs.gov/gallery/detail/367/ |title=  Brandberg Massif, Namibia |publisher= US Geological Survey, Department of the Interior | website= landsat.usgs.gov |quote= ...Brandberg Massif in Northen [''sic''] Namibia...dome-shaped granite intrusion covers an area of 650 square kilmeters (250 square miles) and rises 2,573 meters (1.6 miles) above the surrounding desert.|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20051028012641/http://landsat.usgs.gov/gallery/detail/367/|archive-date= 28 October 2005 |access-date= 9 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.mcnam.org/brandberg| website= mcnam.org| title= Brandberg | date= | publisher= Namibia Mountain Club, Mountain Club of South Africa| quote= ...the Brandberg is one of the most eye-catching circular features visible on Earth. The isolated massif of granite, with approximate dimensions of 26 by 21 km, rises more than 2000 m above the surrounding peneplain of the Namib Desert. The summit, named Königstein, at 2573 m above sea level is the highest elevation in Namibia. | access-date= April 9, 2025}}</ref>

The Great Escarpment swiftly rises to over {{cvt|2000|m|ft|sigfig=2}}. Average temperatures and temperature ranges increase further inland from the cold Atlantic waters, while the lingering coastal fogs slowly diminish. Although the area is rocky with poorly developed soils, it is significantly more productive than the Namib Desert. As summer winds are forced over the Escarpment, moisture is extracted as precipitation.<ref>Spriggs, A. (2001) {{WWF ecoregion|name=Africa: Namibia|id=at1316}}</ref>

The Bushveld is found in north-eastern Namibia along the Angolan border and in the Caprivi Strip. The area receives a significantly greater amount of precipitation than the rest of the country, averaging around {{convert|400|mm|in|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} per year. The area is generally flat and the soils sandy, limiting their ability to retain water and support agriculture.<ref name="Cowling, S. 2001">Cowling, S. 2001. {{WWF ecoregion|id=at1322|name=Succulent Karoo}}</ref>

The Kalahari Desert, an arid region that extends into South Africa and Botswana, is one of Namibia's well-known geographical features. The Kalahari, while popularly known as a desert, has a variety of localised environments, including some verdant and technically non-desert areas. The [[Succulent Karoo]] is home to over 5,000 species of plants, nearly half of them [[Endemism|endemic]]; approximately 10 percent of the world's [[succulents]] are found in the Karoo.<ref>{{cite journal| last= Van Jaarsveld| first= E. J.| year= 1987| title= The succulent riches of South Africa and Namibia| journal= Aloc | url= | number= 24| pages= 45–92}}</ref><ref>Smith et al 1993</ref> The reason behind this high productivity and endemism may be the relatively stable nature of precipitation.<ref>Spriggs, A. (2001) {{WWF ecoregion|name=Southern Africa: including parts of Botswana, northeastern Namibia, Zimbabwe, and northern South Africa |id=at0709}}</ref>

Namibia's Coastal Desert is one of the oldest deserts in the world. Its sand dunes, created by the strong onshore winds, are the highest in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_540.html|title=NASA&nbsp;– Namibia's Coastal Desert|publisher= [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]]| website= nasa.gov|access-date=9 October 2009|archive-date=21 June 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230621185140/https://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_540.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Because of the location of the shoreline, at the point where the Atlantic's cold water reaches Africa's hot climate, often extremely dense fog forms along the coast.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geographia.com/namibia/|title=An Introduction to Namibia|publisher= | website= geographia.com|access-date=9 October 2009 |archive-date= 4 June 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010604205022/http://www.geographia.com/namibia/|url-status=live}}</ref> Near the coast there are areas where the dune-hummocks are vegetated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nacoma.org.na/Our_Coast/WalkOnOurCoastline.htm|title= Coastline |publisher= Namibian Coast Conservation and Management Project| website= nacoma.org.na|access-date=9 October 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090721154939/http://www.nacoma.org.na/Our_Coast/WalkOnOurCoastline.htm|archive-date=21 July 2009}}</ref> Namibia has rich coastal and marine resources that remain largely unexplored.<ref name=Sparks/> The [[Caprivi Strip]] extends east from the northeastern corner of the country.

===Urban settlements===
{{Main|List of cities and towns in Namibia}}

Namibia has 13 cities, governed by municipalities and 26 towns, governed by town councils.<ref name=EW15>{{Cite news|title=Know Your Local Authority| newspaper=Election Watch|publisher=Institute for Public Policy Research|year=2015|issue=3|page=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Hartman|first=Adam|title=Town regrading a 'sad move'|newspaper=[[The Namibian]]|date=27 August 2010|page=1|url=https://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=69963&page=archive-read|url-status= live| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317023725/http://www.namibian.com.na/news-articles/national/full-story/archive/2010/august/article/town-regrading-a-sad-move/|archive-date=17 March 2012}}</ref> The capital Windhoek is by far the largest urban settlement in Namibia.

{{Largest cities
| country      = Namibia
| stat_ref     = According to the 2023 Census<ref>{{cite web|url=https://citypopulation.de/Namibia.html|title=Namibia|website=citypopulation.de|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=19 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619121656/http://www.citypopulation.de/Namibia.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| list_by_pop  = 
| div_name     = Region
| div_link     =

| city_1 = Windhoek
| div_1 = Khomas Region{{!}}Khomas
| pop_1 = 486,169

| city_2 = Rundu
| div_2 = Kavango East Region{{!}}Kavango East
| pop_2 = 118,625
| city_3 = Walvis Bay
| div_3 = Erongo Region{{!}}Erongo
| pop_3 = 102,704
| city_4 = Swakopmund
| div_4 = Erongo Region{{!}}Erongo
| pop_4 = 75,921
| city_5 = Oshakati
| div_5 = Oshana Region{{!}}Oshana
| pop_5 = 58,696
| city_6 =  Otjiwarongo
| div_6  = Otjozondjupa Region{{!}}Otjozondjupa
| pop_6  = 49,022
| city_7 = Katima Mulilo
| div_7  = Zambezi Region{{!}}Zambezi
| pop_7  = 46,401
| city_8 = Okahandja
| div_8 = Otjozondjupa Region{{!}}Otjozondjupa
| pop_8 = 45,159
| city_9 = Rehoboth, Namibia {{!}}Rehoboth
| div_9 = Hardap Region {{!}}Hardap
| pop_9 = 40,788
| city_10 = Tsumeb
| div_10 = Oshikoto Region{{!}}Oshikoto 
| pop_10 = 34,960
}}

===Climate===
[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_NAM_present.svg|350 px|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of Namibia]]
[[File:Namibia-1113.jpg|thumb|Namibia is primarily a large desert and a semi-desert plateau]]
Namibia extends from 17°S to 25°S latitude: climatically the range of the sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt. Its overall climate description is arid, descending from the Sub-Humid [mean rain above {{cvt|500|mm|in|sigfig=2}}] through Semi-Arid [between {{cvt|300 and 500|mm|in|sigfig=2}}] (embracing most of the waterless Kalahari) and Arid [from {{cvt|150 to 300|mm|in|sigfig=2}}] (these three regions are inland from the western [[Great Escarpment, Southern Africa|escarpment]]) to the Hyper-Arid coastal plain [less than {{cvt|100|mm|in|sigfig=2}}]. Temperature maxima are limited by the overall elevation of the entire region: only in the far south, [[Warmbad, Namibia|Warmbad]] for instance, are maxima above {{cvt|40|C|F}} recorded.<ref>{{cite report| title= Paper and digital Climate Section| publisher= Namibia Meteorological Services| website= | date= | page= }}</ref>

Typically the sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt, with frequent clear skies, provides more than 300 days of sunshine per year. It is situated at the southern edge of the tropics; the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] cuts the country about in half. The winter (June–August) is generally dry. Both rainy seasons occur in summer: the small rainy season between September and November, and the big one between February and April.<ref>{{cite web| publisher= | website= RealNamibia.com| title=The Rainy Season|url=http://www.realnamibia.com/rn_028rainyseason.htm| access-date=28 July 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100906094745/http://www.realnamibia.com/rn_028rainyseason.htm|archive-date=6 September 2010}}</ref> Humidity is low, and average rainfall varies from almost zero in the [[Skeleton Coast]] (a coastal desert) to more than {{cvt|600|mm|in|0}} in the Caprivi Strip. Rainfall is highly variable, and droughts are common.<ref name="EBClimate">{{cite encyclopedia |title= Namibia |url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/402283/Namibia/43996|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=28 July 2010|archive-date=18 May 2024| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240518174406/https://www.britannica.com/place/Namibia|url-status=live}}</ref> In the summer of 2006–07 the rainfall was recorded far below the annual average.<ref name="Olszewski1">{{Cite news|last=Olszewski|first=John|newspaper=[[Namibia Economist]]| title= Climate change forces us to recognise new normals|url=http://www.economist.com.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=531:weather&id=14308:climate-change-forces-us-to-recognise-new-normals&Itemid=54|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110513062850/http://www.economist.com.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=531:weather&id=14308:climate-change-forces-us-to-recognise-new-normals&Itemid=54|archive-date=13 May 2011|date=13 May 2009}}</ref> In May 2019, Namibia declared a state of emergency in response to the drought,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.africanews.com/2019/05/06/namibia-declares-national-state-of-emergency-over-drought/|title=Namibia declares national state of emergency over drought|last=AfricaNews|date=6 May 2019|website=Africanews|access-date=20 May 2019|archive-date=6 April 2023| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230406160538/https://www.africanews.com/2019/05/06/namibia-declares-national-state-of-emergency-over-drought/ |url-status= live}}</ref> and extended it by an additional 6 months in October 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=State of drought emergency extended| url= https://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?page=archive-read&id=193796|access-date=24 November 2020|website=The Namibian|archive-date=10 March 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210310104544/https://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?page=archive-read&id=193796}}</ref>

Weather and climate in the coastal area are dominated by the cold, north-flowing [[Benguela Current]] of the Atlantic Ocean, which accounts for very low [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] ({{cvt|50|mm|in|sigfig=2}} per year or less), frequent dense fog, and overall lower temperatures than in the rest of the country.<ref name="EBClimate"/> In Winter, occasionally a condition known as ''{{lang|de|[[Bergwind]]}}'' (German for "mountain wind") or ''{{lang|af|Oosweer}}'' ([[Afrikaans]] for "east weather") occurs, a hot dry wind blowing from the inland to the coast. As the area behind the coast is a desert, these winds can develop into sand storms, leaving sand deposits in the Atlantic Ocean that are visible on satellite images.<ref name="Olszewski2">{{Cite news| last=Olszewski|first=John|newspaper=Namibia Economist|title=Understanding Weather&nbsp;– not predicting it |url= http://www.economist.com.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=575&Itemid=54&limitstart=5 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101207061033/http://www.economist.com.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=575&Itemid=54&limitstart=5| archive-date=7 December 2010|date=25 June 2010}}</ref>

The Central Plateau and Kalahari areas have wide [[Diurnal temperature variation|diurnal]] temperature ranges of up to 30C (54F).<ref name="EBClimate"/>

''Efundja'', the annual seasonal flooding of the northern parts of the country, often causes not only damage to infrastructure but loss of life.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/2011/04/debilitating-floods-hit-northern-and-central-namibia/|title=Debilitating floods hit northern and central Namibia| last=Adams|first=Gerry|date=15 April 2011|publisher= [[United Nations Radio]] |access-date=19 February 2012|archive-date=20 December 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220185613/http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/2011/04/debilitating-floods-hit-northern-and-central-namibia/}}</ref> The rains that cause these floods originate in Angola, flow into Namibia's [[Cuvelai-Etosha Basin]], and fill the ''oshanas'' ([[Oshiwambo]]: flood plains) there. The worst floods {{As of|2012|alt=so far}} occurred in March 2011 and displaced 21,000 people.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=79689&no_cache=1|title=Heaviest floods ever in Namibia|last=van den Bosch| first= Servaas|date=29 March 2011|work=[[The Namibian]]|access-date=23 February 2012|archive-date=22 August 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180822014824/https://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Water sources===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Namibia}}

Namibia is the driest country in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and depends largely on groundwater. With an average rainfall of about {{cvt|350|mm|in|0}} per annum, the highest rainfall occurs in the Caprivi Strip in the northeast (about {{cvt|600|mm|in|sigfig=2}} per annum) and decreases in a westerly and southwesterly direction to as little as {{cvt|50|mm|in|sigfig=2}} and less per annum at the coast. The only perennial rivers are found on the national borders with South Africa, Angola, Zambia, and the short border with Botswana in the Caprivi Strip. In the interior of the country, surface water is available only in the summer months when rivers are in flood after exceptional rainfalls. Otherwise, surface water is restricted to a few large storage dams retaining and damming up these seasonal floods and their run-off. Where people do not live near perennial rivers or make use of the storage dams, they are dependent on groundwater. Even isolated communities and those economic activities located far from good surface water sources, such as mining, agriculture, and tourism, can be supplied from groundwater over nearly 80% of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iwrm-namibia.info.na/iwrm/fundaments-in-iwrm/groundwater-in-namibia/index.php|title=Groundwater in Namibia|website=Integrated Water Resource Management|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729155617/http://www.iwrm-namibia.info.na/iwrm/fundaments-in-iwrm/groundwater-in-namibia/index.php|archive-date=29 July 2016|access-date=2 October 2014}}</ref>

More than 100,000 [[borehole]]s have been drilled in Namibia over the past century. One third of these boreholes have been drilled dry.<ref>{{cite book| title= Groundwater in Namibia|url=http://www.namhydro.com/downloads.html |editor-first1= Greg |editor-last1= Christelis| editor-first2= Wilhelm |editor-last2= Struckmeier|via=Namibian Hydrogeological Association|year=2001|publisher=Census Office, National Planning Commission |isbn=978-0-86976-571-5| access-date=10 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404091336/http://namhydro.com/downloads.html|archive-date=4 April 2015}}</ref> An [[aquifer]] called Ohangwena II, on both sides of the Angola-Namibia border, was discovered in 2012. It has been estimated to be capable of supplying a population of 800,000 people in the North for 400 years, at the current (2018) rate of consumption.<ref name=aqui>{{cite web| last= McGrath| first=Matt |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18875385|title=Vast aquifer found in Namibia could last for centuries |website= bbc.co.uk |publisher= [[BBC World Service]]| date=20 July 2012|access-date=10 September 2013|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190402132955/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18875385|url-status=live}}</ref> Experts estimate that Namibia has {{convert|7720|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} of underground water.<ref name=afr>{{cite web|last=McGrath|first=Matt|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17775211|title='Huge' water resource exists under Africa| website= bbc.co.uk| publisher= BBC World Service |date=20 April 2012|access-date=10 September 2013|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402140411/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17775211|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=aqmap/>

On 8 June 2023, Namibia became the first Southern African country and the eighth country in Africa to accede to the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (UN Water Convention).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Namibia becomes first Southern African country to join UN Water Convention |url=https://unece.org/media/Sustainable%20Development/news/379643|access-date=6 October 2023|website= UNECE.org | publisher= [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |archive-date=10 October 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231010133120/https://unece.org/media/Sustainable%20Development/news/379643 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Communal wildlife conservancies===
{{Main|Communal wildlife conservancies in Namibia}}

[[File:SAC Namibia-bushveld.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Quivertree]] Forest, [[Bushveld]]]]
Namibia is one of few countries in the world to specifically address [[Wildlife conservation|conservation]] and protection of [[natural resources]] in its constitution.<ref name="Stefanova"/> Article 95 states, "The State shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people by adopting international policies aimed at the following: maintenance of [[ecology|ecosystems]], essential ecological processes, and biological diversity of Namibia, and utilisation of living natural resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of all Namibians, both present and future."<ref name="Stefanova"/>

In 1993, Namibia's newly formed government received funding from the [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) through its Living in a Finite Environment (LIFE) Project.<ref>Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) Programme Details (n.d.).</ref> The [[Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia)|Ministry of Environment and Tourism]], with financial support from organisations such as USAID, [[Endangered Wildlife Trust]], [[World Wide Fund for Nature]], and Canadian Ambassador's Fund, together form a Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) support structure. The project's main goal is to promote sustainable natural resource management by giving local communities rights to wildlife management and tourism.<ref name=UNEP/>

===Wildlife===
{{Main|Wildlife of Namibia}}
Namibia has various species of wildlife including the [[African wild dog|wild dog]], [[Dik-dik|dik dik]] and critically endangered [[Black rhinoceros|black rhino]]. There are 200 terrestrial mammal species, 645 bird species and 115 fish species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Simmons|first1=R. E.|last2=Griffin|first2=M.|last3=Griffin|first3=R. E.|last4=Marais|first4=E.|last5=Kolberg|first5=H.| display-authors=3 |date=1 April 1998|title=Endemism in Namibia: patterns, processes and predictions|journal=Biodiversity & Conservation |volume=7 |issue=4|pages=513–530|doi=10.1023/A:1008879712736|bibcode=1998BiCon...7..513S |s2cid=22160591|issn=1572-9710}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Curtis|first1=Barbara|last2=Roberts|first2=Kevin S.|last3=Griffin |first3=Michael| last4=Bethune| first4=Shirley| last5= Hay|first5=Clinton J.|last6=Kolberg|first6=Holger| display-authors=3 |date=1 April 1998|title=Species richness and conservationof Namibian freshwater macro-invertebrates, fish and amphibians|journal=Biodiversity & Conservation|volume=7|issue=4|pages=447–466| doi= 10.1023/A:1008871410919| issn= 1572-9710|doi-access=free| bibcode=1998BiCon...7..447C }}</ref>

== Government and politics ==
[[File:Tintenpalast-Windhoek.jpg|thumb|{{center|[[Tintenpalast]], the centre of Namibia's government}}]]
{{Main|Politics of Namibia|Elections in Namibia}}

Namibia is a [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[Representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]].<ref name="Dual">{{cite journal|last=Shugart|first=Matthew Søberg|date=December 2005|title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf|journal=French Politics|volume=3|issue=3|pages=323–351|doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087|s2cid=73642272|access-date=4 September 2016|quote=Of the contemporary cases, only four provide the assembly majority an unrestricted right to vote no confidence, and of these, only two allow the president unrestricted authority to appoint the prime minister. These two, Mozambique and Namibia, as well as the Weimar Republic, thus resemble most closely the structure of authority depicted in the right panel of Figure 3, whereby the dual accountability of the cabinet to both the president and the assembly is maximized. (...) Namibia allows the president to dissolve ''[the assembly]'' at any time but places a novel negative incentive on his exercise of the right: He must stand for a new election at the same time as the new assembly elections.|doi-access=free|archive-date=31 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831003208/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[President of Namibia]] is elected to a five-year term and is both the [[head of state]] and the [[head of government]].<ref name=CN>{{cite web|year=1992|url=http://209.88.21.55/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/AboutNamibia/constitution/constitution1.pdf|title=Constitution of the Republic of Namibia|access-date=10 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119205953/http://209.88.21.55/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/AboutNamibia/constitution/constitution1.pdf|archive-date=19 January 2010}} {{cite web|url=http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/nam5.htm|title=Namibia: Constitution|website=EISA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604121733/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/nam5.htm|archive-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> All members of the government are individually and collectively responsible to the legislature.{{refn|Article 41 of the Constitution of the Republic of Namibia.<ref name=CN/>}}<ref name="ECN">{{cite web|url=http://www.ecn.na/web/ecn/elections|title=How to Register as a Voter|publisher=Electoral Commission of Namibia|access-date=22 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721014311/http://www.ecn.na/web/ecn/elections|archive-date=21 July 2018}}</ref>

The [[Constitution of Namibia]] outlines the following as the organs of the country's government:<ref name="Bösl">{{Cite book|last1=Shivute|first1=Peter|author-link1=Peter Shivute|editor1-last=Bösl|editor1-first=Anton|editor2-last=Horn|editor2-first=Nico|chapter-url=http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_15058-544-2-30.pdf|chapter=Foreword|page=10|title=The Independence of the Judiciary in Namibia|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan Education Namibia]]|series=Publications sponsored by [[Konrad Adenauer Stiftung]]|isbn=978-99916-0-807-5|year=2008|access-date=13 July 2010|archive-date=23 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023162102/http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_15058-544-2-30.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Executive: executive power is exercised by the President and the [[Cabinet of Namibia|Government]].
*Legislature: Namibia has a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[Parliament of Namibia|Parliament]] with the [[National Assembly of Namibia|National Assembly]] as [[lower house]], and the [[National Council of Namibia|National Council]] as the [[upper house]].<ref name="parliament153">{{cite web|title=National Council|url=http://www.parliament.gov.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=1264|website=Parliament.gov.na|access-date=21 August 2020|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224154420/http://www.parliament.gov.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=1264|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Judiciary]]: Namibia has a system of courts that interpret and apply the law in the name of the state.

While the constitution envisaged a [[multi-party system]] for Namibia's government, the [[SWAPO]] party has been [[Dominant-party system|dominant]] since independence in 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swapoparty.org/throw_out_nyamu_motion.html|title=SWAPO:Dominant party?|publisher=Swapoparty.org|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222946/http://www.swapoparty.org/throw_out_nyamu_motion.html}}</ref> According to 2023 [[V-Dem Democracy indices]] Namibia is ranked 66th electoral democracy worldwide and 8th [[democracy in Africa|electoral democracy in Africa]].<ref name="vdem_dataset">{{cite web|last=V-Dem Institute|year=2023|title=The V-Dem Dataset|url=https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/|access-date=14 October 2023|archive-date=8 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208183458/https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Namibia}}

[[File:Russia-Africa Summit in Sochi (2019-10-24).jpg|thumb|Former President [[Hage Geingob]] (second row, first from the right) with other African leaders and Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] at the [[Russia–Africa Summit 2019|Russia–Africa Summit]] in Sochi, 24 October 2019]]
Namibia has a largely independent [[foreign policy]], with persisting affiliations with states that aided the independence struggle, including [[Cuba]]. With a small army and a fragile economy, the Namibian government's principal foreign policy concern is developing strengthened ties within the Southern African region. A member of the [[Southern African Development Community]], Namibia is a vocal advocate for greater regional integration. It became the 160th member of the UN on 23 April 1990. On its independence it became the 50th member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
===Military===
{{Main|Namibian Defence Force}}

The 2019 budget for the [[Ministry of Defence (Namibia)|Ministry of Defence]] was N$5,885 million (a 1.2% decrease from the previous financial year).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Namibia Budget on a Plate|url=https://www.pwc.com/na/en/assets/pdf/2019-budget-tabloid.pdf|date=6 May 2020|website=PWC Namibia|access-date=6 May 2020|archive-date=27 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527010729/https://www.pwc.com/na/en/assets/pdf/2019-budget-tabloid.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> With close to 6 billion Namibian dollars (US$411 million in 2021) the Ministry of Defence receives the fourth highest amount of money from government per ministry.

Namibia does not have any enemies in [[Southern African Development Community|the region]], though it has been involved in various disputes regarding borders and construction plans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moser|first=Jana|title=Border Contracts – Border Conflicts: Examples from Northern Namibia|url=https://history.icaci.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Moser.pdf|journal=Symposium on "Shifting Boundaries": Cartography of the 19th and 20th Centuries. ICA Commission on the History of Cartography|access-date=6 August 2019|archive-date=2 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302110005/https://history.icaci.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Moser.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Namibian [[Constitution of Namibia|constitution]] defines the role of the military as "''defending the territory and national interests.''" Namibia formed the [[Namibian Defence Force]] (NDF), comprising former enemies in a 23-year bush war: the [[People's Liberation Army of Namibia]] (PLAN) and [[South West Africa]]n ''Territorial Force'' ([[SWATF]]). The [[British government]] formulated the plan for integrating these forces and began training the NDF, which consists of a small headquarters and five battalions.

The [[United Nations Transitional Assistance Group]] (UNTAG)'s Kenyan infantry battalion remained in Namibia for three months after independence to help train the NDF and to stabilise the north. According to the Namibian Defence Ministry, enlistments of both men and women will number no more than 7,500.

The chief of the Namibian Defence Force is Air Vice Marshal [[Martin Pinehas|Martin Kambulu Pinehas]] (with effect from 1 April 2020).

In 2017, Namibia signed the UN [[treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en|title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament&nbsp;– No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons|publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection|date=7 July 2017|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=6 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Namibia}}

[[File:Namibia Population Density (2011).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Population density in Namibia by regions (census 2011)]]
Namibia is divided into 14 regions which are subdivided into 121 constituencies. The administrative division of Namibia is tabled by ''Delimitation Commissions'' and accepted or declined by the [[National Assembly of Namibia|National Assembly]]. Since state foundation four Delimitation Commissions have delivered their work, the last one in 2013 under the chairmanship of Judge Alfred Siboleka.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newera.com.na/articles/53580/President-divides-Kavango-into-two|title=President divides Kavango into two|last=Nakale|first=Albertina Haindongo|date=9 August 2013|newspaper=[[New Era (Namibia)|New Era]]|publisher=via allafrica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022020857/http://www.newera.com.na/articles/53580/President-divides-Kavango-into-two|archive-date=22 October 2014|access-date=14 January 2016}} [http://allafrica.com/stories/201308090372.html?viewall=1 Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027122731/http://allafrica.com/stories/201308090372.html?viewall=1 |date=27 October 2014 }}</ref> The most urbanised and economically active regions are the Khomas and Erongo regions, with Khomas home to the capital, Windhoek, and Erongo home to Walvis Bay and Swakopmund.

The table below shows statistics from the 2023 Namibia Population and Housing Census:
{| class="wikitable"
!Region
!Population (2023)
!People per km<sup>2</sup>
!Average household size
|-
|[[Khomas Region|Khomas]]
|494,605
|13.4
|3.3
|-
|[[Ohangwena Region|Ohangwena]]
|337,729
|31.5
|4.8
|-
|[[Omusati Region|Omusati]]
|316,671
|11.9
|4.2
|-
|[[Oshikoto Region|Oshikoto]]
|257,302
|6.7
|4.1
|-
|[[Erongo Region|Erongo]]
|240,206
|3.8
|3.1
|-
|[[Oshana]]
|230,801
|26.7
|3.7
|-
|[[Otjozondjupa Region|Otjozondjupa]]
|220,811
|2.1
|3.6
|-
|[[Kavango East]]
|218,421
|9.1
|5.3
|-
|[[Zambezi Region|Zambezi]]
|142,373
|9.7
|3.7
|-
|[[Kavango West]]
|123,266
|5.0
|5.5
|-
|[[Kunene Region|Kunene]]
|120,762
|1.0
|3.8
|-
|[[Hardap Region|Hardap]]
|106,680
|1.0
|3.6
|-
|[[ǁKaras Region|ǁKaras]]
|109,893
|0.7
|3.1
|-
|[[Omaheke Region|Omaheke]]
|102,881
|1.2
|3.3
|}

Regional councillors are directly elected through secret ballots (regional elections) by the inhabitants of their constituencies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Namibia National Council|url=http://www.ipu.org/parline/reports/2226.htm|publisher=[[Inter-Parliamentary Union]]|access-date=14 July 2010|archive-date=10 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510002301/http://www.ipu.org/parline/reports/2226.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Local authorities in Namibia can be in the form of municipalities (either Part 1 or Part 2 municipalities), town councils or villages.<ref name=alan>{{cite web|title=Local Authorities|url=http://www.alan.org.na/?q=localauthorities/list|publisher=Association of Local Authorities in Namibia|access-date=10 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610203011/http://www.alan.org.na/?q=localauthorities%2Flist|archive-date=10 June 2013}}</ref>
{{clear|left}}

===Human rights===
{{Main|Human rights in Namibia}}

Namibia is one of the most free and democratic countries in Africa,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2019/namibia|title=Namibia &#124; Freedom House|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103140009/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2019/namibia}}</ref> with a government that maintains and protects human rights and freedoms. However, significant issues include government corruption, policy inertia and prison overcrowding. Also, refugees are not permitted free movement.<ref name="USDOS"/>

Homosexual acts were formerly illegal in Namibia,<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=30 March 2021|title=2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Namibia|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/namibia/|access-date=24 May 2021|website=United States Department of State|archive-date=24 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524074436/https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/namibia/|url-status=live}}</ref> although the respective law was not enforced.<ref>{{cite news|first=Daniel|last=Avery|title=71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal|url=https://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974|work=Newsweek|date=4 April 2019|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211204842/https://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974|url-status=live}}</ref> Discrimination, as well as intolerance, against [[LGBT rights in Namibia|LGBT people]] is widespread, specifically in rural areas. Urban areas are generally neutral or supportive with a few LGBT-dedicated clubs and events.<ref>{{cite news|title=Namibia's gay paraders call for legal protection|url=https://www.news24.com/Africa/News/namibias-gay-paraders-call-for-legal-protection-20170730|work=News24|date=30 July 2017|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=19 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719010703/https://www.news24.com/Africa/News/namibias-gay-paraders-call-for-legal-protection-20170730}}</ref> Some Namibian government officials and high-profile figures, such as Namibia's [[Ombudsman]] John Walters and First Lady [[Monica Geingos]], had called for [[sodomy]] and homosexuality to be decriminalised and are in favour of [[LGBT rights]].<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Sodomy law's days numbered – Geingos|last=Beukes|first=Jemima|date=14 June 2019|newspaper=[[Namibian Sun]]|url=https://www.namibiansun.com/news/sodomy-laws-days-numbered-geingos2019-06-13|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109194048/https://www.namibiansun.com/news/sodomy-laws-days-numbered-geingos2019-06-13|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, the Supreme Court ruled that same-sex marriages legally made outside of Namibia must be recognized by the government.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Werner Menges|date=16 May 2023|title=Supreme Court gives legal status to same-sex marriages|url=https://www.namibian.com.na/supreme-court-gives-legal-status-to-same-sex-marriages/|access-date=17 August 2024|website=The Namibian}}</ref> In 2024 the Windhoek High Court ruled the ban on homosexual acts between men to be unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Booty|first1=Natasha|title=Gay sex ban in Namibia ruled unconstitutional|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c7220g65xllo|publisher=BBC|date=21 June 2024|access-date=21 June 2024}}</ref>

In November 2018, it was reported that 32% of women aged 15–49 experienced [[Violence against women|violence]] and [[domestic abuse]] from their spouses/partners and 29.5% of men believe that physical abuse towards their wife/partner is acceptable, although this is typically in rural areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/gbv_web.pdf|title=Landscaping Gender Based Violence in Namibia|vauthors=Alweendo N, Andreas R, Rafla D|date=November 2018|website=Democracy Report|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605153651/https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/gbv_web.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The Namibian constitution guarantees the rights, freedoms and equal treatment of women in Namibia<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/creativity/namibia-gender-indicator-gender-equality-objetive-outputs|title=Namibia – Gender Indicator – Gender equality {{sic|obj|etive|nolink=y}} outputs|date=9 December 2015|access-date=21 August 2020|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103145359/https://en.unesco.org/creativity/namibia-gender-indicator-gender-equality-objetive-outputs|archive-date=3 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> and SWAPO, the ruling party in Namibia, has adopted a "zebra system", which ensures a fair balance of both genders in government and equal representation of women in the Namibian government.<ref>{{cite news|title=Namibia's 'zebra' politics could make it stand out from the global herd|last=O'Riordan|first=Alexander|date=8 July 2014|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jul/08/namibia-gender-equality-zebra-politics|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814124357/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jul/08/namibia-gender-equality-zebra-politics|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="USDOS">Human Rights in Namibia (November 2021). [https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/namibia/#:~:text=Significant%20human%20rights%20issues%20included,or%20elsewhere%20in%20the%20government. 2021 Country Report on Human Rights: Namibia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015012246/https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/namibia/#:~:text=Significant%20human%20rights%20issues%20included,or%20elsewhere%20in%20the%20government. |date=15 October 2022 }}. state.gov</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Namibia}}

[[File:Namibia GDP per capita.png|thumb|Namibia GDP per capita, 2000–2022]]
[[File:Downtown Windhoek, Independence Avenue.jpg|thumb|Downtown [[Windhoek]]]]

The trans-African automobile route – the [[Tripoli-Cape Town Highway]] and the [[Trans-Kalahari Corridor]] pass through Namibia. Namibia's economy is tied closely to [[Economy of South Africa|South Africa]]'s due to their shared history.<ref name="Intelligence1">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia/ Namibia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110010829/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia |date=10 January 2021 }}. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].</ref><ref name="Department1">{{cite web|url=http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/namibia.htm|title=Namibia|publisher=UCB Libraries GovPubs|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221805/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/namibia.htm|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> In Q3 2023, the largest economic sectors were mining (18.0% of GDP), public administration (12.9%), manufacturing (10.1%), and education (9.2%).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cirrus Data|url=https://cirrus.com.na/dataportal/|access-date=14 November 2023|website=cirrus.com.na|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109150442/https://cirrus.com.na/dataportal/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Namibia has a highly developed banking and financial services sector with modern infrastructures, such as online banking and cellphone banking. The [[Bank of Namibia]] (BoN) is the central bank of Namibia responsible for performing all other functions ordinarily performed by a central bank. There are five BoN authorised commercial banks in Namibia: Bank Windhoek, First National Bank, Nedbank, Standard Bank and Small and Medium Enterprises Bank.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bon.com.na/|title=Bank of Namibia (BoN)|access-date=3 April 2011|archive-date=10 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310083527/https://www.bon.com.na/|url-status=live}}</ref> Namibia's economy is characterised by a divide between the formal and the informal economies, which is in part aggravated by the legacy of apartheid spatial planning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Laufs|first=Johannes|year=2011|title=Document: Bridging the Economic Divide in Urban Areas of Namibia: Townships within the Local Economic Development Framework|url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.1.1825.5600|doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.1825.5600|website=ResearchGate|access-date=15 August 2022|archive-date=18 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518174502/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305769010_Document_Bridging_the_Economic_Divide_in_Urban_Areas_of_Namibia_Townships_within_the_Local_Economic_Development_Framework?channel=doi&linkId=57a060ae08ae100d38089643&showFulltext=true|url-status=live}}</ref>

The country's unemployment rate was 33.4% in 2018, with a labour force of 1,090,153.<ref>{{cite web|date=9 April 2013|title=Unemployment and labour force|url=https://cirrus.com.na/dataportal/|website=Cirrus Data|publisher=Namibia Statistics Agency|access-date=9 November 2023|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109150442/https://cirrus.com.na/dataportal/|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2023, the country has a youth unemployment rate of 38.4%,<ref>{{Cite web|title=World Bank Open Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/|access-date=3 April 2024|website=World Bank Open Data|archive-date=26 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526025607/https://data.worldbank.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> one of the highest in the world. However, Namibia has a high percentage of skilled labour relative to SADC countries and have relatively low unemployment rates for skilled workers. To fight high unemployment, particularly amongst the youth, the government approved the introduction of an Internship Tax Incentive Programme aimed at incentivising employers to enroll more interns by providing an additional corporate tax deduction. The total financial implication for the Government is estimated at N$126 million.

[[Poverty in Namibia|Poverty]] and inequality remain significant in the country. 40.9% of the population is affected by [[Multidimensional Poverty Index|multidimensional poverty]] while an additional 19.2 percent is classified as vulnerable to multidimensional poverty.<ref name=":5" /> [[Income disparity]] in the country remains one of the world's highest with a [[Gini coefficient]] of 59.1 in 2015.<ref name=":6" />

In 2004 a labour act was passed to protect people from job discrimination stemming from pregnancy and HIV/AIDS status. In early 2010 the Government [[tender board]] announced that "henceforth 100 per cent of all unskilled and semi-skilled labour must be sourced, without exception, from within Namibia".<ref>Mongudhi, Tileni (3 February 2010 ) [http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=62400&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=2597 "Tender Board tightens rules to protect jobs"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002120324/http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=62400&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=2597 |date=2 October 2013 }}. ''The Namibian''</ref>

In 2013, global business and financial news provider [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]] named Namibia the top emerging market economy in Africa and the 13th best in the world. Only four African countries made the Top 20 Emerging Markets list in the March 2013 issue of Bloomberg Markets magazine, and Namibia was rated ahead of [[Morocco]] (19th), South Africa (15th), and Zambia (14th). Worldwide, Namibia also fared better than Hungary, Brazil, and Mexico. Bloomberg Markets magazine ranked the top 20 based on more than a dozen criteria. The data came from Bloomberg's own financial-market statistics, IMF forecasts and the World Bank. The countries were also rated on areas of particular interest to foreign investors: the ease of doing business, the perceived level of corruption and economic freedom. To attract foreign investment, the government has made improvement in reducing red tape resulted from excessive government regulations, making Namibia one of the least bureaucratic places to do business in the region. Facilitation payments are occasionally demanded by customs due to cumbersome and costly customs procedures.<ref>{{cite web|title=Snapshot of Namibia Country Profile|url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/namibia/snapshot.aspx|publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal|access-date=6 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220022104/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/namibia/snapshot.aspx|archive-date=20 February 2014}}</ref> Namibia is also classified as an Upper Middle Income country by the [[World Bank]], and ranks 87th out of 185 economies in terms of ease of doing business.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/namibia/|title=Namibia|publisher=Doingbusiness.org|date=10 January 2013|access-date=10 September 2013|archive-date=26 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926174152/http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/namibia/}}</ref>

The [[cost of living in Namibia]] is slightly above average because most goods, including cereals, need to be imported. Its capital city, Windhoek, is the 150th most expensive place in the world for expatriates to live.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xpatulator.com/outside.cfm?lid=142|title=Namibia, Windhoek Cost of Living|website=Apatulator.com|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=18 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018162413/http://www.xpatulator.com/outside.cfm?lid=142}}</ref>

[[Taxation in Namibia]] includes personal income tax, which is applicable to the total taxable income of an individual. All individuals are taxed at progressive marginal rates over a series of income brackets. Tax in Namibia is less than South African tax at monthly incomes greater than N$58,754, with the country's effective tax rates typically plateauing at a maximum of 30.8% while South Africa's plateaus at 37.4%.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tannan Groenewald on LinkedIn: #namibia #southafrica #taxrates #economicanalysis #research #graph… {{!}} 13 comments|url=https://www.linkedin.com/posts/tannangroenewald_namibia-southafrica-taxrates-activity-7079761649959583744-C0Se|access-date=9 November 2023|via=LinkedIn|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109211850/https://www.linkedin.com/posts/tannangroenewald_namibia-southafrica-taxrates-activity-7079761649959583744-C0Se|url-status=live}}</ref> This makes it favourable for wealthy South Africans to migrate to Namibia given their similar cost of living, cultures and socio-economic factors. In 2024, the government announced in its FY 2024/25 Budget Statement that personal income tax would be lowered, increasing the minimum taxable income from N$50,000 to N$100,000 and reducing taxable income in higher brackets as well.<ref name="FY202425">{{cite web|last1=Shiimi|first1=Ipumbu|title=Budget Statement for the 2024/25 Financial Year|url=https://www.parliament.na/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Republic-of-Namibia-2024-25-Budget-Statement.pdf|publisher=Parliament of Namibia|access-date=5 June 2024|archive-date=25 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525051515/https://www.parliament.na/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Republic-of-Namibia-2024-25-Budget-Statement.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The value-added tax (VAT) is applicable to most of the commodities and services, except for staple goods such as bread.<ref>PAYE12 Volume 18 published by [[Ministry of Finance (Namibia)|Ministry of Finance]]</ref>

[[File:Sandstorm while driving from Swakopmund to Walfish Bay, 2005.jpg|thumb|The [[B2 road (Namibia)|B2]] between [[Swakopmund]] and [[Walvis Bay]], Namibia]]
Despite the remote nature of much of the country, Namibia has seaports, airports, highways, well-maintained roads, infrastructure and [[Rail transport in Namibia|railways]] (narrow-gauge). It is an important regional transportation hub for its seaports and trade with landlocked neighbouring countries. The Central Plateau already serves as a [[transportation corridor]] from the more densely populated north to South Africa, the source of four-fifths of Namibia's imports.<ref name="World Almanac 2004" />

===Agriculture===
{{Main|Agriculture in Namibia}}

[[File:Schildburgsdorf.jpg|thumb|Welcoming sign of the ''Burgsdorf'' farm in [[Hardap Region|Hardap]]]]
About half of the population depends on agriculture (largely [[subsistence agriculture]]) for its livelihood, but Namibia must still import some of its food. Although per capita GDP is five times the per capita GDP of Africa's poorest countries, the majority of Namibia's people live in rural areas and have a subsistence way of life. Namibia has one of the [[List of countries by income equality|highest rates of income inequality]] in the world, due in part to the fact that there is an urban economy and a more rural cashless economy. The inequality figures thus take into account people who do not actually rely on the formal economy for their survival. Although arable land accounts for <1% of Namibia, (about .97%), nearly half of the population is employed in agriculture.<ref name="World Almanac 2004">World Almanac. 2004.</ref>

About 4,000 commercial farmers own almost half of Namibia's arable land.<ref>LaFraniere, Sharon (25 December 2004) [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/25/international/africa/25namibia.html Tensions Simmer as Namibia Divides Its Farmland"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119035509/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/25/world/africa/tensions-simmer-as-namibia-divides-its-farmland.html |date=19 November 2020 }}, ''The New York Times''</ref> The United Kingdom offered about $180,000 in 2004 to help finance Namibia's [[land reform]] process, as Namibia plans to start expropriating land from white farmers to resettle landless black Namibians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=51556|title=NAMIBIA: Key step in land reform completed|publisher=IRIN Africa|date=1 October 2004|access-date=10 September 2013|archive-date=10 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910215321/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=51556|url-status=live}}</ref> Germany has offered €1.1bn in 2021 over 30 years in reparations for the genocides in the early 20th century but the money will go towards infrastructure, healthcare and training programmes not land reform.<ref>{{cite news|title=Germany officially recognises colonial-era Namibia genocide|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-57279008|publisher=BBC|date=28 May 2021|access-date=14 November 2021|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114175333/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-57279008|url-status=live}}</ref>

An agreement has been reached on the [[privatisation]] of several more enterprises in coming years, with hopes that this will stimulate much needed foreign investment, but reinvestment of environmentally derived capital has hobbled Namibian per capita income.<ref name=Lange/> One of the fastest growing areas of economic development in Namibia is the growth of [[Communal Wildlife Conservancies in Namibia|wildlife conservancies]].

===Mining and electricity===
{{main|Mining in Namibia}}

Providing 25% of Namibia's revenue, mining is the single most important contributor to the economy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mining in Namibia|url=http://www.nied.edu.na/divisions/projects/SEEN/SEEN%20Publications/Environmental%20Information%20Sheets/Development%20and%20Environment/4.%20Mining%20in%20Namibia.pdf|publisher=NIED|access-date=26 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510004055/http://www.nied.edu.na/divisions/projects/SEEN/SEEN%20Publications/Environmental%20Information%20Sheets/Development%20and%20Environment/4.%20Mining%20in%20Namibia.pdf|archive-date=10 May 2011}}</ref> Namibia is the fourth largest exporter of non-fuel minerals in Africa and was the world's fourth largest producer of [[uranium]]. There have been significant investment in [[uranium mining]] and Namibia planned to become the largest exporter of uranium by 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Mining.com/Feb2008e.pdf|publisher=MINING.com|title=Mining Uranium at Namibia's Langer Heinrich Mine|last=Oancea|first=Dan|date=February 2008|access-date=16 April 2010|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051609/http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Mining.com/Feb2008e.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> However, as of 2019 Namibia continued to produce 750 tons of uranium annually making it a smaller than average exporter in the competitive world market.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mining.com/web/70-years-of-global-uranium-production-by-country/|title=70 years of global uranium production by country|first=Govind|last=Bhutada|date=23 September 2021|publisher=Visual Capitalist Elements|via=Mining.Com|access-date=24 June 2022|archive-date=8 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808065922/https://www.mining.com/web/70-years-of-global-uranium-production-by-country/|url-status=live}}</ref> Rich [[Alluvium|alluvial]] diamond deposits make Namibia a primary source for gem-quality diamonds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/99/deep-sea-mining.undersea-miners.black-smoker/deep-sea.mining.and.aspx|title=Deep-Sea Mining and Exploration|last=Oancea|first=Dan|publisher=Technology.infomine.com|date=6 November 2006|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=27 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627093407/http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/99/deep-sea-mining.undersea-miners.black-smoker/deep-sea.mining.and.aspx}}</ref> While Namibia is known predominantly for its gem diamond and uranium deposits, a number of other minerals are extracted industrially such as [[lead]], [[tungsten]], [[gold]], [[tin]], [[fluorspar]], [[manganese]], [[marble]], [[copper]] and [[zinc]]. Country's gold production in 2015 is 6 metric tons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold production |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129233804/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-date=29 November 2023 |access-date=2024-12-20 |website=Our World in Data |url-status=live }}</ref> There are offshore gas deposits in the Atlantic Ocean that are planned to be extracted in the future.<ref name="usds">{{cite web|date=26 October 2010|title=Background Note:Namibia|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5472.htm|access-date=26 August 2017|publisher=[[United States Department of State|US Department of State]]|archive-date=21 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021205038/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5472.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> According to "The Diamond Investigation", a book about the global diamond market, from 1978, [[De Beers]], the largest diamond company, bought most of the Namibian diamonds, and would continue to do so, because "whatever government eventually comes to power they will need this revenue to survive".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edwardjayepstein.com/diamond/chap1.htm|title=The Diamond Investigation, chapter 1 by Edward Jay Epstein, in an interview with Harry Frederick Oppenheimer owner of De Beers|publisher=Edwardjayepstein.com|date=4 December 1978|access-date=10 September 2013|archive-date=19 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919080623/http://edwardjayepstein.com/diamond/chap1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Although much of the world's diamond supply comes from what have been called African [[blood diamonds]], Namibia has managed to develop a diamond mining industry largely free of the kinds of conflict, extortion, and murder that have plagued many other African nations with diamond mines. This has been attributed to political dynamics, economic institutions, grievances, political geography, and the effects of neighbourhoods, and is the result of a joint agreement between the government and [[De Beers]] that has led to a taxable base, strengthening state institutions.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=South African Security|title=Diamonds Without Blood: A Look at Namibia|author=Nathan Munier|date=1 March 2016|volume=9|issue=1|pages=21–41|doi=10.1080/19392206.2016.1132903|s2cid=147267236}}</ref>

Estimates updated in 2022 suggest that two exploration wells in the offshore Orange Basin could hold 2 and 3 billion barrels of oil, respectively. The expected revenue could transform Namibia's domestic economy and facilitate sustainable development goals.<ref name="bra1">{{cite news|last1=Brandt|first1=Edgar|title=Namibia: Orange Basin potential shoots up to billions of barrels|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/202204080598.html|access-date=13 April 2022|agency=allafrica.com|publisher=AllAfrica, New Era|date=8 April 2022|archive-date=13 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413084910/https://allafrica.com/stories/202204080598.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Domestic supply voltage is 220 V AC. Electricity is generated mainly by thermal and hydroelectric power plants. Non-conventional methods of electricity generation also play some role. Encouraged by the rich uranium deposits, in 2010 the Namibian government planned to erect its first nuclear power station by 2018. Uranium enrichment was also envisaged to take place locally.<ref name=Saveorsink>{{cite news|title=Uranium: Saving or sinking Namibia?|last=Weidlich|first=Brigitte|newspaper=[[The Namibian]]|date=7 January 2011|url=http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2011/january/article/uranium-saving-or-sinking-namibia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113120601/http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2011/january/article/uranium-saving-or-sinking-namibia|archive-date=13 January 2011}}</ref>

===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in Namibia}}

[[File:Equus burchelli 4.jpg|thumb|An example of Namibian wildlife, the [[plains zebra]], is one focus of tourism.]]
Tourism is a major contributor (14.5%) to Namibia's GDP, creating tens of thousands of jobs (18.2% of all employment) directly or indirectly and servicing over a million tourists per year.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Framework/Model to Benchmark Tourism GDP in South Africa|publisher=Pan African Research & Investment Services|page=34|date=March 2010|url=http://www.southafrica.net/sat/action/media/downloadFile?media_fileid=29571|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100718143151/http://www.southafrica.net/sat/action/media/downloadFile?media_fileid=29571|archive-date=18 July 2010}}</ref> The country is a prime destination in Africa and is known for [[ecotourism]], which features [[Wildlife of Namibia|Namibia's extensive wildlife]].<ref name=goodshape>{{cite news|title=Tourism in good shape&nbsp;– Minister|last=Hartman|first=Adam|newspaper=[[The Namibian]]|date=30 September 2009|url=http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=51487&no_cache=1|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=4 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504052405/http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=51487&no_cache=1|url-status=live}}</ref>

There are many lodges and reserves to accommodate ecotourists. Sport and [[trophy hunting]] is also a large and growing component of the Namibian economy, accounting for 14% of total tourism in the year 2000, or 19.6&nbsp;million U.S. dollars, with Namibia boasting numerous species sought after by international sport hunters.<ref name=Humavindu/>

In addition, extreme sports such as [[sandboarding]], [[skydiving]] and 4x4ing have become popular, and many cities have companies that provide tours.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}} The most visited places include the capital city of [[Windhoek]], [[Caprivi Strip]], [[Fish River Canyon]], [[Sossusvlei]], the [[Skeleton Coast]] Park, [[Sesriem]], [[Etosha Pan]] and the coastal towns of [[Swakopmund]], [[Walvis Bay]] and [[Lüderitz]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.namibiatourism.com.na/namibia-top-attractions/|title=Namibia top tourist destinations|publisher=Namibiatourism.com.na|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227102320/http://www.namibiatourism.com.na/namibia-top-attractions/|archive-date=27 December 2016}}</ref>

Windhoek plays a very important role in Namibia's tourism due to its central location and close proximity to [[Hosea Kutako International Airport]]. According to The Namibia Tourism Exit Survey, which was produced by the [[Millennium Challenge Corporation]] for the Namibian Directorate of Tourism, 56% of all tourists visiting Namibia in 2012–13 visited Windhoek.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcanamibia.org/files/files/exitsurvey.pdf|title=Report on the Namibia Tourist Exit Survey 2012–2013|website=Mcanamibia.org|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305170850/http://www.mcanamibia.org/files/files/exitsurvey.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref> Many of Namibia's tourism related parastatals and governing bodies such as Namibia Wildlife Resorts and the [[Namibia Tourism Board]] as well as Namibia's tourism-related [[trade association]]s such as the [[Hospitality Association of Namibia]] are headquartered in Windhoek.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hannamibia.com/|title=HAN Namibia|website=Hannamibia.com|access-date=26 August 2016|archive-date=24 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824011920/http://www.hannamibia.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> There are also a number of notable hotels in Windhoek, such as [[Windhoek Country Club Resort]], and some international hotel chains, such as [[Hilton Hotels & Resorts|Hilton Hotels and Resorts]].

Namibia's primary tourism related governing body, the [[Namibia Tourism Board]] (NTB), was established by an Act of Parliament: the ''Namibia Tourism Board Act, 2000'' (Act 21 of 2000). Its primary objectives are to regulate the tourism industry and to market Namibia as a tourist destination.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://laws.parliament.na/cms_documents/gg-3235-fd9818f2e8.pdf|title=Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia, No. 3235 (2014)|website=laws.parliament.na|date=14 July 2004|access-date=24 March 2018|archive-date=31 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831003156/https://laws.parliament.na/cms_documents/gg-3235-fd9818f2e8.pdf}}</ref> There are also a number of [[trade association]]s that represent the tourism sector in Namibia, such as the Federation of Namibia Tourism Associations (the umbrella body for all tourism associations in Namibia), the [[Hospitality Association of Namibia]], the Association of Namibian Travel Agents, Car Rental Association of Namibia and the Tour and Safari Association of Namibia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fenata.org/|title=FENATA {{!}} Federation of Namibian Tourism Association in Namibia|website=Fenata.org|access-date=8 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308161948/http://www.fenata.org/|archive-date=8 March 2016}}</ref>

===Water supply and sanitation===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Namibia}}

The only bulk water supplier in Namibia is [[NamWater]], which sells it to the respective municipalities which in turn deliver it through their reticulation networks.<ref name=":0" /> In rural areas, the directorate of Rural Water Supply in the [[Ministry of Agriculture (Namibia)|Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform]] is in charge of drinking water supply.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Ebbing Water, Surging Deficits: Urban Water Supply in Sub-Saharan Africa|last=Banerjee|first=Sudeshna|publisher=The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank|year=2009|location=Washington, DC|url=http://www.infrastructureafrica.org/aicd/system/files/BP12_Water_sect_maintxt_new.pdf|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304031237/http://www.infrastructureafrica.org/aicd/system/files/BP12_Water_sect_maintxt_new.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2012}}</ref>

The [[United Nations|UN]] evaluated in 2011 that Namibia has improved its water access network significantly since independence in 1990. A large part of the population can not, however, make use of these resources due to the prohibitively high consumption cost and the long distance between residences and water points in rural areas.<ref name=":0" /> As a result, many Namibians prefer the traditional wells over the available water points far away.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2011/july/article/red-alert-on-sanitation-and-safe-drinking-water/|title=Red alert on sanitation and safe drinking water|last=Smith|first=Jana–Mari|date=12 July 2011|work=[[The Namibian]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531123557/http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2011/july/article/red-alert-on-sanitation-and-safe-drinking-water/|archive-date=31 May 2012}}</ref>

Compared to the efforts made to improve access to safe water, Namibia is lagging behind in the provision of adequate sanitation.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?Cr1=&NewsID=39000&Cr=sanitaition|title=Independent UN expert urges Namibia to expand access to sanitation services|date=11 July 2011|work=UN News Centre|publisher=[[United Nations]] News service|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=26 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826235836/https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?Cr1=&NewsID=39000&Cr=sanitaition|url-status=live}}</ref> This includes 298 schools that have no toilet facilities.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?id=11284&page_type=story_detail&category_id=1|title=More than 1 million Namibians defecate in open|last=Tjihenuna|first=Theresia|date=2 April 2014|work=[[The Namibian]]|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407103151/http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?id=11284&page_type=story_detail&category_id=1|archive-date=7 April 2014}}</ref> Over 50% of child deaths are related to lack of water, sanitation, or hygiene; 23% are due to diarrhea alone. The UN has identified a "sanitation crisis" in the country.<ref name=":1" />

Apart from residences for upper and middle class households, sanitation is insufficient in most residential areas. Private flush toilets are too expensive for virtually all residents in [[township]]s due to their water consumption and installation cost. As a result, access to [[improved sanitation]] has not increased much since independence: in Namibia's rural areas 13% of the population had more than basic sanitation, up from 8% in 1990. Many of Namibia's inhabitants have to resort to "flying toilets", plastic bags to defecate into, which after use are flung into the bush.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=42630&no_cache=1|title=Namibia is lagging behind on sanitation|last=Cloete|first=Luqman|date=28 April 2008|work=[[The Namibian]]|access-date=14 September 2015|archive-date=1 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101084531/http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=42630&no_cache=1|url-status=live}}</ref> The use of open areas close to residential land for urination and defecation is very common<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.drfn.info/docs/water/cuve_7_deffner.pdf|title=Participatory empirical research on water and sanitation demand in central northern Namibia: A method for technology development with a user perspective|last1=Deffner|first1=Jutta|date=September 2010|journal=CuveWaters Papers|last2=Mazambani|first2=Clarence|location=Frankfurt (Main)|publisher=Institute for Social-Ecological Research (ISOE)|volume=7|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322212906/http://www.drfn.info/docs/water/cuve_7_deffner.pdf|archive-date=22 March 2012|access-date=14 September 2015}}</ref> and has been identified as a major [[Health in Namibia|health hazard]].<ref name=":2" />

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Namibia}}

Namibia has the second-[[List of countries by population density|lowest population density]] of any sovereign country, after [[Mongolia]], as well as having the lowest population density of any sovereign country with a coastline.<ref name="unpop">{{cite book|author=Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat|title=World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision|publisher=United Nations|year=2009|location=New York|chapter=Table A.1|access-date=12 March 2009|chapter-url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf|archive-date=18 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318041906/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2017 there were on average 3.08 people per km<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{Cite web|title=World Development Indicators (WDI) {{!}} Data Catalog|url=https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators|access-date=9 July 2019|publisher=World Bank|archive-date=20 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820022146/http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[total fertility rate]] in 2015 was 3.47 children per woman according to the UN which is lower than the average TFR in sub-Saharan Africa of 4.7.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bongaarts|first=John|date=21 September 2020|title=Trends in fertility and fertility preferences in sub-Saharan Africa: the roles of education and family planning programs|journal=Genus|volume=76|issue=1|article-number=32|doi=10.1186/s41118-020-00098-z|issn=2035-5556|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Namibia conducts a census every ten years. After independence the first Population and Housing Census was carried out in 1991; further rounds followed in 2001, 2011, and 2023 (delayed two years due to the COVID-19 pandemic and financial constraints).<ref name="2001Census">{{cite web|title=Census Summary Results|url=http://www.npc.gov.na/census/index.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111224420/http://www.npc.gov.na/census/index.htm|archive-date=11 January 2012|access-date=21 February 2012|publisher=National Planning Commission of Namibia}}</ref> The data collection method is to count every person resident in Namibia on the census reference night, wherever they happen to be. This is called the ''de facto'' method.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kapitako|first=Alvine|date=8 August 2011|title=Namibia: 2011 Census Officially Launched|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201108080754.html|access-date=26 August 2017|website=Allafrica.com|archive-date=29 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029131242/http://allafrica.com/stories/201108080754.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For enumeration purposes the country is demarcated into 4,042 ''enumeration areas''. These areas do not overlap with constituency boundaries to get reliable data for election purposes as well.<ref>{{cite web|title=Methodology|url=http://www.npc.gov.na/census/index.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111224420/http://www.npc.gov.na/census/index.htm|archive-date=11 January 2012|access-date=21 February 2012|publisher=National Planning Commission of Namibia}}</ref>

The 2011 Population and Housing Census counted 2,113,077 inhabitants. Between 2001 and 2011 the annual population growth was 1.4%, down from 2.6% in the previous ten-year period.<ref name="snapshot">{{cite news|last=Duddy|first=Jo Maré|date=28 March 2013|title=Census gives snapshot of Namibia's population|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201303280355.html?page=2|access-date=26 August 2017|newspaper=[[The Namibian]]|archive-date=1 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201225132/http://allafrica.com/stories/201303280355.html?page=2|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, the [[Namibia Statistics Agency]] conducted another census, which counted 3,022,401 inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Namibia Statistics Agency {{!}} Census Disemination|url=https://census.nsa.org.na/|access-date=13 August 2024|archive-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313094106/https://census.nsa.org.na/}}</ref>

===Ethnic groups===
[[File:Nama Woman Smoking Kalahari Desert Namibia Luca Galuzzi 2004.JPG|thumb|A [[Nama people|Nama]] woman]]
Namibia has many ethnic groups.<ref name="Census2023"/> The majority of the Namibian population is made of [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]]  and [[Khoisan]] peoples. The Bantu groups include the  [[Owambo people|Owambo]], [[Herero people|Herero]], [[Kavango people|Kavango]], [[Lozi people|Lozi]], [[Tswana people|Tswana]] and [[Himba people|Himba]] peoples. The Khoisan groups encompass the [[Damara people|Damara]], [[Nama people|Nama]], and [[San people|San]] peoples. There is also a mixed ancestry population consisting of [[Coloured people in Namibia|Coloureds]] (2.1%) and [[Basters]] (1.5%).<ref name="Census2023"/> There is a substantial [[Chinese people in Namibia|Chinese minority in Namibia]]; it stood at 40,000 in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|author=Malia Politzer|date=August 2008|title=China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration|url=http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690|access-date=10 September 2013|publisher=Migration Information Source|archive-date=29 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129114909/http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Himba Woman and Family.JPG|thumb|[[Himba people]] in northern Namibia]]

[[White Namibians|Whites]] (being mainly of [[Afrikaner people|Afrikaner]], German, British and [[Portuguese diaspora|Portuguese]] origin) make up 1.8% of the population. Although their proportion of the population decreased after [[Independence of Namibia|independence]] due to emigration and lower birth rates, they still form the second-largest population of [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European ancestry]], both in terms of percentage and actual numbers, in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] (after South Africa).<ref name="Census2023"/> The majority of [[White Namibians|Namibian whites]] and nearly all those who are of [[Basters|mixed race]] speak [[Afrikaans]] and share similar origins, culture, and religion as the white and coloured populations of South Africa. A large minority of whites (around 30,000) trace their family origins back to the [[German Namibians|German]] settlers who colonised Namibia prior to the South African invasion during the First World War, and they maintain German cultural and educational institutions. Nearly all Portuguese settlers came to the country from the former [[Portuguese West Africa|Portuguese colony]] of Angola.<ref>{{cite news|date=16 August 1975|title=Flight from Angola|url=https://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12079340|access-date=10 September 2013|newspaper=The Economist|archive-date=25 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825050453/http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12079340|url-status=live}}</ref> The 1960 census reported 526,004 persons in what was then South West Africa, including 73,464 whites (14%).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=Lalita Prasad|title=The United Nations and Namibia|publisher=East African Publishing House|year=1980}}</ref>

===Education===
[[File:42817 06.JPG|thumb|Secondary school students]]
{{Main|Education in Namibia}}

{{See also|List of schools in Namibia}}

Namibia has free education for both primary and secondary education levels. Grades 1–7 are primary level, grades 8–12 are secondary. In 1998, there were 400,325 Namibian students in primary school and 115,237 students in secondary schools. The pupil-teacher ratio in 1999 was estimated at 32:1, with about 8% of the GDP being spent on education. Curriculum development, educational research, and professional development of teachers is centrally organised by the National Institute for Educational Development (NIED) in Okahandja.<ref>{{cite web|title=National Institute for Educational Development|url=http://www.nied.edu.na/|access-date=26 June 2010|publisher=Nied.edu.na|archive-date=12 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200512213852/http://www.nied.edu.na/|url-status=live}}</ref> Among sub-Saharan African countries, Namibia has one of the highest literacy rates.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|title=Literacy – The World Factbook|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/literacy/|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=30 March 2022|archive-date=1 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401014237/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/literacy/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[CIA World Factbook]], as of 2018 91.5% of the population age 15 and over can read and write.<ref name="auto" />

Most schools in Namibia are state-run, but there are some private schools, which are also part of the country's education system. There are four teacher training universities, three colleges of agriculture, a police training college, and three universities: [[University of Namibia]] (UNAM), [[International University of Management]] (IUM) and [[Namibia University of Science and Technology]] (NUST). Namibia was ranked 91st in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/namibia |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref>

The 2018 Namibia Labour Force Survey indicates that 99,536 people within the working age population had tertiary education of any level (6.6% of the working age population), while 21,922 (1.5% of the working age population) of these had postgraduate education.
{| class="wikitable"
! Age group
! No education
! Primary
! Junior secondary
! Senior secondary
! Technical/vocational certificate or diploma
! Currently in year 1, 2 or 3 of tertiary education
! University certificate, diploma or degree
! Postgraduate certificate, diploma or degree
|-
|15–19
|10,695
|89,696
|112,104
|23,588
|508
|1,558
|299
|44
|-
|20–24
|19,090
|37,177
|99,661
|58,909
|6,185
|9,498
|6,019
|212
|-
|25–29
|13,757
|31,278
|81,909
|53,019
|7,263
|9,035
|16,294
|3,840
|-
|30–34
|13,753
|25,656
|73,216
|39,969
|4,886
|3,161
|15,520
|2,764
|-
|35–39
|13,030
|24,926
|55,816
|30,999
|3,497
|2,582
|10,831
|3,290
|-
|40–44
|16,042
|24,602
|38,462
|26,786
|3,508
|1,605
|7,284
|2,603
|-
|45–49
|12,509
|24,743
|27,780
|18,883
|1,180
|896
|6,752
|2,663
|-
|50–54
|12,594
|22,360
|20,641
|10,810
|891
|582
|5,529
|2,522
|-
|55–59
|12,754
|19,927
|13,654
|5,487
|825
|848
|4,064
|1,712
|-
|60–64
|13,832
|14,578
|8,006
|2,764
|584
|459
|2,135
|1,570
|-
|65+
|49,043
|31,213
|10,033
|3,415
|775
|389
|2,886
|702
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''187,100'''
|'''346,157'''
|'''541,281'''
|'''274,628'''
|'''30,101'''
|'''30,612'''
|'''77,615'''
|'''21,922'''
|}
The following table shows the 2018 Namibia Labour Force Survey employment statistics by education. Employment rates in Namibia generally increase with education status. A high school education typically ensures greater employment rates than those with no education or those with primary or junior secondary education as their highest achievement. Namibians with a university certificate, diploma or degree have a significantly higher employment rate at 76.4%, while postgraduate education holders are most likely to be employed with an employment rate of 83.8% in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cirrus Data|url=https://cirrus.com.na/dataportal/|access-date=9 November 2023|website=cirrus.com.na|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109150442/https://cirrus.com.na/dataportal/|url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|
|No education
|Primary
|Junior secondary
|Senior secondary
|Technical/vocational certificate or diploma
|Currently in year 1, 2 or 3 of tertiary education
|University certificate, diploma or degree
|Postgraduate certificate, diploma or degree
|-
|Total
|187,100
|346,157
|541,281
|274,628
|30,101
|30,612
|77,615
|21,922
|-
|Employed
|85,352
|146,089
|229,259
|146,874
|16,292
|12,595
|59,328
|18,378
|-
|'''% Employed'''
|'''45.6%'''
|'''42.2%'''
|'''42.4%'''
|'''53.5%'''
|'''54.1%'''
|'''41.1%'''
|'''76.4%'''
|'''83.8%'''
|}

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Namibia}}

[[File:Swakopmund ev-luth Kirche 1.jpg|thumb|right|Lutheran church in [[Swakopmund]]]]

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religion in Namibia (ARDA 2020 est.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=157c|title=Religions in Namibia &#124; Arda|website=www.thearda.com|access-date=27 October 2025}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Protestant]]
| value1 = 69.60
| color1 = Blue
| label2 = [[Catholic]]
| value2 = 17.87
| color2 = Light Blue
| label3 = [[Christianity|Other Christian]]
| value3 = 3.36
| color3 = Dark Blue
| label4 = [[Traditional African religions|Traditional faiths]]
| value4 = 5.82
| color4 = Brown
| label5 = [[Irreligion|None]]
| value5 = 2.46
| color5 = Black
| label6 = Other
| value6 = .89
| color6 = White
}}

The Christian community makes up 80%–90% of the population of Namibia, with at least 75% being [[Protestant]], of which at least 50% are [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]]. Lutherans are the largest religious group, a legacy of the German and [[Finland|Finnish]] missionary work during the country's colonial times.<ref name="finnish-mission" /> 10%–20% of the population hold [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] beliefs.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|author-link=CIA|year=2009|title=Namibia|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia/|access-date=23 January 2010|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110010829/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia|url-status=live}}</ref>

Missionary activities during the second half of the 19th century resulted in many Namibians converting to Christianity. Today most Christians are [[Lutheran]], but there also are [[Roman Catholic]], [[Methodism|Methodist]], [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], [[African Methodist Episcopal Church|African Methodist Episcopal]], and [[Dutch Reformed Church|Dutch Reformed]].

[[Islam in Namibia]] is subscribed to by about 9,000 people,<ref>{{cite web|date=27 January 2011|title=Table: Muslim Population by Country|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/table-muslim-population-by-country/|access-date=13 March 2017|publisher=Pew Research Center|archive-date=6 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406100706/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/table-muslim-population-by-country/|url-status=live}}</ref> many of them Nama.<ref>{{cite web|title=Islam in Namibia, making an impact|url=https://archive.islamonline.net/?p=18129|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215035636/https://archive.islamonline.net/?p=18129|archive-date=15 February 2020|access-date=26 August 2017|publisher=Islamonline.net}}</ref> Namibia is home to a small [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[History of the Jews in Namibia|community]] of about 100 people.<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary1">{{cite web|title=Namibia: Virtual Jewish History Tour|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/namibia.html|access-date=1 August 2013|publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org|archive-date=9 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109063048/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/namibia.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Groups such as the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Latter-day Saints]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] are also present in the country.

===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of Namibia}}

{{bar box
|title=Home Languages in Namibia
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Languages
|right1=percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|Oshiwambo Languages|darkgreen|49.7}}
{{bar percent|Khoekhoegowab|purple|11.0}}
{{bar percent|Kavango Languages|black|10.4}}
{{bar percent|Afrikaans|red|9.4}}
{{bar percent|Herero Languages|orange|9.2}}
{{bar percent|Lozi Languages|green|4.9}}
{{bar percent|English|blue|2.3}}
{{bar percent|Other|teal|1.0}}
{{bar percent|San Languages|darkred|0.7}}
{{bar percent|German|gray|0.6}}
{{bar percent|Other African Languages|tan|0.5}}
{{bar percent|Tswana|lime|0.3}}
{{bar percent|Other European Languages|violet|0.1}}
}}
The majority of Namibians can speak and understand English and Afrikaans. Up to 1990, English, [[German language in Namibia|German]], and [[Afrikaans]] were official languages. Long before Namibia's independence from South Africa, SWAPO was of the opinion that the country should become officially monolingual, choosing this approach in contrast to that of its neighbour South Africa (which granted [[Languages of South Africa|all 12 of its major languages]] official status), which it saw as "a deliberate policy of ethnolinguistic fragmentation."<ref>Pütz, Martin (1995) "Official Monolingualism in Africa: A sociolinguistic assessment of linguistic and cultural pluralism in Africa", p. 155 in ''Discrimination through language in Africa? Perspectives on the Namibian Experience''. Mouton de Gruyter. Berlin, {{ISBN|311014817X}}</ref> Consequently, SWAPO instituted English as Namibia's sole official language, though only 2.3% of the population speaks it as a home language. Its implementation is focused on the civil service, education and the broadcasting system, especially the state broadcaster NBC.<ref name="kriger">{{cite book|last1=Kriger|first1=Robert & Ethel|title=Afrikaans Literature: Recollection, Redefinition, Restitution.|date=1996|publisher=Rodopi Bv Editions|isbn=978-90-420-0051-3|pages=66–67}}</ref> Some other languages have received semi-official recognition by being allowed as medium of instruction in primary schools. Private schools are expected to follow the same policy as state schools, and "English language" is a compulsory subject.<ref name="kriger" /> Some critics argue that, as in other postcolonial African societies, the push for monolingual instruction and policy has resulted in a high rate of school drop-outs and of individuals whose academic competence in any language is low.<ref>Tötemeyer, Andree-Jeanne. ''Multilingualism and the language policy for Namibian schools.'' PRAESA Occasional Papers No. 37. University of Cape Town. Cape Town:2010.</ref>

According to the latest statistical data gathered in the most recent survey (2016), the linguistic landscape in the region has witnessed notable shifts since the 2011 census. [[Ovambo language|Oshiwambo]] remains the predominant language, claiming the position of the most spoken language for a significant 49.7% of households, surpassing its previous standing. [[KhoeKhoegowab]] follows at 11.0%, while the [[Kavango – Southwest Bantu languages|Kavango]] Languages, with a share of 10.4%, have also experienced a noteworthy increase. Afrikaans, identified as the country's ''lingua franca'', maintains a considerable presence at 9.4%. The Herero Languages account for 9.2%, indicating a slight adjustment from the previous census. [[Lozi language|Silozi]] has seen a shift to 4.9%, and English, utilized primarily as a second language, stands at 2.3%. Other Languages collectively represent 1.0%, with San Languages at 0.7%, and German at 0.6%. The diversity of languages in the region is further demonstrated by the presence of Other African Languages at 0.5%, [[Tswana language|Setswana]] at 0.3%, and Other European Languages at 0.1%.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cirrus Data|url=https://cirrus.com.na/dataportal/|access-date=6 December 2023|website=cirrus.com.na|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109150442/https://cirrus.com.na/dataportal/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Note: (1) Herero languages include: Otjiherero, Otjimbanderu, Oruzemba, Otjizimba, Otjihakahona, Otjindongona and Otjitjavikwa

(2) Kavango languages include:&nbsp; Rukwangali, Rushambyu, Rugciriku, Thimbukushu, Rumanyo and Rukavango

Most of the white population speaks English, Afrikaans or German. More than a century after the end of the German colonial era, German continues to play a role as a commercial language. As a home language, Afrikaans is spoken by 60% of the white community, German by 32%, English by 7% and Portuguese by 4–5%.<ref name="CIA" /> Geographical proximity to Portuguese-speaking Angola explains the relatively high number of [[Portuguese speaker]]s; in 2011 these were estimated to number 100,000.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sasman|first=Catherine|date=15 August 2011|title=Portuguese to be introduced in schools|url=https://www.namibian.com.na/83964/archive-read/Portuguese-to-be-introduced-in-schools|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082932/http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=85817&no_cache=1|archive-date=22 December 2012|newspaper=[[The Namibian]]|access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref>

===Health===
{{Main|Health in Namibia}}

{{See also|HIV/AIDS in Namibia}}

[[Life expectancy]] at birth is estimated to be 64 years in 2017&nbsp;– among the lowest in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Life Expectancy ranks|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html?countryName=Namibia&countryCode=wa&regionCode=afr&rank=210#wa|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523043802/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html?countryName=Namibia&countryCode=wa&regionCode=afr&rank=210#wa|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=26 August 2017|work=The World Factbook}}</ref>

Namibia launched a National Health Extension Programme in 2012<ref>{{cite web|date=16 October 2012|title=Namibia: Health Extension Programme Will Bridge Gaps Â? Unicef|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201210160334.html|access-date=26 August 2017|website=AllAfrica.com}}</ref> deployment 1,800 (2015) of a total ceiling of 4,800 health extension workers trained for six months in community health activities including first aid, health promotion for disease prevention, nutritional assessment and counseling, water sanitation and hygiene practices, HIV testing and community-based antiretroviral treatment.<ref>{{cite web|date=7 August 2015|title=Going the extra mile to deliver health care|url=https://www.unicef.org/namibia/Health_Worker_HIS_print.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711093332/https://www.unicef.org/namibia/Health_Worker_HIS_print.pdf|archive-date=11 July 2018|access-date=11 July 2018|publisher=unicef}}</ref>

Namibia faces a non-communicable disease burden. The Demographic and Health Survey (2013) summarises findings on elevated blood pressure, hypertension, diabetes, and obesity:
* Among eligible respondents age 35–64, 44% of women and 45% of men have elevated blood pressure or are currently taking medicine to lower their blood pressure.
* 49% of women and 61% of men are not aware that they have elevated blood pressure.
* 43% of women and 34% of men with hypertension are taking medication for their condition.
* Only 29% of women and 20% of men with hypertension are taking medication and have their blood pressure under control.
* 6% of women and 7%  of men are diabetic; that is, they have elevated fasting plasma glucose values or report that they are taking diabetes medication. An additional 7% of women and 6% of men are prediabetic.
* 67% of women and 74% of men with diabetes are taking medication to lower their blood glucose.
* Women and men with a higher-than-normal body mass index (25.0 or higher) are more likely to have elevated blood pressure and elevated fasting blood glucose.<ref name=":3"/>{{rp|237}}

[[File:AIDS and HIV prevalence 2008.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Estimated percentage of HIV among young adults (15–49) per country {{as of|2011|lc=y}}:<ref>{{cite web|title=AIDSinfo|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis/datatools/aidsinfo/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305203900/http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis/datatools/aidsinfo/|archive-date=5 March 2013|access-date=4 March 2013|website=UNAIDS}}</ref>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
{{legend|#b00000|<small>15–50</small>}}
{{col-end}}]]
The [[HIV/AIDS in Namibia|HIV epidemic]] remains a public health issue in Namibia despite significant achievements made by the [[Ministry of Health and Social Services (Namibia)|Ministry of Health and Social Services]] to expand HIV treatment services.<ref>{{cite conference|title=Together We Are Ending AIDS in Namibia|url=http://www.namaidscon.net/media/downloads/downloads/speeches/aids_conference_rapporteur.pdf|conference=Namibia AIDS Conference 2016: 28 to 30 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116155355/http://www.namaidscon.net/media/downloads/downloads/speeches/aids_conference_rapporteur.pdf|archive-date=16 January 2017|access-date=15 January 2017}}</ref> In 2001, there were an estimated 210,000 people living with HIV/AIDS, and the estimated death toll in 2003 was 16,000. According to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, the epidemic in Namibia "appears to be leveling off."<ref>{{cite web|title=UNAIDS World AIDS Day Report 2011|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/JC2216_WorldAIDSday_report_2011_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824062831/http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/JC2216_WorldAIDSday_report_2011_en.pdf|archive-date=24 August 2014|access-date=26 August 2017|publisher=UNAIDS}}</ref> As the HIV/AIDS epidemic has reduced the working-aged population, the number of orphans has increased. It falls to the government to provide education, food, shelter and clothing for these orphans.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aidsinafrica.net|url=http://www.aidsinafrica.net/|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919200353/http://aidsinafrica.net/|archive-date=19 September 2017|access-date=26 August 2017|publisher=Aidsinafrica.net}}</ref> A Demographic and Health Survey with an HIV biomarker was completed in 2013 and served as the fourth comprehensive, national-level population and health survey conducted in Namibia as part of the global Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) programme. The DHS observed important characteristics associated to the HIV epidemic:<ref name=":3" />{{rp|169, 203, 218}}
* Overall, 26 percent of men age 15–49 and 32 percent of those age 50–64 have been circumcised.&nbsp;HIV prevalence for men age 15–49 is lower among circumcised (8.0 percent) than among uncircumcised men (11.9 percent). The pattern of lower HIV prevalence among circumcised than uncircumcised men is observed across most background characteristics. For each age group, circumcised men have lower HIV prevalence than those who are not circumcised; the difference is especially pronounced for men age 35–39 and 45–49 (11.7 percentage points each). The difference in HIV prevalence between uncircumcised and circumcised men is larger among urban than rural men (5.2 percentage points versus 2.1 percentage points).
* HIV prevalence among respondents age 15–49 is 16.9 percent for women and 10.9 percent for men. HIV prevalence rates among women and men age 50–64 are similar (16.7 percent and 16.0 percent, respectively).
* HIV prevalence peaks in the 35–39 age group for both women and men (30.9 percent and 22.6 percent, respectively). It is lowest among respondents age 15–24 (2.5–6.4 percent for women and 2.0–3.4 percent for men).
* Among respondents age 15–49, HIV prevalence is highest for women and men in Zambezi (30.9 percent and 15.9 percent, respectively) and lowest for women in Omaheke (6.9 percent) and men in Ohangwena (6.6 percent).
* In 76.4 percent of the 1,007 cohabiting couples who were tested for HIV in the 2013 NDHS, both partners were HIV negative; in 10.1 percent of the couples, both partners were HIV positive; and 13.5 percent of the couples were discordant (that is, one partner was infected with HIV and the other was not).
As of 2015, the Ministry of Health and Social Services and UNAIDS produced a [https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/country/documents/NAM_narrative_report_2015.pdf Progress Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119002530/https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/country/documents/NAM_narrative_report_2015.pdf |date=19 January 2022 }} in which [[UNAIDS]] projected HIV prevalence among 15–49-year-olds at 13.3% [12.2–14.5%] and an estimated 210,000 [200,000–230,000] living with HIV.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HIV and AIDS estimates (2015)|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/namibia|access-date=26 August 2017|website=Unaids.org|archive-date=13 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813083141/http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/namibia|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[malaria]] problem seems to be compounded by the AIDS epidemic. Research has shown that in Namibia the risk of contracting malaria is 14.5% greater if a person is also infected with HIV. The risk of death from malaria is also raised by approximately 50% with a concurrent HIV infection.<ref name="Korenromp" /> The country had only 598 physicians in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|title=WHO Country Offices in the WHO African Region|url=http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/namibia.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107105806/http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/namibia.pdf|archive-date=7 January 2010|access-date=26 June 2010|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref>

==Culture==
Namibian culture is similar to South African culture due to their tied history and family nationalities. Few Namibians express interest in permanently settling in other countries; they prefer the safety of their homeland, have a strong national identity, and enjoy a well-supplied retail sector.<ref>{{Citation|title=Namibia|date=6 November 2023|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia/|work=The World Factbook|access-date=13 November 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110010829/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia|url-status=live}}</ref> Namibians are typically very social and are consistently among the highest alcohol consumption rates per capita, and ranked first in Africa for beer consumption per capita.<ref>{{Cite tweet|user=AfricaFactsZone|number=1620090285186510852|title=Namibia has the highest beer consumption per capita in Africa (108 litres)|access-date=13 November 2023}}</ref>[[File:Toutrek.jpg|thumb|[[Afrikaner]] children in Namibia]]

===Sport===
{{Main|Sport in Namibia|Rugby union in Namibia}}

The most popular sport in Namibia is [[association football]]. The [[Namibia national football team]] qualified for the [[1998 Africa Cup of Nations|1998]], [[2008 Africa Cup of Nations|2008]], [[2019 Africa Cup of Nations|2019]], and [[2023 Africa Cup of Nations|2023]] editions of the [[Africa Cup of Nations]], but has yet to qualify for the [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]]. Some notable players include [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]] right-back [[Ryan Nyambe]], [[Mamelodi Sundowns F.C.|Mamelodi Sundowns]] forward [[Peter Shalulile]], and retired footballer [[Collin Benjamin]].

The most successful national team is the [[Namibia national rugby union team|Namibian rugby team]], having competed in the last seven World Cups. Namibia were participants in the [[1999 Rugby World Cup|1999]], [[2003 Rugby World Cup|2003]], [[2007 Rugby World Cup|2007]], [[2011 Rugby World Cup|2011]], [[2015 Rugby World Cup|2015]], [[2019 Rugby World Cup|2019]], and most recent [[2023 Rugby World Cup|2023]] [[Rugby World Cup]]. [[Jacques Burger]] is an internationally successful Namibian rugby player.

[[Cricket in Namibia]] is also popular, with [[Namibia national cricket team|the national side]] having qualified for [[2003 Cricket World Cup]], [[2021 ICC T20 World Cup]] and [[2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-men-s-t20-world-cup-2021-22-1267897/ireland-vs-namibia-11th-match-first-round-group-a-1273722/match-report|title=Wiese, Erasmus the heroes as Namibia qualify for the Super 12s|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=22 October 2021|archive-date=1 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001163150/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-men-s-t20-world-cup-2021-22-1267897/ireland-vs-namibia-11th-match-first-round-group-a-1273722/match-report|url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2017, Namibia Cricket reached the final of the Cricket South Africa (CSA) Provincial One Day Challenge for the first time.<ref name="NCYR" /> In February 2018, Namibia hosted the ICC World Cricket League Division 2 with Namibia, Kenya, UAE, Nepal, Canada and Oman to compete for the final two ICC Cricket World Cup Qualifier positions in Zimbabwe. Namibia also qualified the qualifiers of ICC T20 World Cup 2021 and entered the super 12 club.<ref name="NCYR">{{cite web|title=Namibia Cricket Year Review|author=Helge Schütz|work=The Namibian |date=19 December 2017|url=https://www.namibian.com.na/62702/read/Namibia-Cricket-Year-Review|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051115/https://www.namibian.com.na/62702/read/Namibia-Cricket-Year-Review|archive-date=22 December 2017}}</ref>

Other Namibians have achieved notable success in individual sports. [[Frankie Fredericks]], sprinter in the 100 and 200 m [[track and field]] events, has won four Olympic silver medals (1992, 1996) and has medals from several [[IAAF World Championships in Athletics|World Athletics Championships]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/wc.htm|title=IAAF World Championships in Athletics|website=gbrathletics.com|access-date=26 February 2019|archive-date=16 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190316223742/http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/wc.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Golfer [[Trevor Dodds]] won the [[Greater Greensboro Open]] in 1998, one of 15 tournaments in his career. He achieved a career-high world ranking of 78th in 1998.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} Professional cyclist and Namibian Road Race champion [[Dan Craven]] represented Namibia at the [[2016 Summer Olympics]] in both the road race and individual time trial.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://firstcycling.com/rider.php?r=2421&y=2016|title=Dan Craven|website=FirstCycling.com|access-date=20 June 2022|archive-date=27 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527025514/https://firstcycling.com/rider.php?r=2421&y=2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Boxer [[Julius Indongo]] was a unified WBA, IBF, and IBO world champion in the [[Light welterweight]] division.

===Media===
{{see also|Media of Namibia}}
Compared to neighbouring countries, Namibia has a large degree of media freedom. Over the past years, the country usually ranked in the upper quarter of the [[Press Freedom Index]] of [[Reporters without Borders]], reaching position 21 in 2010, being on par with Canada and the best-positioned African country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Freedom Index 2010|url=http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2010,1034.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124050702/http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2010%2C1034.html|archive-date=24 November 2010|access-date=12 December 2012|publisher=Reporters Without Borders}}</ref> The African Media Barometer shows similarly positive results. However, as in other countries, there is still mentionable influence of representatives of state and economy on media in Namibia.<ref name="Rothe" /> In 2009, Namibia dropped to position 36 on the Press Freedom Index.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Freedom Index 2009|url=http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=classement&id_rubrique=1001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128213104/http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=classement&id_rubrique=1001|archive-date=28 January 2012|access-date=26 August 2017|publisher=Reporters Without Borders}}</ref> In 2013, it was 19th,<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Freedom Index 2013|url=http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=classement&id_rubrique=1054|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727023534/http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=classement&id_rubrique=1054|archive-date=27 July 2014|access-date=24 June 2013}}</ref> 22nd in 2014<ref>{{cite web|title=World Press Freedom Index|work=RSF |url=https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214120404/http://rsf.org/index2014/en-index2014.php|archive-date=14 February 2014|access-date=25 April 2015|publisher=Reporters Without Borders}}</ref> and 23rd in 2019,<ref>{{Cite web|date=27 November 2020|title=Namibia: Real freedom but frequent threats &#124; Reporters without borders|url=https://rsf.org/en/namibia|publisher=Reports Without Borders|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-date=21 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321055833/https://rsf.org/en/namibia|url-status=live}}</ref> meaning that it is currently the highest ranked African country in terms of press freedom.

Although Namibia's population is fairly small, the country has a diverse choice of media; two TV stations, 19 radio stations (without counting community stations), 5 daily newspapers, several weeklies and special publications compete for the attention of the audience. Additionally, a mentionable amount of foreign media, especially South African, is available. Online media are mostly based on print publication content. Namibia has a state-owned press agency, called [[Namibia Press Agency|NAMPA]].<ref name="Rothe">Rothe, Andreas (2010): Media System and News Selection in Namibia. p. 14–96</ref> Overall {{circa}} 300 journalists work in the country.<ref name="jobs">{{Cite news|title=40 journalists lose jobs since 2016|last1=Kahiurika|first1=Ndanki|last2=Ngutjinazo|first2=Okeri|newspaper=[[The Namibian]]|date=22 January 2019|page=6|url=https://www.namibian.com.na/74849/read/40-journalists-lose-jobs-since-2016|access-date=22 January 2019|archive-date=22 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122145012/https://www.namibian.com.na/74849/read/40-journalists-lose-jobs-since-2016}}</ref>

The first newspaper in Namibia was the German-language ''Windhoeker Anzeiger'', founded 1898. During German rule, the newspapers mainly reflected the living reality and the view of the white German-speaking minority. The black majority was ignored or depicted as a threat. During South African rule, the white bias continued, with mentionable influence of the Pretoria government on the South West African media system. Independent newspapers were seen as a menace to the existing order, and critical journalists were often threatened.<ref name=Rothe/><ref>von Nahmen, Carsten (2001): Deutschsprachige Medien in Namibia</ref><ref name=Links>Links, Frederico (2006): ''We write what we like: The role of independent print media and independent reporting in Namibia''</ref>

Current daily newspapers are the private publications ''[[The Namibian]]'' (English and other languages), ''[[Die Republikein]]'' (Afrikaans), ''[[Allgemeine Zeitung (Namibia)|Allgemeine Zeitung]]'' (German) and ''[[Namibian Sun]]'' (English) as well as the state-owned ''[[New Era (Namibia)|New Era]]'' (predominantly English). Except for the largest newspaper, ''The Namibian'', which is owned by a trust, the other mentioned private newspapers are part of Democratic Media Holdings.<ref name=Rothe/> Other mentionable newspapers are the tabloid ''Informanté'' owned by TrustCo, the weekly ''[[Windhoek Observer]]'', the weekly ''[[Namibia Economist]]'', as well as the regional ''Namib Times''. Current affairs magazines include ''[[Insight Namibia]]'', ''Vision2030 Focus magazine''{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} and ''Prime FOCUS''. The ''[[Sister Namibia]]'' magazine stands out as the longest running NGO magazine in Namibia, while ''[[Namibia Sport]]'' is the only national sport magazine. Furthermore, the print market is complemented with party publications, student newspapers and PR publications.<ref name=Rothe/>

Radio was introduced in 1969, TV in 1981. The broadcasting sector today is dominated by the state-run [[Namibian Broadcasting Corporation]] (NBC). The [[public broadcasting|public broadcaster]] offers a TV station as well as a "National Radio" in English and nine language services in locally spoken languages. The nine private radio stations in the country are mainly English-language channels, except for Radio Omulunga (Oshiwambo) and Kosmos 94.1 (Afrikaans).
Privately held [[One Africa Television|One Africa TV]] has competed with NBC since the 2000s.<ref name=Rothe/><ref name="oneafricabackground">[https://web.archive.org/web/20100928202233/http://www.oneafrica.tv/node/2 One Africa Television]. oneafrica.tv. 25 May 2010</ref>

Media and journalists in Namibia are represented by the Namibian chapter of the [[Media Institute of Southern Africa]] and the Editors' Forum of Namibia. An independent media ombudsman was appointed in 2009 to prevent a state-controlled media council.<ref name=Rothe/>

=== Art ===
The [[National Art Gallery of Namibia]] houses a permanent exhibition of Namibian, African and European Art and shows temporary exhibitions of local artists. In 2022 Namibia took part in the [[Venice Biennale]] (often referred to as the "Olympics of Arts") for the first time.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Farago|first1=Jason|last2=Marshall|first2=Alex|last3=Halperin|first3=Julia|last4=Steinhauer|first4=Jillian|last5=Small|first5=Zachary|last6=Kelbaugh|first6=Casey|last7=Mayda|first7=Matteo de|date=19 April 2024|title=8 Hits of the Venice Biennale|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/19/arts/design/8-hits-of-the-venice-biennale.html|access-date=14 May 2024|work=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=22 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422235331/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/19/arts/design/8-hits-of-the-venice-biennale.html|url-status=live}}</ref>  It competed in the [[59th Venice Biennale|59th Edition]] with the exhibition "[[A Bridge to the Desert]]" featuring the "[[Lone Stone Men]]" project by [[Renn (Namibian artist)]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 April 2022|website=La Biennale di Venezia Arte 2022|title=Namibia: A Bridge to the Desert|url=https://www.labiennale.org/en/art/2022/national-participations/namibia|access-date=10 May 2024|archive-date=9 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509172011/https://www.labiennale.org/en/art/2022/national-participations/namibia|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Africa}}
*[[Index of Namibia-related articles]]
*[[Outline of Namibia]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist-ua}}

== References ==
{{Reflist
|refs =
<ref name=Adhikari>{{cite journal|last=Adhikari|first=Mohamed|title='Streams of Blood And Streams of Money': New Perspectives on the Annihilation of the Herero and Nama Peoples of Namibia, 1904–1908|journal=Kronos|jstor=41056613|year=2008|volume=34|issue=34|pages=303–320}}</ref>

<ref name=aqmap>{{cite journal|vauthors=MacDonald AM, Bonsor HC, Dochartaigh BÉ, Taylor RG|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/7/2/024009|title=Quantitative maps of groundwater resources in Africa|journal=Environ. Res. Lett.|volume=7|article-number=024009|year=2012|issue=2|bibcode=2012ERL.....7b4009M|citeseerx=10.1.1.693.4081|s2cid=154336728}}</ref>

<ref name="finnish-mission">{{cite web|url=https://felm.suomenlahetysseura.fi/namibia-30-vuotta-suomalaisilla-oli-merkittava-rooli-namibian-itsenaistymisessa/|title=Namibia 30 vuotta – Suomalaisilla oli merkittävä rooli Namibian itsenäistymisessä|publisher=[[Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Mission]]|date=20 March 2020|access-date=11 February 2023|language=fi|archive-date=24 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324181423/https://felm.suomenlahetysseura.fi/namibia-30-vuotta-suomalaisilla-oli-merkittava-rooli-namibian-itsenaistymisessa/|url-status=live}}</ref>

<!--
<ref name=Gerwarth>{{cite journal|last=Gerwarth|first=Robert|title=L'Antichambre de l'Holocauste? A propos du Debat sur les Violences Coloniales et la Guerre d'Extermination Nazie|language=fr|journal=Vingtième Siècle|year=2008|volume=99|pages=143–159|JSTOR=20475396|doi=10.3917/ving.099.0143|last2=Malinowski|first2=Stephan|issue=3}} says most scholars think it did not influence the Nazis.</ref>
-->
<ref name=Humavindu>{{cite journal|last1=Humavindu|first1=Michael N.|last2=Barnes|first2=Jonothan I.|title=Trophy Hunting in the Namibian Economy: An Assessment. Environmental Economics Unit, Directorate of Environmental Affairs, [[Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia)|Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Namibia]]|journal=South African Journal of Wildlife Research|volume=33|issue=2|pages=65–70|date=October 2003}}</ref>

<ref name=Korenromp>{{cite journal|pmid=16229771|last1=Korenromp|first1=E.L.|last2=Williams|first2=B.G.|last3=de Vlas|first3=S.J.|last4=Gouws|first4=E.|last5=Gilks|first5=C.F.|last6=Ghys|first6=P.D.|last7=Nahlen|first7=B.L.|year=2005|title=Malaria Attributable to the HIV-1 Epidemic, Sub-Saharan Africa|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=11|issue=9|pages=1410–1419|doi=10.3201/eid1109.050337|pmc=3310631}}</ref>

<ref name=Lange>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s10640-004-4045-z|last=Lange|first=Glenn-marie|title=Wealth, Natural Capital, and Sustainable Development: Contrasting Examples from Botswana and Namibia|journal=Environmental & Resource Economics|year=2004|volume=29|issue=3|pages=257–83|bibcode=2004EnREc..29..257L|s2cid=155085174}}</ref>

<ref name=Madley>{{cite journal|last=Madley|first=Benjamin|title=From Africa to Auschwitz: How German South West Africa Incubated Ideas and Methods Adopted and Developed by the Nazis in Eastern Europe|journal=European History Quarterly|year=2005|volume=35|issue=3|pages=429–464|doi=10.1177/0265691405054218|s2cid=144290873}} says it influenced Nazis.</ref>

<ref name=Sparks>{{cite journal|title=Namibia's Coastal and Marine Development Potential|volume=83|issue=333|page=477|journal=African Affairs|last=Sparks|first=Donald L.|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097645|year=1984}}</ref>

<ref name="Stefanova">Stefanova, Kristina (August 2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080110052258/http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/ites/0805/ijee/stefanova.htm Protecting Namibia's Natural Resources]. usinfo.state.gov</ref>

<ref name=UNEP>[http://www.wri.org/publication/content/7600 Nature in Local Hands: The Case for Namibia's Conservancies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113190527/http://www.wri.org/publication/content/7600 |date=13 November 2012 }}. UNEP, UNDP, WRI, and World Bank. 2005.</ref>

}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Vedder|first=Heinrich|author-link=Heinrich Vedder|title=Das alte Südwestafrika. Südwestafrikas Geschichte bis zum Tode Mahareros 1890|trans-title=The old South-West Africa. South-West Africa's history until Maharero's death 1890|language=de|year=1997|edition=7th|publisher=Namibia Scientific Society|location=Windhoek|isbn=978-0-949995-33-9}}
* {{cite book|last1=Olusoga|first1=David|author1-link=David Olusoga|last2=Erichsen|first2=Casper W.|title=The Kaiser's Holocaust: Germany's Forgotten Genocide|year=2010|publisher=Farber and Farber|location=London, England|isbn=978-0-571-23142-3}}
* {{cite journal|last=Besenyo|first=Molnar|url=http://knbsz.gov.hu/hu/letoltes/szsz/2013_1_spec.pdf|title=UN peacekeeping in Namibia|journal=Tradecraft Review|publisher=Military National Security Service|location=Budapest, Hungary|year=2013|issue=2013/1. Special Issue|pages=93–109|access-date=8 November 2014|archive-date=17 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217203716/http://knbsz.gov.hu/hu/letoltes/szsz/2013_1_spec.pdf}}
* Christy, S. A. (2007). ''Namibian Travel Photography''.
* Horn, N/Bösl, A (eds.). ''Human rights and the rule of law in Namibia'', Macmillan Namibia, 2008.
* Horn, N/Bösl, A (eds.). ''The independence of the judiciary in Namibia'', Macmillan Namibia, 2008.
* KAS Factbook Namibia, Facts and figures about the status and development of Namibia, Ed. Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung e.V.
* {{ill|Fritz, Jean-Claude|fr|Jean-Claude Fritz}}. ''La Namibie indépendante. Les coûts d'une décolonisation retardée'', Paris: [[L'Harmattan]], 1991.
* ''World Almanac''. 2004. New York, NY: World Almanac Books.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Namibia spoken word.ogg|date=31 August 2009}}
{{Sister project links|voy=Namibia|collapsible=collapsed}}
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* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia/ Namibia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110010829/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia |date=10 January 2021 }}. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221805/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/namibia.htm Namibia] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 3 March 2016)
* {{Wikiatlas|Namibia}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=NA Key Development Forecasts for Namibia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011142941/http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=NA |date=11 October 2012 }} from [[International Futures]]
* [https://archive.today/20121203072358/http://www.grnnet.gov.na/ Republic of Namibia] Government Portal (archived 3 December 2012)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081210072855/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-n/namibia.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] (archived 10 December 2008)

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