View source for Names of China

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{{Infobox Chinese
| headercolor = #de6c87
|title = China
|pic=[[File:China (Chinese characters).svg|100px]]
|piccap="China" in [[Simplified characters|simplified]] (top) and [[Traditional characters|traditional]] (bottom) character forms
|picupright=0.45
| t={{linktext|中國}}
| s={{linktext|中国}}
| p=Zhōngguó
| w=Chung¹-kuo²
| mi={{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|g|wo|2}}
| sic=Zong<sup>1</sup> gwe<sup>2</sup>
| bpmf=ㄓㄨㄥ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄍㄨㄛˊ
| xej=ﺟْﻮﻗُﻮَع
| tp=Jhongguó
| mps=Jūngguó
| gr=Jonggwo
| myr=Jūnggwó
| zh-dungan=Җунгуй
| poj=Tiong-kok
| tl=Tiong-kok
| gan=Tung-koe̍t<br />Chungkoet
| hsn=Tan<sup>33</sup>-kwɛ<sup>24</sup>/
| wuu=Tson<sup>平</sup>-koh<sup>入</sup>
| j=Zung1gwok3
| y=Jùnggwok ''or'' Jūnggwok
| ci={{IPAc-yue|z|ung|7|.|gw|ok|3}} ''or'' {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|1|.|gw|ok|3}}
| h=Dung<sup>24</sup>-gued<sup>2</sup>
| phfs=Chûng-koet
| buc=Dṳ̆ng-guók
| hhbuc=De̤ng-go̤h
| mblmc=Dô̤ng-gŏ
| showflag=p
| l={{nowrap|Middle or Central State<ref name=zg>{{citation |contribution=Reconstructing China beyond Homogeneity |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bEiDBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 105] |series=Political Theories in East Asian Context |title=Patriotism in East Asia |editor=Jun-Hyeok Kwak |editor2=Koichiro Matsuda |display-editors=0 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Abingdon |date=2015 |last=Bilik |first=Naran }}</ref>}}
|altname = Common name
|t2 = {{linktext|中華}}
|s2 = {{linktext|中华}}
|p2 = Zhōnghuá
|gan2 = tung<sup>1</sup> fa<sup>4</sup> ''or''<br />Chungfa
|w2 = Chung¹-hua²
|bpmf2 = ㄓㄨㄥ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄏㄨㄚˊ|tp2 = Jhonghuá |mps2 = Jūnghuá |gr2 = Jonghwa |myr2 = Jūnghwá |mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|h|wa|2}}
|xej2 = ﺟْﻮ ﺧُﻮَ
|poj2 = Tiong-hôa
|tl2 = Tiong-huâ
|wuu2 = tson<sup>平</sup> gho<sup>平</sup>
|j2 = Zung1waa4
|ci2 = {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|7|.|w|aa|4}} ''or'' {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|1|.|w|aa|4}}
|y2 = Jùng'wàh ''or'' Jūng'wàh
|h2 = dung<sup>24</sup> fa<sup>11</sup>
|phfs2 = Chûng-fà
|buc2 = Dṳ̆ng-huà
|tib = {{bo-textonly|ཀྲུང་གོ་}}
|zwpy= Krung-go
|mong = {{MongolUnicode|ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ<br />ᠤᠯᠤᠰ}}
|monr =Dumdadu ulus
|mnc = {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ<br />ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ}}
|mnc_rom =Dulimbai gurun
|uig = {{lang|ug|جۇڭگو}}
|uly= Junggo
|lang1=Kazakh
|lang1_content={{lang|kk-Arab|جۇڭگو (قىتاي)}}<br/>{{Transliteration|kk|Jūñgö (Qıtay)}}<br/>{{lang|kk|Жұңгө (Қытай)}}
|lang2 = Kyrgyz
|lang2_content= {{lang|ky-Arab|جۇڭگو (قىتاي)}}<br/>Жуңго (Кытай)<br/>{{lang|ky-Latn|Cuñğo (Qytaj)}}
|zha= Cungguek
}}
{{Names of China}}

[[China]] has many contemporary and historical designations given in various languages for the East Asian country known as {{Lang-zh|hp=Zhōngguó|t=中國|s=中国|labels=no}}  ('Central State' or 'Middle Kingdom') in [[Standard Chinese]], a form based on the [[Beijing dialect]] of [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]].

The English name "China" was borrowed from Portuguese during the 16th century, and its direct cognates became common in the subsequent centuries in the West.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2015|p=191}} It is believed to be a borrowing from [[Middle Persian]], and some have traced it further back to the [[Sanskrit]] word {{lang|sa|चीन}} ({{transliteration|sa|cīna}}) for the nation. It is also thought that the ultimate source of the name China is the Chinese word {{zhi|c=秦|p=Qín|out=p}}, the name of the [[Qin dynasty]] that ultimately unified China after existing as a [[Qin (state)|state]] within the [[Zhou dynasty]] for many centuries prior. However, there are alternative suggestions for the etymology of this word.

Chinese names for China, aside from {{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}, include {{zhi|t={{linktext|中華}}|s={{linktext|中华}}|l=central beauty|p=Zhōnghuá|out=p}}, {{zhi|t=華夏|s=华夏|p=Huáxià|l=beautiful grandness|out=p}}, {{zhi|c={{linktext|神州}}|p=Shénzhōu|l=divine state|out=p}} and {{zhi|c={{linktext|九州}}|p=Jiǔzhōu|l=nine states|out=p}}. While [[Zhonghua minzu|official notions of Chinese nationality]] do not make any particular reference to ethnicity, common names for the [[Han Chinese|largest ethnic group]] in China are {{zhi|t={{linktext|漢}}|s={{linktext|汉}}|p=Hàn|out=p}} and {{zhi|c={{linktext|唐}}|p=Táng|out=p}}. The [[People's Republic of China]] ({{zhi|p=Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó}}) and the [[Republic of China]] ({{zhi|p=Zhōnghuá Mínguó}}) are the official names of the two governments presently claiming sovereignty over "China". The term "[[mainland China]]" refers to areas under the PRC's jurisdiction, either including or excluding [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]].

There are also names for China used around the world that are derived from the languages of ethnic groups other than [[Han Chinese]]: examples include "[[Cathay]]" from the [[Khitan language]], and {{transliteration|xgn|Tabgach}} from [[Tuoba]]. The realm ruled by the [[Emperor of China]] is also referred to as [[Chinese Empire]].

== Sinitic names ==
{{anchor|Zhongguo|Zhonghua}}

=== Zhongguo ===
==== Pre-Qing ====
[[File:He Zun transcription.jpg|thumb|400px|[[He zun|He ''zun'']] rubbing and transcription; framed is the phrase {{zhi|c=宅𢆶𠁩或|p=zhái zī zhōngguó|l=inhabit this central state}}. The same phrase is written in [[traditional characters|traditional]] and [[simplified characters]] as {{zhi|c=宅茲中国|t=宅茲中國}}|left]]<!---𠁩 which is an ancient form of {{zhi|c=中}}, the other three characters are rebuses;--->
{{zhi|c=中國|p=Zhōngguó|out=p}} is the most common [[Chinese language|Chinese]] name for China in modern times. The earliest appearance of this two-character term is on the [[He zun|He ''zun'']], a bronze vessel dating to 1038–{{circa|1000 BCE}}, during the early [[Western Zhou]] period. The phrase "{{Transliteration|zh|zhong guo}}" came into common usage in the [[Warring States period]] (475–221 BCE), when it referred to the "Central States", the states of the [[Yellow River]] Valley of the Zhou era, as distinguished from the tribal periphery.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|p=232–233}}</ref> In later periods, however, {{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}} was not used in this sense. Dynastic names were used for the state in [[Imperial China]], and concepts of the state aside from the ruling dynasty were little understood.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2015|p=191}} Rather, the country was called by the name of the dynasty, such as "[[Han dynasty|Han]]", "[[Tang dynasty|Tang]]", "[[Ming dynasty|Great Ming]]", "[[Qing dynasty|Great Qing]]", etc. Until the 19th century, when the globalizing world began to require a common legal language, there was no need for a fixed or unique name.<ref name="Zarrow ">{{cite book |last = Zarrow |first = Peter Gue |year = 2012 |title = After Empire: The Conceptual Transformation of the Chinese State, 1885–1924 |publisher = [[Stanford University Press]]| location = Stanford, California |isbn = 978-0-8047-7868-8 }}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=VJfbNnquT8EC&q=zhongguo p. 93-94] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170214/https://books.google.com/books?id=VJfbNnquT8EC&q=zhongguo |date=2023-04-11 }}.</ref>

As early as the [[Spring and Autumn period]], ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' could be understood as either the domain of the capital or used to refer to the Chinese civilization {{zhi|c=諸夏|p=zhūxià|l=the [[Huaxia|various Xia]]|out=p}}<ref>''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'' "[https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E9%96%94%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3 Duke Min – 1st year – zhuan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429050735/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E9%96%94%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3 |date=2022-04-29 }}" quote: "諸夏親暱不可棄也" translation: "The various Xia are close intimates and can not be abandoned"</ref><ref>[[Du Yu]], ''Chunqiu Zuozhuan – Collected Explanations'', "Vol. 4" [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=77348&page=136#%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F p. 136 of 186] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511185015/https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=77348&page=136#%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F |date=2022-05-11 }}. quote: "諸夏中國也"</ref> or {{zhi|c=諸華|p=zhūhuá|l=various [[Huaxia|Hua]]|out=p}},<ref>''Zuozhuan'' "[https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E8%A5%84%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3_4 Duke Xiang – 4th year – zhuan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429050735/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E8%A5%84%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3_4 |date=2022-04-29 }}" quote: "諸華必叛" translation: "The various Hua would surely revolt"</ref><ref>Du Yu, ''Chunqiu Zuozhuan – Collected Explanations'', "Vol. 15". [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=77350&page=102#%E8%AB%B8%E8%8F%AF p. 102 of 162] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511185018/https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=77350&page=102#%E8%AB%B8%E8%8F%AF |date=2022-05-11 }} quote: "諸華中國"</ref> and the political and geographical domain that contained it, but [[Tianxia]] was the more common word for this idea. This developed into the usage of the Warring States period, when, other than the cultural community, it could be the geopolitical area of Chinese civilization as well, equivalent to [[Jiuzhou]]. In a more limited sense, it could also refer to the Central Plain or the states of [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]], [[Wei (state)|Wei]], and [[Han (Warring States)|Han]], etc., geographically central among the Warring States.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ban Wang |title=Chinese Visions of World Order: Tian, Culture and World Politics |pages=270–272}}</ref> Although ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' could be used before the [[Song dynasty]] period to mean the trans-dynastic Chinese culture or civilization to which Chinese people belonged, it was in the Song dynasty that writers used ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as a term to describe the trans-dynastic entity with different dynastic names over time but having a set territory and defined by common ancestry, culture, and language.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tackett |first1=Nicolas |title=Origins of the Chinese Nation: Song China and the Forging of an East Asian World Order |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-19677-3 |pages=4, 161–2, 174, 194, 208, 280}}</ref>

The term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' was used differently in every period. It could refer to the capital of the emperor to distinguish it from the capitals of his vassals, as in [[Western Zhou]]. It could refer to the states of the [[Central Plain (China)|Central Plain]] to distinguish them from states in the outer regions. The ''[[Classic of Poetry|Shi Jing]]'' defines ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as the capital region, setting it in opposition to the capital city.<ref>''Classic of Poetry'', "Major Hymns – [https://ctext.org/book-of-poetry/min-lu Min Lu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412135203/https://ctext.org/book-of-poetry/min-lu |date=2022-04-12 }}" quote: {{zhi|c=《惠此{{underline|中國}}、以綏四方。…… 惠此{{underline|京師}}、以綏四國 。}}
" Legge's translation: "Let us cherish this '''center of the kingdom''', to secure the repose of the four quarters of it. [...] Let us cherish this '''capital''', to secure the repose of the States in the four quarters."</ref><ref>[[Zhu Xi]] (publisher, 1100s), ''Collected Commentaries on the Classic of Poetry (詩經集傳)'' [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&chapter=197338 "Juan A (卷阿)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412135200/https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&chapter=197338 |date=2022-04-12 }} [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=9218&page=68#%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%AB%E4%B9%9F%E5%9B%9B%E6%96%B9%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F%E4%B9%9F%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%AB%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F%E4%B9%8B%E6%A0%B9%E6%9C%AC%E4%B9%9F p. 68 of 198] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412135202/https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=9218&page=68#%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%AB%E4%B9%9F%E5%9B%9B%E6%96%B9%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F%E4%B9%9F%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%AB%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F%E4%B9%8B%E6%A0%B9%E6%9C%AC%E4%B9%9F |date=2022-04-12 }} quote: "'''中國'''，'''京師'''也。四方，諸夏也。'''京師'''，諸夏之根本也。" translation: "The '''center of the kingdom''' means the '''capital'''. The 'four quarters' refer to the [[Huaxia]]. The '''capital''' is the root of the various Xia."</ref> During the [[Han dynasty]], three usages of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' were common. The ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' use ''Zhongguo'' to denote the capital<ref>''Shiji'', [https://ctext.org/shiji/wu-di-ben-ji "Annals of the Five Emperors"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510220701/https://ctext.org/shiji/wu-di-ben-ji |date=2022-05-10 }} quote: "舜曰：「天也」，夫而後之'''中國'''踐天子位焉，是為帝舜。" translation: "Shun said, 'It is from Heaven.' Afterwards he went to the '''capital''', sat on the Imperial throne, and was styled Emperor Shun."</ref><ref>Pei Yin, ''Records of the Grand Historian – Collected Explanation'' [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=386615#p7 Vol. 1] "劉熈曰……帝王所'''都'''為中故曰'''中國'''" translation: "Liu Xi said: [...] Wherever emperors and kings '''established their capitals''' is taken as the center; hence the appellation the '''central region'''"</ref> and also use the concepts ''{{Transliteration|zh|zhong}}'' ("center, central") and ''{{Transliteration|zh|zhongguo}}'' to indicate the center of civilization: "There are eight famous mountains in the world: three in [[Nanman|Man]] and [[Dongyi|Yi]] (the barbarian wilds), five in {{Transliteration|zh|Zhōngguó}}." ({{lang|zh|天下名山八，而三在蠻夷，五在中國。}})<ref>''Shiji'', [https://ctext.org/shiji/xiao-wu-ben-ji#n5101 "Annals of Emperor Xiaowu"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316215829/https://ctext.org/shiji/xiao-wu-ben-ji#n5101 |date=2022-03-16 }}</ref><ref>''Shiji'' [https://ctext.org/shiji/feng-chan-shu#n5786 "Treatise about the Feng Shan sacrifices"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316215831/https://ctext.org/shiji/feng-chan-shu#n5786 |date=2022-03-16 }}</ref> In this sense, the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' is synonymous with {{zhi|p=Huáxià|t=華夏|s=华夏|out=p}} and {{zhi|p=Zhōnghuá|t=中華|s=中华|out=p}}, names of China that were first authentically attested in the [[Warring States period]]<ref>''Zuo zhuan'', [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E8%A5%84%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3_26 "Duke Xiang, year 26, zhuan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318183122/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E8%A5%84%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3_26 |date=2022-03-18 }} text: "楚失華夏．" translation: "[[Chu (state)|Chu]] lost (the political allegiance of / the political influence over) the '''flourishing''' and '''grand''' (states)."</ref> and [[Jin dynasty (266-420)#Eastern Jin|Eastern Jin period]],<ref>[[Huan Wen]] (347 CE). "Memorial Recommending Qiao Yuanyan" (薦譙元彥表), quoted in [[Sun Sheng (Jin dynasty)|Sun Sheng]]'s ''Annals of Jin'' (晉陽秋) (now-lost), quoted in [[Pei Songzhi]]'s [[Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms|annotations]] to [[Chen Shou]], ''[[Records of the Three Kingdoms]]'', [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B%E5%BF%97/%E5%8D%B742#%E5%AD%AB_%E8%AD%99%E7%A7%80 "Biography of Qiao Xiu"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404033109/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B%E5%BF%97/%E5%8D%B742#%E5%AD%AB_%E8%AD%99%E7%A7%80 |date=2022-04-04 }} quote: "於時皇極遘道消之會，群黎蹈顛沛之艱，'''中華'''有顧瞻之哀，幽谷無遷喬之望。"</ref><ref>Farmer, J. Michael (2017) "Sanguo Zhi Fascicle 42: The Biography of Qiao Zhou", ''Early Medieval China'', '''23''', 22-41, p. 39. quote: "At this time, the imperial court has encountered a time of decline in the Way, the peasants have been trampled down by oppressive hardships, '''Zhonghua''' has the anguish of looking backward [toward the former capital at Luoyang], and the dark valley has no hope of moving upward." DOI: 10.1080/15299104.2017.1379725</ref> respectively.

From the Qin to the Ming dynasty, literati discussed ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as both a historical place or territory and as a culture. Writers of the Ming period in particular used the term as a political tool to express opposition to expansionist policies that incorporated foreigners into the empire.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=w68uObIhx9MC&pg=PA103 Jiang 2011], p. 103.</ref> In contrast, foreign conquerors typically avoided discussions of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' and instead defined membership in their empires to include both Han and non-Han peoples.<ref>Peter K Bol, "Geography and Culture: Middle-Period Discourse on the Zhong Guo: The Central Country," (2009), 1, 26.</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="170">
File:"Five stars rising in the East" armband.jpg|The [["Five stars rising in the East" armband|brocade armband]] with the words "Five stars rising in the east, being a propitious sign for ''Zhongguo'' ({{zhi|t=中國}})", made during the Han dynasty
File:Nestorian-Stele-Budge-plate-X.jpg|The [[Nestorian Stele]] {{zhi|c=大秦景教流行中國碑}} entitled "Stele to the propagation in China of the luminous religion of [[Daqin]]", was erected in 781, during the Tang dynasty
File:Hunminjeongum.jpg|The most important Korean document, ''[[Hunminjeongeum]]'', dated 1446, where it compares [[Joseon]]'s speech to that of ''Zhongguo'' (''Middle Kingdom''), which was during the reign of Ming dynasty at the time. Korean and other neighbouring societies have addressed the various regimes and dynasties on the Chinese mainland at differing times as "Middle Kingdom"
</gallery>

==== Qing ====
''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' appeared in a formal international legal document for the first time during the Qing dynasty in the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]], 1689. The term was then used in communications with other states and in treaties. The Manchu rulers [[Qing dynasty in Inner Asia|incorporated Inner Asian polities into their empire]], and [[Wei Yuan]], a statecraft scholar, distinguished the new territories from ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'', which he defined as the 17 provinces of "[[China proper]]" plus the Manchu homelands in the Northeast. By the late 19th century, the term had emerged as a common name for the whole country. The empire was sometimes referred to as Great Qing but increasingly as ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|pp=232–233}}</ref>

{{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai Gurun}} is the [[Manchu language|Manchu]] name for China, with "Dulimbai" meaning "central" or "middle" and "Gurun" meaning "nation" or "state".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA117 Hauer 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170207/https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA117 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 117.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA80 Dvořák 1895] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170221/https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA80 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 80.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA102 Wu 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170211/https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA102 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 102.</ref> The historian Zhao Gang writes that "not long after the collapse of the Ming, China became the equivalent of Great Qing ({{Transliteration|zh|Da Qing}})—another official title of the Qing state," and "Qing and China became interchangeable official titles, and the latter often appeared as a substitute for the former in official documents."{{sfnb|Zhao|2006| p = 7}} The Qing dynasty referred to their realm as "''Dulimbai Gurun''" in Manchu. The Qing equated the lands of the Qing realm (including present-day [[Qing dynasty in Inner Asia|Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia]], Tibet, and other areas) with "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a [[multi-ethnic state]], rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas; both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China". Officials used "China" (though not exclusively) in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" {{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai gurun i bithe}} referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" ({{Zhi|t=中國人|p=Zhōngguórén}}; {{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai gurun i niyalma}}) referred to all Han, Manchus, and Mongol subjects of the Qing.{{sfnb|Zhao|2006|p = [https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf 4, 7–10, 12–14]}} Ming loyalist Han literati held to defining the old Ming borders as China and using "foreigner" to describe [[Ethnic minorities in China|minorities]] under Qing rule such as the Mongols and Tibetans, as part of their anti-Qing ideology.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/6928995/The_Literati_Rewriting_of_China_in_the_Qianlong-Jiaqing_Transition Mosca 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926130202/http://www.academia.edu/6928995/The_Literati_Rewriting_of_China_in_the_Qianlong-Jiaqing_Transition |date=2018-09-26 }}, p. 94.</ref>

When the Qing [[Ten Great Campaigns#Three campaigns against the Dzungars and the pacification of Xinjiang (1755–1759)|conquered Dzungaria in 1759]], they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into {{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai Gurun}} in a Manchu language memorial.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170150/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 77.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA83 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411180322/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA83 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 83.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&dq=steppes+mountains+rivers+Dzungar+unified+with+china&pg=PA503 Elliott 2001] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411180227/https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&dq=steppes+mountains+rivers+Dzungar+unified+with+china&pg=PA503 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 503.</ref> The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese, like the Tibetans, Inner, Eastern, and Oirat Mongols, together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family", united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family. The Qing used the phrase "{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Zhōngwài yījiā|labels=no}}" ({{Lang-zh|c={{linktext|中外|一家}}|s=|t=|labels=no|l=China and other [countries] as one family}}) or "{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Nèiwài yījiā|labels=no}}" ({{Lang-zh|c={{linktext|內外}}一家|s=|t=|labels=no|l=Interior and exterior as one family}}), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170150/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 |date=2023-04-11 }}, pp. 76-77.</ref> A Manchu-language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing "people of the Central Kingdom ({{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai Gurun}})".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 Cassel 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170213/https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 205.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 Cassel 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170218/https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 205.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 Cassel 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411180504/https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 44.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 Cassel 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170226/https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 44.</ref> In the Manchu official [[Tulisen]]'s Manchu language [[Narrative of the Chinese Embassy to the Khan of the Tourgouth Tartars|account of his meeting]] with the [[Kalmyk people|Torghut Mongol]] leader [[Ayuka Khan|Ayuki Khan]], it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" ({{Transliteration|mnc|dulimba-i gurun}}''/''{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=中國|labels=no|p=Zhōngguó}}) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA218 Perdue 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170151/https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA218 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 218.</ref>

[[File:Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png|thumb|"Middle Kingdom's Common Speech" (''Medii Regni Communis Loquela'', {{zhi|c=中國官話|p=Zhongguo Guanhua}}), the frontispiece of an early Chinese grammar published by [[Étienne Fourmont]] in 1742<ref>{{cite web |last = Fourmont |first = Etienne |title = Linguae Sinarum Mandarinicae hieroglyphicae grammatica duplex, latinè, & cum characteribus Sinensium. Item Sinicorum Regiae Bibliothecae librorum catalogus… (A Chinese grammar published in 1742 in Paris) |url = http://www.liberlibri.com/coulet_fourmont.htm |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120306015446/http://www.liberlibri.com/coulet_fourmont.htm |archive-date = 2012-03-06 }}</ref>]]

The geography textbooks published in the late Qing period gave detailed descriptions of China's regional position and territorial space. They generally emphasized that China was a large country in Asia but not the center of the world. For example, the "Elementary Chinese Geography Textbook" ({{Zhi|t=蒙學中國地理教科書}}) published in 1905 described the boundaries of China's territory and neighboring countries as follows: "The western border of China is located in the center of Asia, bordering the (overseas) territories of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]]. The terrain is humped, like a hat. So all mountains and rivers originate from here. To the east, it faces [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] across the [[East China Sea]]. To the south, it is adjacent to the [[South China Sea]], and borders [[French Indochina|French Annam]] and [[British rule in Burma|British Burma]]. To the southwest, it is separated from [[British Raj|British India]] by mountains. From the west to the north and the northeast, the three sides of China are all Russian territories. Only the southern border of the northeast is connected to [[Korean Empire|Korea]] across the [[Yalu River]]." It further stated that "There are about a dozen countries in Asia, but only China has a vast territory, a prosperous population, and dominates East Asia. It is a great and world-famous country."<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.sohu.com/a/127415152_488316 | title = 地理书写与国家认同：清末地理教科书中的民族主义话语 | website = [[Sohu]] | access-date = June 9, 2024}}</ref>

The Qing enacted the first [[Chinese nationality law]] in 1909, which defined a Chinese national ({{lang-zh|c=中國國籍|p=Zhōngguó Guójí|links=no}}) as any person born to a Chinese father. Children born to a Chinese mother inherited her nationality only if the father was [[statelessness|stateless]] or had unknown nationality status.<ref name="Shao5">{{cite journal |last=Shao |first=Dan |title=Chinese by Definition: Nationality Law, Jus Sanguinis, and State Succession, 1909–1980 |journal=Twentieth-Century China |year=2009 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=4–28 |doi=10.1353/tcc.0.0019 |s2cid=201771890}}</ref> These regulations were enacted in response to a 1907 statute passed in [[The Netherlands]] that retroactively treated all Chinese born in the [[Dutch East Indies]] as Dutch citizens. ''[[Jus sanguinis]]'' was chosen to define Chinese nationality so that the Qing could counter foreign claims on [[overseas Chinese]] populations and maintain the perpetual allegiance of its subjects living abroad through paternal lineage.<ref name="Shao5" /> A Chinese word called {{Transliteration|zh|xuètǒng}} ({{zhi|c=血統}}), which means "bloodline" as a literal translation, is used to explain the descent relationship that would characterize someone as being of Chinese descent and therefore eligible under the Qing laws and beyond, for Chinese citizenship.<ref name=Claytonp108>{{cite book |title=[[Sovereignty at the Edge: Macau & the Question of Chineseness]]|first=Cathryn H. |last=Clayton |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2alTUjb6SX8C&pg=PA108 108] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2010|isbn=978-0-674-03545-4 }}</ref>

[[Mark Elliott (historian)|Mark Elliott]] noted that it was under the Qing that "China" transformed into a definition of referring to lands where the "state claimed sovereignty" rather than only the [[Central Plains (China)|Central Plains]] area and its people by the end of the 18th century.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945?seq=36 Elliot 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194025/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945?seq=36 |date=2018-08-03 }}, p. 638.</ref>
[[File:滿蒙漢合璧教科書 (節錄).png|thumb|500px|Chapter ''China'' ({{zhi|t=中國}}) of "The Manchurian, Mongolian and Han Chinese Trilingual Textbook" ({{zhi|s=滿蒙漢三語合璧教科書}}) published during the Qing dynasty: ''"Our country China is located in [[East Asia]]... For 5000 years, culture flourished (in the land of China)... Since we are Chinese, how can we not love China."'']]
Elena Barabantseva also noted that the Manchu referred to all subjects of the Qing empire regardless of ethnicity as "Chinese" ({{Zhi|t={{linktext|中國|之|人}}|p=Zhōngguó zhī rén|l=people of China}}), and used the term ({{Zhi|t=中國|p=Zhōngguó}}) as a synonym for the entire Qing empire while using {{Transliteration|zh|Hànrén}} ({{zhi|t={{linktext|漢人}}}}) to refer only to the core area of the empire, with the entire empire viewed as multiethnic.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=U3XFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT59 Barabantseva 2010], p. 20.</ref>

[[William T. Rowe]] wrote that the name "China" ({{zhi|t=中國|s=中華}}) was apparently understood to refer to the political realm of the [[Han Chinese]] during the [[Ming dynasty]], that this understanding persisted among the Han Chinese into the early Qing dynasty, and that the understanding was also shared by [[Aisin Gioro]] rulers before the [[Ming–Qing transition]]. The Qing, however, "came to refer to their more expansive empire not only as the Great Qing but also, nearly interchangeably, as China" within a few decades of this development. Instead of the earlier (Ming) idea of an ethnic Han Chinese state, this new Qing China was a "self-consciously multi-ethnic state". Han Chinese scholars had some time to adapt this, but by the 19th century, the notion of China as a [[multinational state]] with new, significantly extended borders had become the standard terminology for Han Chinese writers. Rowe noted that "these were the origins of the China we know today.". He added that while the early Qing rulers viewed themselves as multi-hatted emperors who ruled several nationalities "separately but simultaneously", by the mid-19th century, the Qing Empire had become part of a European-style community of sovereign states and entered into a series of treaties with the West, and such treaties and documents consistently referred to Qing rulers as the "[[Emperor of China]]" and his administration as the "Government of China".<ref>{{cite book | first = Rowe | last = Rowe | title = China's Last Empire – The Great Qing | year = 2010 | publisher = Harvard University Press | pages = 210–211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KN7Awmzx2PAC |access-date=February 15, 2010| isbn = 978-0-674-05455-4 }}</ref>

[[Joseph W. Esherick]] noted that while the Qing Emperors governed frontier non-Han areas in a different, separate system under the [[Lifan Yuan|Lifanyuan]] and kept them separate from Han areas and administration, it was the Manchu Qing Emperors who expanded the definition of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' and made it "flexible" by using that term to refer to the entire Empire and using that term to other countries in diplomatic correspondence, while some Han Chinese subjects criticized their usage of the term and the Han literati [[Wei Yuan]] used ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' only to refer to the seventeen provinces of China and three manchurian provinces of the east, excluding other frontier areas.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|p= 232}}</ref> Due to the Qing usage of treaties clarifying the international borders of the Qing state, they were able to inculcate in the Chinese people a sense that China included areas such as Mongolia and Tibet by education reforms in geography, which made it clear where the borders of the Qing state were, even if the populace didn't understand how the Chinese identity included Tibetans and Mongolians or what the connotations of being Chinese were.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|p= 251}}</ref> The English version of the 1842 [[Treaty of Nanking]] refers to "His Majesty the Emperor of China" while the Chinese refers both to "The Great Qing Emperor" ({{Transliteration|zh|Da Qing Huangdi}}) and to ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as well. The 1858 [[Treaty of Tientsin]] contains similar language.<ref name="Zarrow" />

In the late 19th century, the reformer [[Liang Qichao]] argued in a famous passage that "our greatest shame is that our country has no name. The names that people ordinarily think of, such as Xia, Han, or Tang, are all the titles of bygone dynasties." He argued that the other countries of the world "all boast of their own state names, such as England and France, the only exception being the Central States",<ref>Liang quoted in {{harvp|Esherick|2006|p=235}}, from Liang Qichao, "Zhongguo shi xulun" ''Yinbinshi heji'' 6:3 and in Lydia He Liu, ''The Clash of Empires: The Invention of China in Modern World Making'' (Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 2004), pp. 77–78.</ref> and that the concept of {{Transliteration|zh|tianxia}} had to be abandoned in favor of {{Transliteration|zh|guojia}}, that is, "nation", for which he accepted the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''.<ref>[[Henrietta Harrison]]. ''China'' (London: Arnold; New York: [[Oxford University Press]]; Inventing the Nation Series, 2001. {{ISBN|0-340-74133-3}}), pp. 103–104.</ref> On the other hand, American Protestant missionary [[John Livingstone Nevius]], who had been in China for 40 years, wrote in his 1868 book that the most common name which the Chinese used in speaking of their country was ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'', followed by ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghuaguo}}'' ({{lang|zh|中華國}}) and other names such as {{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}} ({{lang|zh|天朝}}) and the particular title of the reigning dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|title = China and the Chinese|last = Nevius|first = John|publisher = Harper|year = 1868|pages = 21–22}}</ref><ref name="zhongguoname">{{cite web | url = https://www.chinanews.com.cn/m/ll/2018/01-22/8429793.shtml | title = 清朝时期"中国"作为国家名称从传统到现代的发展 | access-date = 2024-06-04}}</ref> Also, the Chinese geography textbook published in 1907 stated that "Chinese citizens call their country ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' or ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}''", and noted that China (''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'') was one of the few independent monarchical countries in the whole Asia at that time, along with countries like Japan.<ref>{{Cite book|title = 中國地理學教科書|author = 屠寄|publisher = 商務印書館|year = 1907|pages = 19–24}}</ref> The Japanese term "''[[Shina (word)|Shina]]''" was once proposed by some as a basically neutral Western-influenced equivalent for "China". But after the founding of the [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|Republic of China]] in 1912, ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' was also adopted as the abbreviation of {{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua minguo}},<ref>Endymion Wilkinson, ''Chinese History: A Manual'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Rev. and enl., 2000 {{ISBN|0-674-00247-4}} ), 132.</ref> and most Chinese considered {{Transliteration|ja|Shina}} foreign and demanded that even the Japanese replace it with ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua minguo}}'', or simply ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''.<ref>Douglas R. Reynolds. ''China, 1898–1912: The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan''. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1993 {{ISBN|0674116607}}), pp. 215–16 n. 20.</ref>

Before the signing of the [[Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty]] in 1871, the first treaty between Qing China and the [[Empire of Japan]], Japanese representatives once raised objections to China's use of the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' in the treaty, partly in response to China's earlier objections for the term {{Transliteration|ja|Tennō}} or [[Emperor of Japan]] to be used in the treaty, declaring that the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' was "meant to compare with the frontier areas of the country" and insisted that only "Great Qing" be used for the Qing in the Chinese version of the treaty. However, this was firmly rejected by the Qing representatives: "Our country China has been called ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' for a long time since ancient times. We have signed treaties with various countries, and while ''Great Qing'' did appear in the first lines of such treaties, in the body of the treaties ''Zhongguo'' was always being used. There has never been a precedent for changing the country name" ({{zhi|t=我中華之稱中國，自上古迄今，由來已久。即與各國立約，首書寫大清國字樣，其條款內皆稱中國，從無寫改國號之例}}). The Chinese representatives believed that ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as a country name equivalent to "Great Qing" could naturally be used internationally, which could not be changed. In the end, both sides agreed that while in the first lines "Great Qing" would be used, whether the Chinese text in the body of the treaty would use the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' in the same manner as "Great Qing" would be up to China's discretion.<ref name="zhongguoname" /><ref>{{cite book|author=黄兴涛|title=重塑中华|page=48|year=2023|publisher=大象出版社}}</ref>

[[File:Big Dragon stamps.jpg|thumb|right|Qing postal stamps released in 1878]]
Qing official Zhang Deyi once objected to the western European name "China" and said that China referred to itself as ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}''.<ref name="LIULiu2009">{{cite book |author1 = Lydia He. LIU |author2 = Lydia He Liu |title = The Clash of Empires: the invention of China in modern world making |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LkTO2_-XDa8C&pg=PA80 |date = 30 June 2009 |publisher = Harvard University Press |isbn = 978-0-674-04029-8 |pages=80–}}</ref> However, the Qing established [[legation]]s and [[consulate]]s known as the "Chinese Legation", "Imperial Consulate of China", "Imperial Chinese Consulate (General)" or similar names in [[Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty|various countries with diplomatic relations]], such as the United Kingdom and United States. Both English and Chinese terms, such as "China" and "''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''", were frequently used by Qing legations and consulates there to refer to the Qing state during their diplomatic correspondences with foreign states.<ref>{{cite book | title = 晚清駐英使館照會檔案, Volume 1 | year = 2020 | publisher = 上海古籍出版社 | pages = 28 | isbn = 9787532596096 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2KShzQEACAAJ |access-date=August 22, 2023 }}</ref> Moreover, the English name "China" was also used domestically by the Qing, such as in its officially released stamps since Qing set up a modern postal system in 1878. The [[postage stamp]]s (known as {{zhi|c=大龍郵票}} in Chinese) had a design of a large dragon in the centre, surrounded by a boxed frame with a bilingual inscription of "CHINA" (corresponding to the Great Qing Empire in Chinese) and the local denomination "CANDARINS".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stanleygibbons.com/collecting-stamps/dispatches/first-china-stamps |title=The Large Dragons of China |date=7 April 2020 |publisher=Stanley Gibbons |access-date=August 21, 2023 }}</ref>

During the late Qing dynasty, various textbooks with the name "Chinese history" ({{zhi|t=中國歷史}}) had emerged by the early 20th century. For example, the late Qing textbook "Chinese History of the Present Dynasty" published in 1910 stated that "the history of our present dynasty is part of the history of China, that is, the most recent history in its whole history. China was founded as a country [[Five thousand years of Chinese civilization|5,000 years ago]] and has the longest history in the world. And its culture is the best among all the Eastern countries since ancient times. Its territory covers about 90% of East Asia, and its rise and fall can affect the general trend of the countries in Asia...".<ref name="zhongguoname" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NLC416-14jh007845-69291_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8,%E5%8E%9F%E5%90%8D,%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%9D%E5%8F%B2%E8%AC%9B%E7%BE%A9.pdf&page=15 |title=中國歷史教科書（原名本朝史講義）第1页 |access-date=2024-06-12 }}</ref> After the [[May Fourth Movement]] in 1919, educated students began to spread the concept of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}'', which represented the people, including [[Ethnic minorities in China|55 minority ethnic groups]] and the Han Chinese, with a single culture identifying themselves as "Chinese". The Republic of China and the People's Republic of China both used ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}'' in their official names. Thus, ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' became the common name for both governments and {{zhi|t=中國人|s=中国人|p=Zhōngguó rén|out=p}} for their citizens. [[Overseas Chinese]] are referred to as {{zhi|t=華僑|s=华侨|p=huáqiáo|l=Chinese overseas|out=p}}, or {{zhi|t=華裔|s=华裔|p=huáyì|l=Chinese descendants|out=p}}, i.e. Chinese children born overseas.

==== Middle Kingdom ====
The English translation of {{Transliteration|zh|Zhongyuan}} as the "Middle Kingdom" entered European languages through the Portuguese in the 16th century and became popular in the mid-19th century. By the 20th century, the term was thoroughly entrenched in the English language, reflecting the Western view of China as the inward-looking Middle Kingdom, or more accurately, the "Central Kingdom" or ''"''Central State''"''. Endymion Wilkinson points out that the Chinese were not unique in thinking of their country as central, although China was the only culture to use the concept for its name.<ref>Wilkinson, p. 132.</ref> However, the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' was not initially used as a name for China. It did not have the same meaning throughout the course of history, ([[#Pre-Qing|see above]]).{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=191}}

During the 19th century, China was alternatively, although less commonly, referred to in the west as the "Middle Flowery Kingdom",<ref>Man and the universe. Japan. Siberia. China, p710</ref> "Central Flowery Kingdom",<ref>Mission Stories of Many Lands, A Book for Young People, p174</ref> or "Central Flowery State",<ref>Mesny's Chinese Miscellany, Volume 2, p3</ref> translated from {{Transliteration|zh|Zhōnghuáguó}} ({{zhi|t=中華國|s=中华国}}),<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Complete Story of Civilization|last = Durant|first = Will|publisher = Simon & Schuster|year = 2014|isbn = 9781476779713|page = 631|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CfGPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT631}}</ref> or simply the "[[wikt:Flowery Kingdom|Flowery Kingdom]]",<ref>New England Stamp Monthly, Volumes 1-2, p67</ref> translated from {{Transliteration|zh|Huáguó}} ({{zhi|t=華國|s=华国}}).<ref>{{Cite book|title = Death on the Chang Tang - Tibet, 1950 : the Education of an Anthropologist|author = Frank B. Bessac|publisher = University of Montana Printing & Graphic Services|year = 2006|isbn = 9780977341825|page = 9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m59OAQAAIAAJ&q=%22flowery+kingdom%22+huaguo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Shaanxi Teachers University journal - Philosophy and Social sciences|author = Xi'an, Shaanxi Sheng, China|publisher = 陕西师范大学|year = 1994|isbn = 9780977341825|page = 91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dWdGAAAAMAAJ&q=%22flowery+kingdom%22}}</ref> However, some have since argued that such a translation (fairly commonly seen at that time) was perhaps caused by misunderstanding the {{Transliteration|zh|Huá}} ({{zhi|t=華|s=华}}) that means "China" (or "magnificent, splendid") for the {{Transliteration|zh|Huā}} ({{lang|zh|花}}) that means "flower".<ref>{{Cite book|title = Chinese Art: A Guide to Motifs and Visual Imagery|author = Patricia Bjaaland Welch|publisher = Tuttle Publishing|year = 2013|isbn = 9781462906895|page = 69|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dAPQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA59-IA17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = 29 Chinese Mysteries|last = Pialat|first = François|publisher = AuthorHouse UK|year = 2011|isbn = 9781456789237|page = 69|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CDW2VWt3Vj4C&pg=PA69}}</ref>

=== Huaxia ===
{{Main|Huaxia}}

The name {{zhi|t=華夏|s=华夏|p=Huáxià|out=p}} is generally used as a [[sobriquet]] in Chinese text. Under traditional interpretations, it is the combination of two words that originally referred to the elegance of traditional Han attire and [[Li (Confucianism)|the Confucian concept of rites]].
* {{Transliteration|zh|Hua}}'','' which means "flowery beauty" (i.e., having beauty of dress and personal adornment {{zhi|t=有服章之美，謂之華}}).
* {{Transliteration|zh|Xia}}'','' which means greatness or grandeur (i.e., having greatness in social customs, courtesy, polite manners and rites/ceremony {{zhi|t=有禮儀之大，故稱夏}}).<ref>{{zhi|t=孔穎達《春秋左傳正義》：「中國有禮儀之大，故稱夏；有服章之美，謂之華。」}}</ref>

In the original sense, {{Transliteration|zh|Huaxia}} refers to a confederation of tribes—living along the Yellow River—who were the ancestors of what later became the Han ethnic group in China.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}} During the Warring States (475–221 BCE), the self-awareness of the {{Transliteration|zh|Huaxia}} identity developed and took hold in ancient China.

=== Zhonghua minzu ===
{{Main|Zhonghua minzu}}

{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua minzu}} is a term meaning "Chinese nation" in the sense of a multi-ethnic national identity. Though originally rejected by the PRC{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}, it has been used officially since the 1980s for nationalist politics.

=== Tianchao and Tianxia ===
{{Main|Celestial Empire|Tianxia}}
{{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|天朝}}}}; {{lang-zh|p=Tiāncháo}}), translated as 'heavenly dynasty' or 'Celestial Empire',<ref name="tianchao">{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Zhang |title=[[Never Forget National Humiliation|Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-231-14891-7}}</ref> and {{Transliteration|zh|Tianxia}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|天下}}}}; {{lang-zh|p=Tiānxià}}) translated as '[[All under heaven]]', have both been used to refer to China. These terms were usually used in the context of civil wars or periods of division, with the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}}'' evoking the idea that the realm's ruling dynasty was appointed by heaven,<ref name=tianchao /> or that whoever ends up reunifying China is said to have ruled ''{{Transliteration|zh|Tianxia}}'', or everything under heaven. This fits with the traditional Chinese theory of rulership, in which the emperor was nominally the political leader of the entire world and not merely the leader of a nation-state within the world. Historically, the term was connected to the later [[Zhou dynasty]] ({{BCE|{{circa|1046}}–256}}), especially the [[Spring and Autumn period]] (eighth to fourth century BCE) and the [[Warring States period]] (from there to 221 BCE, when China was reunified by Qin). The phrase ''{{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}}'' continues to see use on Chinese internet discussion boards, in reference to China.<ref name=tianchao />

The phrase ''{{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}}'' was first translated into English and French in the early 19th century, appearing in foreign publications and diplomatic correspondences,<ref name=mailt>{{cite web|url=https://mailtribune.com/archive/-celestial-origins-come-from-long-ago-in-chinese-history|title='Celestial' origins come from long ago in Chinese history|date=20 January 2011|access-date=25 November 2019|work=Mail Tribune|publisher=Rosebud Media LLC|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112014440/https://mailtribune.com/archive/-celestial-origins-come-from-long-ago-in-chinese-history|url-status=live}}</ref> with the translated phrase "Celestial Empire" occasionally used to refer to China. During this period, the term ''celestial'' was used by some to refer to the subjects of the Qing in a non-prejudicial manner,<ref name=mailt /> derived from the term "Celestial Empire". However, the term ''celestial'' was also used in a pejorative manner during the 19th century, in reference to Chinese immigrants in Australasia and North America.<ref name=mailt /> The translated phrase has largely fallen into disuse in the 20th century.

=== Jiangshan and Shanhe ===
The two names {{zhi|t=江山|p=Jiāngshān|out=p}} and {{zhi|t=山河|p=Shānhé|out=p}}, both literally 'rivers and mountains', quite similar in usage to ''{{Transliteration|zh|Tianxia}}'', simply referring to the entire world, the most prominent features of which being rivers and mountains. The use of this term is also common as part of the idiom {{zhi|t=江山社稷|p=Jiāngshān shèjì|l=rivers and mountains, soil and grain|out=p}}, in a suggestion of the need to implement good governance.

=== Jiuzhou ===
{{Main|Jiuzhou}}

The name {{Zhi|t={{linktext|九州}}|p=jiǔ zhōu|out=p}} means 'nine provinces'. Widely used in pre-modern Chinese text, the word originated during the middle of the Warring States period. During that time, the [[Yellow River]] region was divided into nine geographical regions. Some people also attribute this word to the mythical hero and king [[Yu the Great]], who, in the legend, divided China into nine provinces during his reign.

=== Han ===
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Han
| t = {{linktext|漢}}
| s = {{linktext|汉}}
| p = Hàn
| gr = Hann
| w = Han⁴
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|h|an|4|}}
| bpmf = ㄏㄢˋ
| j = Hon3
| y = Hon
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|h|on|3|}}
| gan = Hon<sup>5</sup>
| h = Hon<sup>55</sup>
| poj = Hàn
| tl = Hàn
| teo = Hang<sup>3</sup>
| mc = xan<sup>C</sup>
| buc = Háng
| wuu = Hoe<sup>去</sup>
| kana = かん
| kanji = {{lang|ja|漢}}
| romaji = kan
| hangul = 한
| hanja = {{lang|ko|漢}}
| rr = han
| qn = Hán
| showflag = p
| chuhan = 漢
}}

The name {{Transliteration|zh|Han}} ({{zhi|t=漢|s=汉|p=Hàn}}) derives from the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC–AD 220), which presided over China's first "golden age".. The Han dynasty collapsed in 220 and was followed by a long period of disorder, including the [[Three Kingdoms]], [[Sixteen Kingdoms]], and [[Southern and Northern dynasties]]. During these periods, various non-Han ethnic groups established various dynasties in northern China. People began to use the term {{Transliteration|zh|Han}} to refer to the natives of North China, who, unlike the minorities, were the descendants of the subjects of the Han dynasty.

During the [[Yuan dynasty]], subjects of the empire were divided into four classes: [[Mongols]], [[Semu]], Han, and "Southerners". Northern Chinese were called {{Transliteration|zh|Han}}, which was considered to be the highest class of Chinese. This class, {{Transliteration|zh|Han}}, includes all ethnic groups in northern China, including [[Khitan people|Khitan]] and [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] who have, for the most part, sinicized during the last two hundreds years. The name {{Transliteration|zh|Han}} became popularly accepted during this time.

During the Qing, the Manchu rulers also used the name {{Transliteration|zh|Han}} to distinguish the natives of the [[Zhongyuan|Central Plains]] from the Manchus. After the fall of the Qing government, the Han became the name of a nationality within China. Today, the term "Han persons", often rendered in English as "Han Chinese", is used by the People's Republic of China to refer to the most populous of the 56 [[List of Chinese nationalities|officially recognized ethnic groups]] in China.

=== Tang ===
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Tang
| c = {{linktext|唐}}
| p = Táng
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|t|ang|2}}
| gr = Tarng
| w = Tʻang²
| bpmf = ㄊㄤˊ
| gan = Tong
| poj = Tông/Tn̂g
| tl = Tông/Tn̂g
| wuu = Daon<sup>平</sup>
| j = Tong4
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|t|ong|4}}
| y = Tòhng
| h = Tong<sup>11</sup>
| kana = とう <small>([[On'yomi|On]])</small>, から <small>([[Kun'yomi|Kun]])</small>
| romaji = tō <small>([[On'yomi|On]])</small>, kara <small>([[Kun'yomi|Kun]])</small>
| kanji = {{lang|ja|唐}}
| hangul = 당
| hanja = {{lang|ko|唐}}
| rr = dang
| qn = Đường
| showflag = p
| chuhan = 唐
}}

The name {{Transliteration|zh|Tang}} ({{zhi|t={{linktext|唐}}|p=Táng}}) comes from the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) that presided over China's second golden age. It was during the Tang dynasty that South China was finally and fully [[sinicized]]. {{Transliteration|zh|Tang}} would become synonymous with China in Southern China, and it is usually Southern Chinese who refer to themselves as "People of Tang" ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|唐人}}}}, {{lang-zh|p=Tángrén}}).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vbDdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 |title=China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary |first= Michael|last= Dillon |date=13 September 2013 |page=132 |isbn=978-1-136-79141-3 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> For example, the sinicization and rapid development of [[Guangdong]] during the Tang period would lead the Cantonese to refer to themselves as {{Transliteration|zh|Tong-yan}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|唐人}}}}) in Cantonese, while China is called {{Transliteration|zh|Tong-saan}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|唐山}}}}; {{lang-zh|p=Tángshān|l=Tang Mountain|links=no}}).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZjruI0_XmcC&pg=PA7 |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions|author= H. Mark Lai |pages=7–8 |isbn=978-0-7591-0458-7 |publisher=AltaMira Press |date=4 May 2004}}</ref> [[Chinatown]]s worldwide, often dominated by Southern Chinese, also became referred to as ''Tang People's Street'' ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|唐人街}}}}, Cantonese: Tong-yan-gaai; {{lang-zh|p=Tángrénjiē|links=no}}). The Cantonese term {{Transliteration|omy|Tongsan}} (Tang mountain) is recorded in [[Old Malay]] as one of the local terms for China, along with the Sanskrit-derived {{Transliteration|omy|Cina}}. It is still used in Malaysia today, usually in a derogatory sense.

Among Taiwanese, ''Tang mountain'' (Min-Nan: {{Transliteration|nan|Tng-soa}}) has been used, for example, in the saying, "has Tangshan father, no Tangshan mother" ({{lang-zh|labels=no|t=有唐山公，無唐山媽}}; {{lang-zh|poj=Ū Tn̂g-soaⁿ kong, bô Tn̂g-soaⁿ má}}).<ref>{{cite book |last=Tai |first=Pao-tsun |title = The Concise History of Taiwan |edition = Chinese-English bilingual |year = 2007 |publisher = Taiwan Historica |location = Nantou City |isbn = 9789860109504 |page = 52 }}</ref><ref><span lang="zh-Hant">{{holodict|60161|e=有唐山公，無唐山媽。}}</span></ref> This refers to how the Han people crossing the [[Taiwan Strait]] in the 17th and 18th centuries were mostly men, and that many of their offspring would be through intermarriage with [[Taiwanese aborigine]] women.

In [[Okinawan language|Ryukyuan]], [[karate]] was originally called {{Transliteration|ryu|tii}} ({{lang|ja|手}}, hand) or {{Transliteration|ryu|karatii}} ({{lang|ja|唐手}}, Tang hand) because {{lang|ja|唐ぬ國}} {{Transliteration|ryu|too-nu-kuku}} or {{Transliteration|ryu|kara-nu-kuku}} ({{lang|ja|唐ぬ國}}) was a common [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryukyuan]] name for China; it was changed to {{Transliteration|ryu|karate}} ({{lang|ja|空手}}, open hand) to appeal to Japanese people after the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].

[[Zhu Yu (author)|Zhu Yu]], who wrote during the Northern Song dynasty, noted that the name "Han" was first used by the northwestern 'barbarians' to refer to China, while the name "Tang" was first used by the southeastern 'barbarians' to refer to China, and these terms subsequently influenced the local Chinese terminology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tackett |first1=Nicolas |title=Origins of the Chinese Nation: Song China and the Forging of an East Asian World Order |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-19677-3 |page=4}}</ref> During the Mongol invasions of Japan, the Japanese distinguished between the "Han" of northern China, who, like the Mongols and Koreans, were not to be taken prisoner, and the Newly Submitted Army of southern China, whom they called "Tang", who would be enslaved instead.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zuikei Shuho and Charlotte von Verschuer |title=Japan's Foreign Relations from 1200 to 1392 A.D.: A Translation from "Zenrin Kokuhōki" |journal=Monumenta Nipponica |date=2002 |volume=57 |issue=4 |page=432}}</ref>

=== Dalu and Neidi ===
{{Transliteration|zh|Dàlù}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|大陸}}/{{lang|zh-Hans|大陆}}; {{lang-zh|p=dàlù}}), literally "big continent" or "mainland" in this context, is used as a short form of {{Transliteration|zh|Zhōnggúo Dàlù}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|中國大陸}}/{{lang|zh-Hans|中国大陆}}, mainland China), excluding (depending on the context) Hong Kong, [[Macau]], or Taiwan. This term is used in official contexts on both the mainland and Taiwan when referring to the mainland as opposed to Taiwan. In certain contexts, it is equivalent to the term {{Transliteration|zh|Neidi}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|内地}}; {{lang-zh|p=nèidì}}, literally "the inner land"). While ''{{Transliteration|zh|Neidi}}'' generally refers to the interior as opposed to a particular coastal or border location, or the coastal or border regions generally, it is used in Hong Kong specifically to mean mainland China, excluding Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. {{Citation needed span|text=Increasingly, it is also being used in an official context within mainland China|date=January 2024}}, for example, in reference to the separate judicial and customs jurisdictions of mainland China on the one hand and Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan on the other.

The term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Neidi}}'' is also often used in Xinjiang and Tibet to distinguish the eastern provinces of China from the minority-populated, autonomous regions of the west.

== Official names ==
=== People's Republic of China ===
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = People's Republic of China
| pic = PRC (Chinese characters.svg
| piccap="People's Republic of China" in [[Simplified Chinese characters|simplified]] (top) and [[Traditional Chinese characters|traditional]] (bottom) Chinese characters
| picupright = 1.15
| t = {{linktext|中華人民共和國}}
| s = {{linktext|中华人民共和国}}
| p = Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
| gr = Jonghwa Renmin Gonqhergwo
| mps = Jūnghuá Rénmín Gùnghéguó
| w = Chung¹-hua² Jên²-min²<br />Kung⁴-ho²-kuo²
| tp = Jhonghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
| myr = Jūnghwá Rénmín Gùnghégwó
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|h|wa|2|-|r|en|2|.|m|in|2|-|g|ong|4|.|h|e|2|.|g|wo|2}}
| sic = Zong<sup>1</sup> hua<sup>2</sup> Zen<sup>2</sup> min<sup>2</sup><br />Gong<sup>4</sup> hwe<sup>2</sup> gwe<sup>2</sup>
| bpmf = ㄓㄨㄥ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄏㄨㄚˊ<br />ㄖㄣˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄇㄧㄣˊ<br />ㄍㄨㄥˋ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄏㄜˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄍㄨㄛˊ
| xej = ﺟْﻮﺧُﻮَ ژٌمٍ ﻗْﻮحْقُوَع
| zh-dungan = Җунхуа Жынмин Гунхәгуй
| poj = Tiong-hôa Jîn-bîn Kiōng-hô-kok
| tl = Tiong-huâ Jîn-bîn Kiōng-hô-kok
| gan = Chungfa Ninmin Khungfokoet
| wuu = tson<sup>平</sup> gho<sup>平</sup> zin<sup>平</sup> min<sup>平</sup><br />gon<sup>去</sup> ghu<sup>平</sup> koh<sup>入</sup>
| j = Zung1waa4 Jan4man4 Gung6wo4gwok3
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|7|.|w|aa|4|-|j|an|4|.|m|an|4|-|g|ung|6|.|w|o|4|.|gw|ok|3}}<br />''or''<br />{{IPAc-yue|z|ung|1|.|w|aa|4|-|j|an|4|.|m|an|4|-|g|ung|6|.|w|o|4|.|gw|ok|3}}
| y = Jùng'wàh Yàhnmàhn Guhng'wòhgwok<br />''or''<br />Jūng'wàh Yàhnmàhn Guhng'wòhgwok
| hsn = /tan<sup>33</sup> go<sup>13</sup> ŋin<sup>13</sup> min<sup>13</sup><br />gan<sup>45</sup> gu<sup>13</sup> kwɛ<sup>24</sup>/
| h = dung<sup>24</sup> fa<sup>11</sup> ngin<sup>11</sup> min<sup>11</sup><br />kiung<sup>55</sup> fo<sup>11</sup> gued<sup>2</sup>
| phfs = Chûng-fà Ngìn-mìn<br />Khiung-fò-koet
| buc = Dṳ̆ng-huà Ìng-mìng<br />Gê̤ṳng-huò-guók
| hhbuc = De̤ng-huá Cíng-míng<br />Gē̤ng-hó̤-go̤h
| mblmc = Dô̤ng-uǎ Nêng-měng<br />Gō̤ng-uǎ-gŏ
| mong = ᠪᠦᠭᠦᠳᠡ<br />ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠷᠠᠮᠳᠠᠬᠤ<br />ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ<br />ᠠᠷᠠᠳ<br />ᠤᠯᠤᠰ
| mon = Бүгд Найрамдах Дундад Ард Улс
| monr = Bügüde Nayiramdaqu Dumdadu Arad Ulus
| tib = {{bo-textonly|ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་མི་དམངས་སྤྱི<br />མཐུན་རྒྱལ་ཁབ}}
| wylie = krung hwa mi dmangs spyi mthun rgyal khab
| zwpy = Zhunghua Mimang Jitun Gyalkab
| uig = جۇڭخۇا خەلق جۇمھۇرىيىتى
| uly = Jungxua Xelq Jumhuriyiti
| uyy = Junghua Həlⱪ Jumⱨuriyiti
| sgs = Junghua Hälk̂ Jumĥuriyiti
| usy = Җуңхуа Хәлқ Җумһурийити
| zha = Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz
| mnc = ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ<br />ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠᡳᡵᡤᡝᠨ<br />ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝ<br />ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ
| mnc_rom = Dulimbai niyalmairgen gunghe' gurun
| th = สาธารณรัฐประชาชนจีน
| showflag = p
| order = st
| qn = Cộng hoà Nhân dân Trung Hoa
| chuhan = 共和人民中華 / 中華人民共和國
| kanji = 中華人民共和国
| romaji = Chūkajinminkyōwakoku
| hangul = 중화 인민 공화국
| hanja = 中華人民共和國
| rr = junghwa inmin gonghwagug
}}

In 1949, China adopted its official name, '''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó}}''' (in the older postal romanization, '''{{Transliteration|zh|Chunghwa Jenmin Konghokuo}}'''), or the "People's Republic of China" in English, which was adapted from the [[Chinese Communist Party]]'s short-lived [[Chinese Soviet Republic]] in 1931. While originally, it was proposed at the [[Preparatory Committee for the New Political Consultative Conference|Preparatory Committee of the New Political Consultative Conference]] to called the newly established state as the "People's Democratic Republic of China" ({{lang|zh-Hans|中华人民民主共和国}}), this was later shortened to just the "People's Republic of China".<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 July 2015 |title=为什么将新中国的国号定为“中华人民共和国”？ |trans-title=Why was the official name of the new China chosen as the "People's Republic of China"? |url=https://www.dswxyjy.org.cn/n/2015/0716/c244514-27316067.html |access-date=4 November 2025 |website=Party History and Literature Research Institute}}</ref> The name '''New China''' has been frequently applied to China by the [[Chinese Communist Party]] as a positive political and social term contrasting pre-1949 China (the [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|establishment of the PRC]]) and the PRC. This term is also sometimes used by writers outside of mainland China. The PRC was known to many in the West during the [[Cold War]] as "'''Communist China'''" or "Red China" to distinguish it from the [[Republic of China]] which is commonly called "Taiwan", "Nationalist China", or "Free China". In some contexts, particularly in economics, trade, and sports, "China" is often used to refer to mainland China to the exclusion of Hong Kong, [[Macau]] and [[Taiwan]].

=== Republic of China ===
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Republic of China
| pic = ROC (Chinese characters).svg
| piccap = "Republic of China" in [[Traditional Chinese characters|Traditional]] (top) and [[Simplified Chinese characters|Simplified]] (bottom) Chinese characters
| t = {{linktext|中華民國}}
| s = {{linktext|中华民国}}
| psp = Chunghwa Minkuo
| l = Central State People's Country
| p = Zhōnghuá Mínguó
| gan = tung<sup>1</sup> fa<sup>4</sup> min<sup>4</sup> koet<sup>7</sup> ''or''<br />Chungfa Minkoet
| w = Chung¹-hua² Min²-kuo²
| bpmf = ㄓㄨㄥ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄏㄨㄚˊ<br />ㄇㄧㄣˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄍㄨㄛˊ
| tp = Jhonghuá Mínguó
| mps = Jūnghuá Mínguó
| gr = Jonghwa Min'gwo
| myr = Jūnghwá Mín'gwó
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|h|wa|2|-|m|in|2|.|g|wo|2}}
| xej = ﺟْﻮ ﺧُﻮَ مٍ ﻗُﻮَع
| poj = Tiong-hôa Bîn-kok
| tl = Tiong-huâ Bîn-kok
| wuu = tson<sup>平</sup> gho<sup>平</sup> min<sup>平</sup> koh<sup>入</sup>
| j = Zung1waa4 Man4gwok3
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|7|.|w|aa|4|-|m|an|4|.|gw|ok|3}} ''or''<br />{{IPAc-yue|z|ung|1|.|w|aa|4|-|m|an|4|.|gw|ok|3}}
| y = Jùng'wàh Màhn'gwok ''or''<br />Jūng'wàh Màhn'gwok
| h = dung<sup>24</sup> fa<sup>11</sup> min<sup>11</sup> gued<sup>2</sup>
| phfs = Chûng-fà Mìn-koet
| buc = Dṳ̆ng-huà Mìng-guók
| showflag = taiwan
| kanji = {{lang|ja|中華民国}}
| kana = ちゅうかみんこく
| romaji = Chūka Minkoku
| hangul = 중화민국
| hanja = {{lang|ko|中華民國}}
| rr = Junghwa Minguk
| qn = Trung Hoa Dân Quốc
| chuhan = 中華民國
| altname = Chinese Taipei
| t2 = {{linktext|中華|臺北}} {{small|or}}<br />{{linktext|中華|台北}}
| s2 = {{linktext|中华|台北}}
| bpmf2 = ㄓㄨㄥ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄏㄨㄚˊ<br />ㄊㄞˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄅㄟˇ
| w2 = Chung¹-hua² Tʻai²-pei³
| p2 = Zhōnghuá Táiběi
| tp2 = Jhonghuá Táiběi
| mps2 = Jūnghuá Táiběi
| gr2 = Jonghwa Tairbeei
| poj2 = Tiong-hôa Tâi-pak
| tl2 = Tiong-huâ Tâi-pak
| phfs2 = Chûng-fà Thòi-pet
| buc2 = Dṳ̆ng-huà Dài-báe̤k
| myr2 = Jūnghwá Táiběi
| mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|h|wa|2|-|t|ai|2|.|b|ei|3}}
| j2 = Zung1waa4 Toi4bak1
| ci2 = {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|7|.|w|aa|4|-|t|oi|4|.|b|ak|1}} ''or''<br />{{IPAc-yue|z|ung|1|.|w|aa|4|-|t|oi|4|.|b|ak|1}}
| y2 = Jùng'wàh Tòihbāk ''or''<br />Jūng'wàh Tòihbāk
<!---|gan2 = tung<sup>1</sup> fa<sup>4</sup> ''or''<br />Chungfa
|h2 = dung<sup>24</sup> fa<sup>11</sup> |phfs2 = Chûng-fà
|xej2 = ﺟْﻮ ﺧُﻮَ |wuu2 = tson<sup>平</sup> gho<sup>平</sup>
|suz2 = Dé-poh--->| tib = {{bo-textonly|ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་དམངས་གཙོའི།<br />་རྒྱལ་ཁབ}}
| wylie = krung hwa dmangs gtso'i rgyal khab
| uig = جۇڭخۇا مىنگو
| uly = Jungxua Mingo
| uyy = Junghua Mingo
| usy = Җуңхуа Минго
| zha = Cunghvaz Minzgoz
| mong = ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ<br />ᠢᠷᠭᠡᠨ<br />ᠤᠯᠤᠰ
| mon = Дундад Иргэн Улс
| monr = Dumdadu Irgen Ulus
| mnc = ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ <br />ᡳᡵᡤᡝᠨ <br />ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ
| mnc_rom = Dulimbai irgen' Gurun
| altname3 = Separate Customs Territory of<br />Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu
| t3 = {{linktext|臺|澎|金|馬}}<br />{{linktext|個別|關稅|領域}}<br />{{small|or}}<br />{{linktext|台}}澎金馬<br />個別關稅領域
| s3 = {{linktext|台|澎|金|马}}<br />{{linktext|个别|关税|领域}}
| bpmf3 = ㄊㄞˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄆㄥˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄐㄧㄣ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄇㄚˇ<br />ㄍㄜˋ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄅㄧㄝˊ<br />ㄍㄨㄢ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄕㄨㄟˋ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄌㄧㄥˇ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄩˋ
| w3 = Tʻai² Pʻêng² Chin¹ Ma³<br />Ko⁴-pieh² Kuan¹-shui⁴ Ling³-yü⁴
| p3 = Tái-Péng-Jīn-Mǎ<br />Gèbié Guānshuì Lǐngyù
| mi3 = {{IPAc-cmn|t|ai|2|-|p|eng|2|-|j|in|1|-|m|a|3}}<br />{{IPAc-cmn|g|e|4|.|b|ye|2|-|g|wan|1|.|sh|wei|4|-|l|ing|3|.|yu|4}}
| tp3 = Tái Péng Jin Mǎ<br />Gèbié Guanshuèi Lǐngyù
| mps3 = Tái Péng Jīn Mǎ<br />Gèbié Guānshuèi Lǐngyù
| gr3 = Tair Perng Jin Maa<br />Gehbye Guanshuey Liingyuh
| myr3 = Tái Péng Jīn Mǎ<br />Gèbyé Gwānshwèi Lǐngyù
| poj3 = Tâi Phîⁿ (''or'' Phêⁿ) Kim Bé<br />Kò-pia̍t Koan-sòe (''or'' Koan-sè) Léng-he̍k (''or'' Léng-e̍k)
| tl3 = Tâi Phînn (''or'' Phênn) Kim Bé<br />Kò-pia̍t Kuan-suè (''or'' Kuan-sè) Líng-hi̍k (''or'' Líng-i̍k)
| altname4 = Taiwan
| t4 = {{linktext|臺灣}} {{small|or}} {{linktext|台灣}}
| s4 = {{linktext|台湾}}
| l4 = Terraced Bay
| bpmf4 = ㄊㄞˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄨㄢ
| w4 = Tʻai²-wan¹
| p4 = Táiwān
| tp4 = Táiwan
| myr4 = Táiwān
| mps4 = Táiwān
| gr4 = Tair'uan
| psp4 = Taiwan
| mi4 = {{IPAc-cmn|t|ai|2|.|wan|1}}
| zh-dungan4 = Тэван
| hsn4 = dwɛ<sup>13</sup> ua<sup>44</sup>
| poj4 = Tâi-oân
| tl4 = Tâi-uân
| phfs4 = Thòi-vàn {{small|or}} Thòi-vân
| buc4 = Dài-uăng
| j4 = Toi4waan1
| y4 = Tòihwāan
| ci4 = {{IPAc-yue|t|oi|4|.|w|aan|1}}
| wuu4 = The<sup>平</sup>-uae<sup>平</sup><br />{{IPA|wuu|d̥e uɛ|}}
| altname5 = {{langx|pt|(Ilha) Formosa}}
| t5 = {{linktext|福爾摩沙}}
| s5 = {{linktext|福尔摩沙}}
| l5 = beautiful island
| bpmf5 = ㄈㄨˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄦˇ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄇㄛˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄕㄚ
| w5 = Fu²-êrh³-mo²-sha¹
| p5 = Fú'ěrmóshā
| tp5 = Fú'ěrmósha
| mps5 = Fúěrmóshā
| gr5 = Fwueelmosha
| mi5 = {{IPAc-cmn|f|u|2|.|er|3|.|m|wo|2|.|sh|a|1}}
| myr5 = Fúěrmwóshā
| j5 = Fuk1ji5mo1saa1
| poj5 = Hok-ní-mô͘-sa
| phfs5 = 
| altname6 = Republic of Taiwan
| t6 = {{linktext|臺灣}}{{linktext|民國}} {{small|or}} {{linktext|台灣}}{{linktext|民國}}
| s6 = {{linktext|台湾}}{{linktext|民国}}
| bpmf6 = ㄊㄞˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄨㄢ<br />ㄇㄧㄣˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄍㄨㄛˊ
| w6 = Tʻai²-wan¹ Min²-kuo²
| p6 = Táiwān Mínguó
| tp6 = Táiwan Mínguó
| myr6 = Táiwān Mín'gwó
| mps6 = Táiwān Mínguó
| gr6 = Tair'uan Min'gwo
| psp6 = Taiwan Minkuo
| poj6 = Tâi-oân Bîn-kok
| tl6 = Tâi-uân Bîn-kok
| phfs6 = Thòi-vàn Mìn-koet {{small|or}} Thòi-vân Mìn-koet
}}

In 1912, China adopted its official name, '''{{Transliteration|zh|Chunghwa Minkuo}}''' (rendered in pinyin '''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhōnghuá Mínguó}}''') or in English as the "Republic of China", which has also sometimes been referred to as "[[History of the Republic of China|Republican China]]" or the "Republican Era" ({{lang|zh-Hant|民國時代}}), in contrast to the [[Qing dynasty]] it replaced, or as "'''[[Nationalist Government|Nationalist China]]'''", after the ruling Chinese Nationalist Party ([[Kuomintang]]). {{lang|zh-Hant|中華}} ({{Transliteration|zh|Chunghwa}}) is a term that pertains to "China", while {{lang|zh-Hant|民國}} ({{Transliteration|zh|Minkuo}}), literally "People's State" or "Peopledom", stands for "republic".<ref>{{lang|zh-Hant|《中華民國教育部重編國語辭典修訂本》:「以其位居四方之中，文化美盛，故稱其地為『中華』。」}}</ref><ref>Wilkinson. ''Chinese History: A Manual.'' p. 32.</ref> The name stems from the party manifesto of [[Tongmenghui]] in 1905, which says the four goals of the Chinese revolution were "to expel the Manchu rulers, to revive ''{{Transliteration|zh|Chunghwa}}'', to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people. The convener of Tongmenghui and Chinese revolutionary leader [[Sun Yat-sen]] proposed the name {{Transliteration|zh|Chunghwa Minkuo}} as the assumed name of the new country when the revolution succeeded.

Since the separation from mainland China in 1949 as a result of the [[Chinese Civil War]], the territory of the Republic of China has largely been confined to the island of Taiwan and some other small islands. Thus, the country is often simply referred to as simply "Taiwan", although this may not be perceived as politically neutral. Amid the hostile rhetoric of the [[Cold War]], the government and its supporters sometimes referred to themselves as "Free China" or "Liberal China", in contrast to the People's Republic of China, which was historically called the "Bandit-occupied Area" ({{lang|zh-Hant|匪區}}) by the ROC. In addition, the ROC, due to pressure from the PRC, uses the name "'''[[Chinese Taipei]]'''" ({{lang|zh-Hant|中華台北}}) whenever it participates in international forums or most sporting events such as the [[Olympic Games]].

Taiwanese politician Mei Feng had criticised the official English name of the state, "Republic of China", for failing to translate the Chinese character {{Transliteration|zh|Min}} ({{Lang-zh|t=民}}; English: people) according to Sun Yat-sen's original interpretations. According to him, the name should instead be translated as "the People's Republic of China", which confuses with the current official name of China under communist control.<ref>Mei Feng. {{cite web |title=中華民國應譯為「PRC」 |url=http://www.open.com.hk/content.php?id=1922#.VkolgHYveUk |publisher=开放网 |access-date=2022-05-25 |archive-date=2015-11-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015955/http://www.open.com.hk/content.php?id=1922#.VkolgHYveUk |url-status=live }}2014-07-12</ref> To avoid confusion, the [[Democratic Progressive Party|DPP]] administration under [[Chen Shui-ban]] began to add "Taiwan" next to the nation's official name in 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |author=BBC 中文網 |date=2005-08-29 |script-title=<!-- Citation bot leave it -->zh:論壇：台總統府網頁加注“台灣” |trans-title=Forum: Adding "Taiwan" to the website of Taiwan's Presidential Office |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/trad/hi/newsid_4730000/newsid_4730400/4730413.stm |publisher=BBC 中文網 |language=zh-hant |quote=台總統府公共事務室陳文宗上周六（7月30日）表示，外界人士易把中華民國（Republic of China），誤認為對岸的中國，造成困擾和不便。公共事務室指出，為了明確區別，決定自周六起於中文[[繁体字|繁體]]、[[简化字|簡體]]的[[中華民國總統府|總統府]]網站中，在「中華民國」之後，以括弧加注「臺灣」。[Chen Wen-tsong, Public Affairs Office of Taiwan's Presidential Office, stated last Saturday (30 July) that outsiders tend to mistake the Chung-hua Min-kuo (Republic of China) for China on the other side, causing trouble and inconvenience. The Public Affairs Office pointed out that in order to clarify the distinction, it was decided to add "Taiwan" in brackets after "Republic of China" on the website of the Presidential Palace in traditional and simplified Chinese starting from Saturday.] |access-date=2007-03-12 |archive-date=2018-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612230950/http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/trad/hi/newsid_4730000/newsid_4730400/4730413.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Names in non-Sinic records ==
Names used in other parts of Asia, especially East and Southeast Asia, are usually derived directly from words in one of the [[languages of China]]. Those languages belonging to a former tributary or Chinese-influenced country have an especially similar pronunciation to that of Chinese. Those used in [[Indo-European languages]], however, have indirect names that came via other routes and may bear little resemblance to what is used in China.

=== China ===
{{Further|Chinas}}

English, most [[Indo-European languages]], and many others use various forms of the name ''China'' and the [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]] "Sino-" or "Sin-" from the Latin {{Lang|la|Sina}}.<ref>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed (AHD4). Boston and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000, entries ''china, Qin, Sino-''.</ref><ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nIvqAC7FNBQC&pg=PA429 |title = ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese |author= Axel Schuessler |page=429 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |year= 2006 |isbn = 978-0-8248-2975-9 }}</ref> Europeans had knowledge of a country known in Greek as {{Lang|grc|Thina}} or {{Lang|grc|Sina}} from the early period;<ref name="yule" /> the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' from perhaps the first century AD recorded a country known as {{Lang|grc|Thin}} (''θίν'').<ref name="middle kingdom">{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kUn07EepBZ8C&pg=PA408 |title = The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts and History of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants |author = Samuel Wells Williams |page=408 |publisher = Routledge |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-0-7103-1167-2}}</ref> The English name "China" itself is derived from [[Middle Persian]] ({{Lang|pal|Chīn}} {{linktext|چین}}). The modern word was first used in Europe by Portuguese explorers of the 16th century – it was first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese explorer [[Duarte Barbosa]].<ref>"China". ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (1989). {{ISBN|0-19-957315-8 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=edzW9fuOF-cC&q=%22Very+Great+Kingdom+of+China%22&pg=PA211 |title = The Book of Duarte Barbosa |chapter="The Very Great Kingdom of China" |isbn = 81-206-0451-2 |last1 = Barbosa |first1 = Duarte |last2 = Dames |first2 = Mansel Longworth |year = 1989 |publisher = Asian Educational Services |access-date = 2020-11-18 |archive-date = 2023-04-11 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170152/https://books.google.com/books?id=edzW9fuOF-cC&q=%22Very+Great+Kingdom+of+China%22&pg=PA211 |url-status = live }} In the [http://purl.pt/435/ Portuguese original] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508211742/http://purl.pt/435 |date=2013-05-08 }}, the chapter is titled "O Grande Reino da China".</ref> The journal was translated and published in England in 1555.<ref>[[Richard Eden (translator)|Eden, Richard]] (1555). ''Decades of the New World'': "The great China whose kyng is thought the greatest prince in the world."<br />{{cite book |title = Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1 |publisher=Asian Research Service |year=1984 |page=34 |first=Henry Allen |last = Myers }}</ref>

[[File:CEM-09-Asiae-Nova-Descriptio-China-2510.jpg|thumb|left|''China'' (referring to today's [[Guangdong]]), ''Mangi'' (inland of ''Xanton'' ([[Shandong]])), and ''Cataio'' (located inland of ''China'' and ''Chequan'' ([[Zhejiang]]), and including the capital ''[[Khanbaliq|Cambalu]]'', ''[[Shangdu|Xandu]]'', and a marble bridge) are all shown as separate regions on this 1570 map by [[Abraham Ortelius]]]]

The traditional etymology, proposed in the 17th century by [[Martin Martini]] and supported by later scholars such as [[Paul Pelliot]] and [[Berthold Laufer]], is that the word "China" and its related terms are ultimately derived from the polity known as [[Qin (state)|Qin]] that unified China to form the Qin dynasty ([[Old Chinese]]: ''*dzin'') in the 3rd century BC, but existed as a state in west China since the 9th century BC.<ref name=yule>{{harvp|Yule|2005 |p= 2–3}} "There are reasons however for believing the word {{font|text=China|font=Century Gothic}} was bestowed at a much earlier date, for it occurs in the Laws of Manu, which assert the ''Chinas'' to be degenerate Kshatriyas, and the Mahabharat, compositions many centuries older that imperial dynasty of {{font|text=Ts'in|font=Century Gothic}} ... And this name may have yet possibly been connected with the Ts'in, or some monarchy of the like title; for that Dynasty had reigned locally in Shen si from the ninth century before our era..."</ref><ref name="Wade">{{harvp|Wade| 2009|pp= 8-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= The Name China |author = Berthold Laufer |journal= T'oung Pao |volume= 13 |issue =1 |pages = 719–726 |year= 1912 |doi= 10.1163/156853212X00377 }}</ref> This is still the most commonly held theory, although the etymology is still a matter of debate according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'',<ref name=OED>{{cite web |url= https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/31735 |title= China |work= Oxford English Dictionary |access-date= 2020-01-21 |archive-date= 2020-03-14 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200314143218/https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/31735 |url-status= live }}{{ISBN|0-19-957315-8}}</ref> and many other suggestions have been mooted.<ref>{{harvp|Yule|2005 |p= 3–7}}</ref><ref name="wade13">{{harvp|Wade| 2009|pp= 12–13}}</ref>

The existence of the word {{Lang|san|Cīna}} in ancient Indian texts was noted by the Sanskrit scholar [[Hermann Jacobi]] who pointed out its use in the Book 2 of ''[[Arthashastra]]'' with reference to silk and woven cloth produced by the country of ''{{Lang|san|Cīna}}'', although textual analysis suggests that Book 2 may not have been written long before 150 AD.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bodde, Derk |editor1=Denis Twitchett |editor2=Michael Loewe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC&pg=PA20 |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220 |date=26 December 1986 |pages=20–21 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |access-date=9 September 2017 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170227/https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC&pg=PA20 |url-status=live }}</ref> The word is also found in other Sanskrit texts such as the ''[[Mahābhārata]]'' and the ''[[Manusmṛti|Laws of Manu]]''.<ref name=wade>{{harvp|Wade|2009|p= 20}}</ref> The Indologist [[Patrick Olivelle]] argued that the word ''{{Lang|san|Cīna}}'' may not have been known in India before the first century BC, nevertheless he agreed that it probably referred to Qin but thought that the word itself was derived from a Central Asian language.<ref name="Liu">Liu, Lydia He, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zxPpHkumqbEC&pg=PA78 The clash of empires]'', p. 77. {{ISBN|9780674019959}}. "Scholars have dated the earliest mentions of ''Cīna'' to the ''Rāmāyana'' and the ''Mahābhārata'' and to other Sanskrit sources such as the Hindu Laws of Manu."</ref> Some Chinese and Indian scholars argued for the state of {{Transliteration|zh|Jing}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|荆}}, another name for [[Chu (state)|Chu]]) as the likely origin of the name.<ref name="wade13" /> Another suggestion, made by Geoff Wade, is that the {{Lang|san|Cīnāh}} in Sanskrit texts refers to an ancient kingdom centered in present-day [[Guizhou]], called [[Yelang]], in the south Tibeto-Burman highlands.<ref name="wade" /> The inhabitants referred to themselves as {{Transliteration|zh|Zina}} according to Wade.<ref>{{harvp|Wade| 2009}} "This thesis also helps explain the existence of Cīna in the Indic ''Laws of Manu'' and the ''Mahabharata'', likely dating well before Qin Shihuangdi."</ref>

The term ''China'' can also be used to refer to:
* a modern state, indicating the PRC or ROC;
* "Mainland China" ({{zhi|t=中國大陸|s=中国大陆|p=Zhōngguó Dàlù}}), which is the territory of the PRC minus the two regions of Hong Kong and Macau;
* "[[China proper]]", a term used to refer to the historical heartlands of China without peripheral areas like Manchuria, [[Inner Mongolia]], Tibet, and [[Xinjiang]]

In economic contexts, "[[Greater China]]" ({{zhi|t=大中華地區|s=大中华地区|p=Dà Zhōnghuá dìqū}}) is intended to be a neutral and non-political way to refer to mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan.

Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, akin to the classical usage of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'', to the Han ethnic group, which makes up the bulk of the population in China and of the overseas Chinese.

[[File:CEM-11-Chinae-nova-descriptio-2521.jpg|thumb|left|[[Luiz Jorge de Barbuda|Barbuda]]'s 1584 map, also published by Ortelius, already applies the name ''China'' to the entire country. However, for another century many European maps continued to show ''Cathay'' as well, usually somewhere north of the [[Great Wall]]]]

=== Seres, Ser, Serica ===
{{Main|Serica}}

{{lang|la|Sēres}} ({{lang|grc|Σῆρες}}) was the [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]] and Roman name for the northwestern part of China and its inhabitants. It meant "of silk", or "land where silk comes from". The name is thought to derive from the Chinese word for silk, {{zhi|t=絲|s=丝|p=sī}}; [[Middle Chinese]] {{transliteration|ltc|sɨ}}, [[Old Chinese]] {{transliteration|och|*slɯ}}, per [[Zhengzhang Shangfang|Zhengzhang]]). It is itself at the origin of the Latin for "silk", {{lang|la|sērica}}.

This may be a [[back formation]] from {{transliteration|grc|sērikos}} ({{lang|grc|σηρικός}}), "made of silk", from {{transliteration|grc|sēr}} ({{lang|grc|σήρ}}), "silkworm", in which case {{transliteration|grc|Sēres}} is "the land where silk comes from".

{{anchor|Sinae|Sin|Sinæ}}

=== Sinae, Sin {{anchor|Sino-}} ===
[[File:PtolemyWorldMap.jpg|thumb|250px|A mid-15th century map based on Ptolemy's manuscript [[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]. Serica and Sina are marked as separate countries (top right and right respectively).]]

{{lang|la|Sīnae}} was an ancient Greek and Roman name for some people who dwelt south of Serica in the eastern extremity of the habitable world. References to the Sinae include mention of a city that the Romans called {{lang|la|Sēra Mētropolis}}, which may be modern [[Chang'an]]. The Latin prefix {{lang|la|Sino-}} as well as words such as {{lang|la|Sinica}}, which are traditionally used to refer to China, came from {{lang|la|Sīnae}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sino- |title=Sino- |work=Merriam-Webster |access-date=2015-07-14 |archive-date=2015-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714161815/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sino- |url-status=live }}</ref> It is generally thought that {{lang|la|Chīna}}, {{lang|la|Sīna}} and {{lang|la|Thīna}} are variants that ultimately derived from "Qin", the western Zhou-era state that eventually founded the Qin dynasty.<ref name="middle kingdom" /> There are other opinions on its etymology. [[Henry Yule]] thought that this term may have come to Europe through the Arabs, who made the China of the farther east into ''Sin'', and perhaps sometimes into {{lang|la|Thin}}.<ref name="yule2">{{harvp|Yule|2005 |p= xxxvii}}</ref> Hence the ''{{lang|la|Thin}}'' of the author of the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]], who appears to be the first extant writer to employ the name in this form; hence also the {{lang|la|Sinae}} and {{lang|la|Thinae}} of [[Ptolemy]].<ref name="yule" /><ref name="middle kingdom" />

Some denied that Ptolemy's {{lang|la|Sinae}} really represented the Chinese as Ptolemy called the country {{Transliteration|la|Sērice}} and the capital {{Lang|la|Sēra}}, but regarded them as distinct from {{lang|la|Sīnae}}.<ref name="middle kingdom" /><ref>{{harvp|Yule|2005 |p= xl }}</ref> [[Marcian of Heraclea]] reported that the "nations of the Sinae lie at the extremity of the habitable world, and adjoin the eastern [[Terra incognita]]". The 6th century [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] refers to a "country of silk" called {{Lang|grc|Tzinista}}, which is understood as referring to China, beyond which "there is neither navigation nor any land to inhabit".<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/transcultural/article/view/6127/2962 |title=The World According to Cosmas Indicopleustes – Concepts and Illustrations of an Alexandrian Merchant and Monk |author=Stefan Faller |journal=Transcultural Studies |year=2011 |volume=1 |issue=2011 |pages=193–232 |doi=10.11588/ts.2011.1.6127 |access-date=2015-07-14 |archive-date=2015-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714212938/http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/transcultural/article/view/6127/2962 |url-status=live }}</ref> It seems probable that the same region is meant by both. According to [[Henry Yule]], Ptolemy's misrendering of the [[Indian Sea]] as a closed basin meant that Ptolemy must also have misplaced the Chinese coast, leading to the misconception of Serica and Sina as separate countries.<ref name="yule2" />

In the [[Hebrew Bible]], there is a mention of the faraway country "[[Sinim]]" in the [[Book of Isaiah]] 49:12 which some had assumed to be a reference to China.<ref name="middle kingdom" /><ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionarybible03smit#page/1328/mode/2up |title= Encyclopaedic dictionary of the Bible|editor1=William Smith |editor2=John Mee Fuller |page=1328 |year= 1893 }}</ref> In Genesis 10:17, a tribes called the "[[Sinite]]s" were said to be the descendants of [[Canaan]], the son of [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]], but they are usually considered to be a different people, probably from the northern part of [[Lebanon]].<ref>{{cite book |url = https://archive.org/stream/cyclopediaofbibl02kitt#page/772/mode/2up |title=A cyclopædia of biblical literature|year=1845|editor = John Kitto |page=773 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url = https://archive.org/stream/dictionarybible03smit#page/1322/mode/2up |title= Encyclopaedic dictionary of the Bible |editor1=William Smith |editor2=John Mee Fuller |page=1323 |year= 1893 }}</ref>

=== Cathay or Kitay ===
{{Main|Cathay}}

These names derive from the [[Khitan people]] that originated in [[Manchuria]] and conquered parts of northern China during the early 10th century to form the [[Liao dynasty]], and dominated Central Asia during the 12th century as the [[Kara Khitan]] Khanate. Due to the long period of political relevance, the name {{Lang|oui|Khitan}} become associated with China. Muslim historians referred to the Kara Khitan state as {{Lang|oui|Khitay}} or {{Lang|oui|Khitai}}; they may have adopted this form of {{Lang|oui|Khitan}} via the [[Uyghurs]] of [[Kingdom of Qocho|Qocho]], in whose language the final 
''-n'' or ''-ń'' became ''-y''.<ref>{{citation |last = Sinor |first = D. |chapter = Chapter 11 – The Kitan and the Kara Kitay |year = 1998 |title = History of Civilisations of Central Asia |editor1-last = Asimov |editor1-first = M.S. |editor2-last = Bosworth |editor2-first = C. E. |volume = 4 part I |publisher = UNESCO Publishing |isbn = 92-3-103467-7 }}</ref> The name was then introduced to medieval and early modern Europe through Islamic and Russian sources.<ref name="millward" /> In English and in several other European languages, the name "Cathay" was used in the translations of the adventures of [[Marco Polo]], which used this word for northern China. Words related to Khitay are still used in many [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] and [[Slavic languages]] to refer to China. However, its use by Turkic speakers within China, such as the Uyghurs, is considered pejorative by the Chinese authority who tried to ban it.<ref name="millward">{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XuvqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |editor=S.F.Starr |author1=James A. Millward |author2=Peter C. Perdue |title = Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland |year= 2004 |page = 43 |publisher = M.E. Sharpe |isbn = 978-1-317-45137-2 }}</ref>

There is no evidence that either in the 13th or 14th century, Cathayans, ''i.e.'' Chinese, travelled officially to Europe, but it is possible that some did, in unofficial capacities, at least in the 13th century. During the campaigns of [[Hulagu]] (the grandson of [[Genghis Khan]]) in [[Persian Empire|Persia]] (1256–65), and the reigns of his successors, Chinese engineers were employed on the banks of the [[Tigris]], and Chinese astrologers and physicians could be consulted. Many diplomatic communications passed between the Hulaguid [[Ilkhan]]s and Christian princes. The former, as the great khan's liegemen, still received from him their [[Seal (emblem)|seals]] of state; and two of their letters which survive in the archives of France exhibit the vermilion impressions of those seals in [[Chinese character]]s—perhaps affording the earliest specimen of those characters to reach western Europe.

=== Tabgach ===
The word ''[[Tabgach]]'' came from the metatheses of ''[[Tuoba]]'' (''*t'akbat''), a dominant tribe of the [[Xianbei]] and the surname of the [[Northern Wei]] emperors in the 5th century before sinicisation. It referred to Northern China, which was dominated by part-Xianbei, part-Han people.

This name is re-translated back into Chinese as {{Transliteration|zh|Taohuashi}} ({{lang-zh|c=桃花石|p=táohuā shí}}).<ref>{{cite book | last=Rui | first=Chuanming | title=On the Ancient History of the Silk Road | publisher=World Scientific | date=2021 | isbn=978-981-12-3296-1 | doi=10.1142/9789811232978_0005 | page=}}</ref> This name has been used in China in recent years to promote ethnic unity.<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Tuoba and Xianbei: Turkic and Mongolic elements of the medieval and contemporary Sinitic states
| author = Victor Mair 
| work = Language Log
| date = May 16, 2022
| access-date = 5 April 2024
| url = https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=54658
| language =  
| quote = 
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
| title = 在全国民族团结进步表彰大会上的讲话
| author = 习近平
| work = National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the People's Republic of China
| date = 2019-09-27
| access-date = 5 April 2024
| url = https://www.neac.gov.cn/seac/xwzx/201909/1136990.shtml
| language = zh
| quote = 分立如南北朝，都自诩中华正统；对峙如宋辽夏金，都被称为“桃花石”；统一如秦汉、隋唐、元明清，更是“六合同风，九州共贯”。
}}</ref>

=== Taugast ===
In the works of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Historian [[Theophylact Simocatta]], written in the early 7th Century, [[Tang dynasty|Tang China]] was referred to as {{Transliteration|grc|Taugast}} ([[Medieval Greek|Byzantine Greek]]: Ταυγάστ).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Xushan |date=2010 |title=On the Origin of "Taugast" in Theophylact Simocatta and the Later Sources |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44173113 |journal=Byzantion |volume=80 |pages=485–501 |jstor=44173113 |issn=0378-2506}}</ref> This name is likely related to Tabgach.<ref name=":0" />

=== Nikan ===
{{Transliteration|mnc|Nikan}} ([[Manchu language|Manchu]]: {{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ}}) was a Manchu ethnonym of unknown origin that referred specifically to the Han Chinese; the stem of this word was also conjugated as a verb, {{transliteration|mnc|nikara(-mbi)}}, which meant 'to speak the Chinese language'. Since ''{{Transliteration|mnc|Nikan}}'' was essentially an [[ethnonym]] and referred to a group of people rather than to a political body, the correct translation of "China" into Manchu is ''{{Transliteration|mnc|Nikan gurun}}'', 'country of the Han'.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} <!-- cf Pamela Crossley, [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~crossley/comments_1.html Note on Nikan] -->

This exonym for the Han Chinese is also used in the [[Daur language]], in which it appears as {{Transliteration|dta|Niaken}} ({{IPA|[njakən]}} or {{IPA|[ɲakən]}}).<ref>Samuel E. Martin, ''Dagur Mongolian Grammar, Texts, and Lexicon'', Indiana University Publications Uralic and Altaic Series, Vol. 4, 1961</ref> As in the case of the Manchu language, the Daur word ''{{Transliteration|dta|Niaken}}'' is essentially an ethnonym, and the proper way to refer to the country of the Han Chinese (i.e., "China" in a cultural sense) is ''{{Transliteration|dta|Niaken gurun}}'', while ''{{Transliteration|dta|niakendaaci}}'' is a verb meaning "to talk in Chinese".

=== Kara ===
Japanese: {{Transliteration|ja|Kara}} ({{lang|ja|から}}; variously written as {{lang|ja|唐}} or {{lang|ja|漢}}). An identical name was used by the ancient and medieval Japanese to refer to the country that is now known as [[Korea]], and many Japanese historians and linguists believe that the word {{Transliteration|ja|Kara}} referring to China and/or Korea may have derived from a [[metonymy|metonymic]] extension of the appellation of the ancient city-states of [[Gaya confederacy|Gaya]].

The Japanese word ''[[karate]]'' ({{lang|ja|空手}}, lit. "empty hand") is derived from the [[Okinawan language|Okinawan]] word {{Transliteration|ryu|karatii}} ({{lang|ja|唐手}}, lit. "Chinese/Asian/foreign hand/trick/means/method/style") and refers to Okinawan martial arts; the character for ''{{Transliteration|ja|kara}}'' was changed to remove the connotation of the style originating in China.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_o73NOjb4p4C&pg=PA60 | page = 60 |title= Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts
|author1=Donn F. Draeger | author2= Robert W. Smith
|publisher=Kodansha International | date= 1980
| isbn =978-0-87011-436-6}}</ref>

=== Morokoshi ===
Japanese: {{Transliteration|ja|Morokoshi}} ({{lang|ja|もろこし}}; variously written as {{lang|ja|唐}} or {{lang|ja|唐土}}). This obsolete Japanese name for China is believed to have derived from a {{Transliteration|ja|kun'yomi}} reading of the Chinese compound {{lang|zh-Hant|諸越}} {{Transliteration|zh|Zhūyuè}} or {{lang|zh-Hant|百越}}
''[[Baiyue]]'' as "all the Yue" or "the hundred (i.e., myriad, various, or numerous) Yue," which was an ancient Chinese name for the societies of the regions that are now southern China.

The Japanese common noun {{Transliteration|zh|tōmorokoshi}} ({{lang|ja|トウモロコシ}}, {{lang|ja|玉蜀黍}}), which refers to [[maize]], appears to contain an element cognate with the proper noun formerly used in reference to China. Although ''{{Transliteration|zh|tōmorokoshi}}'' is traditionally written with Chinese characters that literally mean "jade [[Shu (state)|Shu]] [[proso millet|millet]]", the etymology of the Japanese word appears to go back to "Tang {{Transliteration|ja|morokoshi}}", in which {{Transliteration|ja|morokoshi}} was the obsolete Japanese name for China as well as the Japanese word for [[sorghum]], which seems to have been introduced into Japan from China.

=== Mangi ===
[[File:1837 Malte-Brun Map of the Mongol Empire in Asia and Europe - Geographicus - AsiaMongol-mb-1837.jpg|thumb|1837 map of Mongol Empire, showing {{lang|la|Mangi}} in southern China]]
From Chinese {{Transliteration|zh|Manzi}} (蠻子, southern barbarians). The division of north and south China under the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] and [[Song dynasty]] weakened the idea of a unified China, and it was common for non-Han peoples to refer to the politically disparate North and South by different names for some time. While Northern China was called [[#Cathay or Kitay|Cathay]], Southern China was referred to as Mangi. {{Transliteration|zh|Manzi}} often appears in documents of the Mongol-led [[Yuan dynasty]] as a disparaging term for Southern China. The Mongols also called Southern Chinese {{Transliteration|mn|Nangkiyas}} or {{Transliteration|mn|Nangkiyad}}, and considered them ethnically distinct from North Chinese. The word ''{{Transliteration|zh|Manzi}}'' reached the Western world as {{lang|la|Mangi}} (as used by Marco Polo), which is a name commonly found on medieval maps. The Chinese themselves considered ''{{Transliteration|zh|Manzi}}'' to be derogatory and never used it as a self-appellation.<ref>{{harvp|Yule|2005|p=177}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnCMBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA247 |title=Dynastic China: An Elementary History|author= Tan Koon San |date=15 August 2014|page=247 |publisher=The Other Press|isbn=9789839541885 }}</ref> Some early scholars believed {{lang|la|Mangi}} to be a corruption of the Persian {{Transliteration|fa|Machin}} ({{lang|fa|ماچين}}) and Arabic {{transliteration|ar|Māṣīn}} ({{lang|ar|ماصين}}), which may be a mistake as these two forms are derived from the Sanskrit {{Transliteration|sa|Maha Chin}} meaning Great China.<ref>{{harvp|Yule|2005|p=165}}</ref>

===Sungsong===
In some{{Which|date=April 2025}} Philippine languages, ''Sungsong'' or ''Sungsung'' was a historical and archaic name for China.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pambansang Diksyunaryo |url= https://diksiyonaryo.ph/search/sungsong |website=Diksyunaryo.ph}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Vocabulario de la lengua tagala |date=1613 |publisher=Pedro de San Buena Ventura |page=187}}</ref> In [[Teduray language|Tiruray]], the name meant specifically [[Hong Kong]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary |url=https://acd.clld.org/values/433-b5502c4a803eb21e3013dfb7a1b08e7d-1|website=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary |publisher=Blust, Robert & Trussel, Stephen & Smith, Alexander D. & Forkel, Robert}}</ref> The name comes from [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]] *suŋsuŋ, which meant "to go against wind or current". Its application to China in Philippine languages presumably is connected with sailing problems in reaching mainland China from the Philippines.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary |url=https://acd.clld.org/cognatesets/30713#4/4.82/114.59 |website=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary |publisher=Blust, Robert & Trussel, Stephen & Smith, Alexander D. & Forkel, Robert}}</ref>

== Sign names ==
The name for China in [[Chinese Sign Language]] is performed by trailing the tip of one's fingertip horizontally across the upper end of the chest, from the non-dominant side to the dominant one, and then vertically downwards.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=唐 |editor1-first=淑芬 |editor2-last=杨 |editor2-first=洋 |title=中国手语日常会话 |publisher=华夏出版社 |location=北京 |isbn=9787508038247 |page=88 |language=zh |chapter=VII、邮政|date=2006 }}</ref> Many [[sign languages]] have adopted the Chinese sign as a loanword; this includes [[American Sign Language]],<ref>{{cite web |title=China |url=https://www.signasl.org/sign/china |website=ASL Sign Language Dictionary |publisher=Princeton University |access-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110160627/https://www.signasl.org/sign/china |archive-date=10 January 2023}}</ref> in which this has happened across dialects, from Canada<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Carole Sue |editor2-last=Dolby |editor2-first=Kathy |title=The Canadian Dictionary of ASL |publisher=University of Alberta Press, The Canadian Cultural Society of the Deaf |location=Edmonton, Alberta |isbn=0-88864-300-4 |page=lxxx |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_D_ZRFm_4EsC&dq=China&pg=PR80 |access-date=2 October 2023 |language=en |chapter=Geographic Place Names|date=27 June 2002 }}</ref> to California,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vicars |first1=William G. |title=CHINA |url=https://lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-signs/c/china.htm |website=American Sign Language University |access-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529103207/https://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-signs/c/china.htm |archive-date=29 May 2023 |location=Sacramento, California |language=en}}</ref> replacing previous signs indicating East Asian people's typical [[epicanthic fold]], now considered offensive.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tennant |first1=Richard A. |last2=Gluszak Brown |first2=Marianne |title=The American Sign Language Handshape Dictionary |date=1998 |publisher=Clerc Books, Gallaudet University Press |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-1-56368-043-4 |pages=126, 311 |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27WtFCWcEucC&dq=China&pg=PA311 |access-date=2 October 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

Multiple other languages have borrowed the sign as well, with some modifications. In [[Estonian Sign Language]], the index finger moves diagonally to the non-dominant side instead of vertically downwards,<ref>{{cite web |title=🇺🇸 China 🇪🇪 Hiina |url=https://www.spreadthesign.com/en.us-to-et.ee/word/6350/hiina/?q=China |website=Spread the Sign |publisher=European Sign Language Center |access-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002150313/https://www.spreadthesign.com/en.us-to-et.ee/word/6350/hiina/?q=China |archive-date=2 October 2023 |language=en}}</ref> and in [[French Sign Language|French]]<ref>{{cite web |title=🇺🇸 China 🇫🇷 Chine |url=https://www.spreadthesign.com/en.us-to-fr.fr/word/6350/chine/?q=China |website=Spread the Sign |publisher=European Sign Language Center |access-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002150623/https://www.spreadthesign.com/en.us-to-fr.fr/word/6350/chine/?q=China |archive-date=2 October 2023 |language=en}}</ref> and [[Israeli Sign Language]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=מנשה |first1=דבי |title=ארצות / מדינות העולם בשפת הסימנים הישראלית |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U27wgobKyiA&t=470s |website=YouTube |date=22 August 2020 |access-date=2 October 2023 |language=he}}</ref> the thumb is used instead. Some other languages use unrelated signs.<ref>{{cite web |title=🇺🇸 China |url=https://www.spreadthesign.com/en.us/word/6350/china |website=Spread the Sign |publisher=European Sign Language Center |access-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209115052/https://www.spreadthesign.com/en.us/word/6350/china/ |archive-date=9 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref> For example, in [[Hong Kong Sign Language]], the extended dominant index and middle fingers, held together, tap twice the non-dominant ones in the same handshape, palm downwards, in front of the signer's chest;<ref>{{cite web |title=China 中國 |url=https://www.sign-aip.net/sign-aip/en/home/detail.php?v_id=3109&vt=1 |website=LSD Visual Sign Language Dictionary |publisher=Sign Assisted Instruction Programme |language=en}}</ref> in [[Taiwanese Sign Language]], both hands are flat, with extended thumbs and other fingers held together and pointing sideways, palms towards the signer, move up and down together repeatedly in front of the signer's chest.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mainland China |url=https://twtsl.ccu.edu.tw/TSL//video/m/mainland_china.mp4 |website=TSL Online Dictionary |publisher=The Taiwan Center for Sign Linguistics, National Chung Cheng University |access-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002152354/https://twtsl.ccu.edu.tw/TSL//video/m/mainland_china.mp4 |archive-date=2 October 2023 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal bar|China|History|Politics|Language}}
* [[Little China (ideology)]]
* [[Chinese romanization]]
* [[List of country name etymologies]]
* [[Names of the Qing dynasty]]
* [[Names of India]]
* [[Names of Japan]]
* [[Names of Korea]]
* [[Names of Vietnam]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
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* {{cite book |language = de |title = Chinas religionen ... |first = Rudolf |last = Dvořák |volume = 12; Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte |edition = illustrated |year = 1895 |publisher = Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung) |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ |isbn = 0-19-979205-4 |access-date = 10 March 2014 |archive-date = 11 April 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170505/https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book |title=New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde |first1=Ruth W. |last1=Dunnell |first2=Mark C. |last2=Elliott |first3=Philippe |last3=Foret |first4=James A |last4=Millward |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC |isbn=1-134-36222-6 |access-date=10 March 2014 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China |first=Mark C. |last=Elliott |edition=illustrated, reprint |year=2001 |publisher=Stanford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC |isbn=0-8047-4684-2 |access-date=10 March 2014 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170225/https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |language = de |title = Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache |first = Erich |last = Hauer |editor-first = Oliver |editor-last = Corff |volume = 12; Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte |edition = illustrated |year = 2007 |publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC |isbn = 978-3-447-05528-4 |access-date = 10 March 2014 |archive-date = 11 April 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230411180500/https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book |first = Joseph |last= Esherick |chapter=How the Qing Became China |title =Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2006 }}
* {{cite book |title = China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia |first = Peter C. |last = Perdue |edition = reprint |year = 2009 |publisher = Harvard University Press |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC |isbn = 978-0-674-04202-5 |access-date = 10 March 2014 |archive-date = 11 April 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170353/https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC |url-status = live }}
*{{cite journal |last = Wade |first = Geoff |url = http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf |title = The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China' |journal = Sino-Platonic Papers |volume = 188 |date = May 2009 |access-date = 4 October 2011 |archive-date = 17 November 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171117222125/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf |url-status = live }}
*{{citation |last=Wilkinson |first=Endymion|year=2012 |title=Chinese History: A New Manual |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard-Yenching Institute }}
* {{cite book |last = Wilkinson |first = Endymion |year = 2015 |title = Chinese History: A New Manual, 4th edition |publisher = Harvard University Asia Center distributed by Harvard University Press |location = Cambridge, MA |isbn = 978-0-674-08846-7 }}
* {{cite book |language = de |title = Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717–1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao |first = Shuhui |last = Wu |volume = 2 of Tunguso Sibirica |edition = reprint |year = 1995 |publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC |isbn = 3-447-03756-3 |access-date = 10 March 2014 |archive-date = 11 April 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170219/https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC |url-status = live }}
*{{cite book |last=Yule |first=Henry |editor-first=Henri |editor-last=Cordier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgcVAAAAQAAJ |title=Cathay and the Way Thither |isbn=8120619668 |orig-year=1915 |year=2005 }}
* {{cite journal |jstor = 20062627 |doi = 10.1177/0097700405282349 |title = Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century |last = Zhao |first = Gang |journal = Modern China |volume= 32 |number= 1 |year = 2006 |pages = 3–30 |publisher = Sage Publications |s2cid = 144587815 }}
{{refend}}

{{China topics}}
{{Asia topic|Name of}}
{{Countries and languages lists}}

[[Category:Names of China| ]]
[[Category:Country name etymology|China]]
[[Category:Lists of country names in various languages|China]]
[[Category:Articles containing Mongolian script text]]
[[Category:Geographical naming disputes]]