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{{Short description|Senufo language of Ghana and Ivory Coast}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Nafaanra
|states=[[Ghana]], [[Ivory Coast]]
|region=North-west corner of the [[Bono Region]] in Ghana, east of [[Bondoukou]] in Ivory Coast
|ethnicity=[[Nafana people|Nafana]]
|speakers={{sigfig|89,000|2}} in Ghana
|date=2017
|ref=e25
|speakers2="Few" in Côte d'Ivoire<ref name=e25/>
|familycolor=Niger-Congo
|fam2=[[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]]
|fam3=[[Senufo languages|Senufo]]
|fam4=Southern
|iso3=nfr
|glotto=nafa1258
|glottorefname=Nafanan
|map=Nafaanra language.svg
|mapcaption=Nafaanra, some neighbouring languages, and other [[Senufo people|Senufo]] languages.
|notice=IPA
}}

'''Nafaanra''' (sometimes written Nafaara, pronounced {{IPA|nfr|nafãːra|}}), also known as '''Nafanan''' or '''Nafana''', is a [[Senufo languages|Senufo]] language spoken in northwest [[Ghana]], along the border with [[Ivory Coast]], east of [[Bondoukou]]. It is spoken by approximately {{sigfig|89,000|1}} people.<ref name=e25/> Its speakers call themselves [[Nafana people|Nafana]], but others call them Banda or Mfantera. Like other Senufo languages, Nafaanra is a [[tone language|tonal]] language. It is somewhat of an outlier in the Senufo language group, with the geographically-closest relatives, the Southern Senufo [[Tagwana–Djimini languages]], approximately {{convert|200|km}} to the west, on the other side of [[Comoé National Park]].

The basic [[word order]] is [[subject–object–verb]], like [[Latin grammar|Latin]] and [[Japanese grammar|Japanese]]. Like other [[Niger–Congo languages]], it has a [[noun class]] system, with [[noun]]s classified according to five different classes, which also affects [[pronoun]]s, [[adjective]]s and [[copula (linguistics)|copulas]]. The [[phonology]] features a distinction between the length of vowels and whether they are [[oral vowel|oral]] or [[nasal vowel|nasal]] (as in [[French phonology|French]] or [[Portuguese phonology|Portuguese]]). There are also three distinct [[tonal language|tones]], a feature shared with the other Senufo languages. Nafaanra grammar features both [[Grammatical tense|tense]] and [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] which are marked with [[grammatical particle|particles]]. Numbers are mainly formed by adding cardinal numbers to the number 5 and by multiplying the numbers 10, 20 and 100.

==Geography and demography==
Nafaanra is bordered by [[Kulango languages]] to the west and southeast, while [[Deg language|Deg]] (a [[Gur languages|Gur language]]) is found to the north and east.<ref name=e25GH/><ref name=e25CI>Côte d’Ivoire – Maps in {{e25}}</ref> The closest eastern and western neighbour is the [[Mande languages|Mande language]] [[Ligbi language|Ligbi]]. Southeast and south of Nafaanra and Ligbi, the [[Akan language]] [[Abron language|Abron]] is spoken.<ref name=e25CI/><ref name=e25GH>Ghana – Maps in {{e25}}</ref>

The [[Nafana people]] live in the north-west corner of the [[Brong-Ahafo Region]] of Ghana, concentrated mainly in [[Sampa, Ghana|Sampa]] (capital of the Jaman North district) and [[Banda, Ghana|Banda]]. There are two dialectal variants of Nafaanra: Pantera of Banda, and Fantera of Sampa.{{sfn|Jordan|1980|p=1}} Bendor-Samuel gives a 79% [[cognate]] relationship on the [[Swadesh list]] between the two dialects, meaning that they have many basic words in common.{{sfn|Bendor-Samuel|1971}} The Banda dialect is considered central. The terms "Fantera" and "Pantera" come from other peoples and are considered pejorative by the Nafana.{{sfn|Jordan|1980|p=1}}

The Nafana people say that they come from a village called Kakala in Ivory Coast. Their oral history says that some of their people are still there, and if they go back they will not be allowed to leave again.{{sfn|Jordan|1978|loc=84n1}} They arrived in the Banda area after the Ligbi people, who came from [[Begho]] (Bigu, Bighu) to the area in the early 17th century.{{sfn|Stahl|2004}}

According to ''[[Ethnologue]]'', as of 2005, many Nafana are bilingual in [[Twi language|Twi]], the regional [[lingua franca]], to some extent. Using the [[ILR scale]], 50% of Nafana have limited working proficiency in Twi{{efn|Speaking 2 (Limited Working Proficiency): "Able to satisfy routine social demands and limited work requirements."<ref name=ILRScale>{{Cite web |title=Interagency Language Roundtable Language Skill Level Descriptions - Speaking |url=https://www.govtilr.org/Skills/ILRscale2.htm |access-date=2022-12-26 |website=[[Interagency Language Roundtable]]}}</ref>}}, while 20% have general professional proficiency{{efn|Speaking 3 (General Professional Proficiency): "Able to speak the language with sufficient structural accuracy and vocabulary to participate effectively in most formal and informal conversations in practical, social and professional topics."<ref name=ILRScale/>}}. The remaining 30% have either elementary proficiency (15%) or no proficiency at all (15%).<ref name=e15/><ref>[https://www.ethnologue.com/15/ethno_docs/introduction/#language_entries Introduction to the printed volume] in {{e15}}</ref> 15–25% of the Nafana people are [[literate]] in Twi, whereas only 1–5% are literate in Nafaanra.<ref name=e15>{{e15|nfr|Nafaanra}}</ref>

65 Dompo people living in the close vicinity of Banda have shifted to Nafaanra.<ref name=e25/> [[Dompo language|Dompo]] is their first language, thought to be extinct until a fieldwork trip by Blench in 1998 proved the contrary.{{sfn|Blench|1999}}

===Classification===
[[Maurice Delafosse]] was the first linguist to mention Nafaanra, calling it "a much dispersed Senufo tribe" in 1904.{{sfn|Delafosse|1904|p=195}} [[Diedrich Hermann Westermann|Westermann]] in his classification of West-African languages, also grouped Nafaanra with Senufo, apparently based on the word list found in Rapp.{{sfn|Westermann|1970|p=56}} This classification is confirmed by Bendor-Samuel, who bases his internal Senufo classification on the comparative word lists in Swadesh et al.{{sfn|Bendor-Samuel|1971}}{{sfn|Swadesh|Arana Swadesh|Bendor-Samuel|Wilson|1966}}

It is less clear which particular Senufo branch Nafaanra is most closely related to. Bendor-Samuel gives a 60% cognate relationship based on the [[Swadesh list]] with "Tenere" (a western Senari dialect), 59% with "Central Senari" (the Senari dialect spoken around Korhogo), and 43% with the non-Senufo languages Mo (or Deg), [[Kabiye language|Kabre (or Kabiye)]], and [[Dogon languages|Dogon]].{{sfn|Bendor-Samuel|1971}} The relatively low scores of about 60% point to a rather distant relationship. Likewise, Mensah and Tchagbale establish an intercomprehensibility factor of 38% with "Tyebaara" (Senari), concluding that Nafaanra is only distantly related to this dialect.{{sfn|Mensah|Tchagbale|1983|p=19}} Nafaanra has been tentatively linked to [[Palaka language|Palaka]] (Kpalaga) by [[Gabriel Manessy|Manessy]], whereas Mills suggests a relation with the southern [[Tagwana–Djimini languages|Tagwana–Djimini]] branch.{{sfn|Manessy|1981}}{{sfn|Mills|1984}}

==Sounds==

===Vowels===
Nafaanra has seven oral and five nasalized [[vowel]]s. A difference in vowel length can make a difference in meaning, as in ''{{IPA|sɛ}}'', "to go", vs. ''{{IPA|sɛɛ}}'', "fetish" or ''o'', "we" vs. ''oo'', "we will". Similarly, the phonemic contrastiveness of nasalization can be seen in ''sii'', "to be giving birth," vs. ''{{IPA|sĩĩ}}'', "to build".<ref>Minimal pairs from {{harvnb|Jordan|1980b|pp=13–15}}</ref> The vowel system closely resembles that of other Senufo languages. It is like the two Northern Senufo languages [[Supyire language|Supyire]] and [[Mamara language|Mamara]] in having only five nasal against seven oral vowels.{{sfn|Carlson|1994}} {{citation needed span|In the orthography, [[nasalization]] of vowels is marked by adding the letter "n" after the vowel.|date=November 2022}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Phonetic inventory of vowels in Nafaanra{{sfn|Jordan|1980b|p=16}}
! 
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!style="text-align:right"|[[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPAlink|i}} • {{IPAlink|ĩ}}|| ||{{IPAlink|u}} • {{IPAlink|ũ}}
|-
!style="text-align:right"|[[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPAlink|e}}|| ||{{IPAlink|o}}
|-
!style="text-align:right"|[[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{IPAlink|ɛ}} • {{IPAlink|ɛ̃}}|| ||{{IPAlink|ɔ}} • {{IPAlink|ɔ̃}}
|-
!style="text-align:right"|[[Open vowel|Open]]
| ||{{IPAlink|a}} • {{IPAlink|ã}}||
|}

===Consonants===
{{citation needed span|In the table below, [[orthography|orthographic]] symbols are included between angled brackets if they differ from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] symbols. Note especially the use of "j" for IPA {{IPA|[ɟ]}} and the use of "y" for IPA {{IPA|[j]}}, common in African orthographies.|date=November 2022}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Phonetic inventory of consonants in Nafaanra in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] notation{{sfn|Jordan|Jordan|1980a|p=5}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 
! [[Labial consonant|labial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|velar]]
! [[Labial–velar consonant|labial-<br />velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
| {{IPAlink|ɲ}} {{angbr|ny}}
| {{IPAlink|ŋ}}
| {{IPAlink|ŋ͡m}}
| 
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[plosive]]
! <small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPAlink|p}}
| {{IPAlink|t}}
| {{IPAlink|c}} {{angbr|ch}}
| {{IPAlink|k}}
| {{IPAlink|k͡p}}
| 
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| {{IPAlink|b}}
| {{IPAlink|d}}
| {{IPAlink|ɟ}} {{angbr|j}}
| {{IPAlink|ɡ}}
| {{IPAlink|ɡ͡b}}
| 
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[fricative]]
! <small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPAlink|f}}
| {{IPAlink|s}}
| {{IPAlink|ç}} {{angbr|sh}}
| 
| 
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| {{IPAlink|v}}
| {{IPAlink|z}}
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|trill]]
| 
| {{IPAlink|r}}
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
! colspan="2" | [[approximant]]
| 
| {{IPAlink|l}}
| {{IPAlink|j}} {{angbr|y}}
| 
| {{IPAlink|w}}
| 
|}

{{citation needed span|The consonant system of Nafaanra is fairly similar to that of other Senufo languages. Nafaanra has only one attested palatal fricative, {{IPA|/ç/}}, occupying an intermediate position between the Northern Senufo languages (Mamara, Supyire) that have both {{IPA|/ç/}} and its voiced counterpart {{IPA|/ʝ/}}, and the Central and Southern Senufo languages (e.g. Karaboro, Senari, Djimini) that have no palatal fricatives at all.|date=November 2022|reason=This would be original research: Nafaanra {{angbr|h}} corresponds to the glottal consonant most other Senufo languages have, either in the form of a glottal stop {{IPA|/ʔ/}} (Supyire, Senari, Karaboro) or a glottal fricative {{IPA|/h/}} (Mamara)}}

===Tone===
Like the other Senufo languages, Nafaanra has three contrastive tones: High, Mid and Low. Tone is normally not marked in the Nafaanra orthography. Examples are:{{sfn|Jordan|1980b|p=23}}
* kúfɔ̀ "yam" (High-Low)
* dama "two pesewas (coin)" (Mid)
* màŋà "rope" (Low)
The Mid tone sometimes has a rising feature, the High tone sometimes is subject to [[downstep]] (a tonal process resulting in a High tone being realised lower than a preceding High tone), and an upstep is also found.{{sfn|Jordan|Jordan|1980a}}{{sfn|Jordan|1980b}} The "rising feature" of Mid may be related to the fact that two different Mid tones are found in some other Senufo languages (e.g. Sucite and Supyire).{{sfn|Carlson|1994}} The High tone downstep (signified by a raised exclamation mark) occurs in the following context:{{sfn|Jordan|1980b|p=23}}

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|we <sup>!</sup> sɛ
|he FUT go
|"he will go".}}

It is likely that the tonal lowering seen in this particular example is related to the low tone nasal prefix found in future tense constructions in some other Senufo languages. In fact, Supyire shows a similar phenomenon in future tense constructions with a direct object (in other future tense constructions, a low tone nasal is found).{{sfn|Carlson|1994|p=334}} In general however, downstep is more widespread than in Supyire; a similar phenomenon is found in Palaka, Tagwana, and Djimini.{{sfn|Mills|1984|p=xvi}}

An upstep is found in the imperative tense of high tone verbs:{{sfn|Jordan|1980b|p=24}}

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|ki tɔ
|it close
|"close it!"}}

==Grammar==
[[File:O Tafun Nyiɛtaala.jpg|thumb|[[The Lord's Prayer]] in Nafanan]]
The Nafaanra syllable comprises a vowel and a maximum of three consonants. A nasal consonant may occur as a syllable on its own, in which case it is called a ''syllabic nasal''. The basic syllable structure can be rendered as (C<sub>1</sub>)(C<sub>2</sub>)V(C<sub>3</sub>), with a preference for CV and CVV. Position C<sub>1</sub> may contain any consonant, although word-initial /r/ does not occur. Position C<sub>2</sub> may contain only [[trill consonant|trills]] (/r/) or [[approximant]]s (/w, l, j/). Position C<sub>3</sub> may contain only nasals ({{IPA|/m n ɲ ŋ/}}), in which case the syllable as a whole is [[nasalization|nasalized]].{{sfn|Jordan|1980b|p=2}}

Senufo languages have a typical [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] [[noun class]] (or gender) system. [[Suffix]]es on nouns mark membership of one of the five noun genders. Pronouns, adjectives and copulas reflect the noun gender of the nominal they refer to. Although none of the sources on Nafaanra provides any details, it can be inferred from a brief word list given by Jordan{{sfn|Jordan|Jordan|1980a|pp=1–2}} {{citation needed span|that the Nafaanra noun class system resembles that of other Senufo languages.|date=November 2022}}

The basic word order in Nafaanra is [[subject–object–verb]], as can be seen in the following sentence:

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|bibilɛ ná pé nya
|boys PAST them see
|"The boys saw them"}}

===Personal pronouns===
Jordan lists the following list of [[pronoun]]s, commenting, "Although the pronoun system appears quite simple, it becomes complicated because all the tenses are shown by a combination of pronoun plus particle."{{sfn|Jordan|Jordan|1980a|p=6}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ <small>Nafaanra personal pronouns</small>
!<small>Jordan 1980a:6</small>!!Singular!!Plural
|-
|style="text-align:right"|1st person||ni||o
|-
|style="text-align:right"|2nd person||mu||e
|-
|style="text-align:right"|3rd person||u||pe
|}

===Tense and aspect===
[[Grammatical tense|Tense]] and [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] in Nafaanra are generally encoded in two places: in preverbal particles and on the verb form. Nafaanra has past, recent past, and future tenses and continuative aspect. In a simple sentence, the order of the various constituents can be rendered as follows: <small> SUBJECT • (NEGATION) • (TENSE) • (ASPECT) • VERB </small>. When the negative suffix ''-n'' is present, no fusing of preverbal particles takes place. Nafaanra additionally expresses some tense/aspect matters by use of certain time adverbs and auxiliary verbs.{{sfn|Jordan|1978}}
<!-- Unfortunately no-one has published something on those "time adverbs and auxiliary verbs" in Nafaanra yet... However, refer to Carlson 1994 for an excellent and elaborate overview of TAM in Supyire (Northern Senufo). Carlson calls progressive what Jordan calls continuative. -->

Past tense is marked by the preverbal particle ''ná'' (high tone, as opposed to the low tone continuative particle). Future tense is marked by the particle ''wè''. Simple sentences without a preverbal tense particle are interpreted as recent past (sometimes called ''immediate''). If aspect marking is absent, simple sentences are generally interpreted as ''completive''.<ref>Example sentences adapted from {{harvnb|Jordan|1978|pp=85–87}}</ref>

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|kòfí '''ná''' sɛ́|c1={{audio|kofinase.ogg|&nbsp;}}
|Kofi PAST go-COMPL
|"Kofi went"—<small>PAST</small>}}

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|kòfí '''wè''' sɛ́
|Kofi FUT go-COMPL
|"Kofi will go"—<small>FUTURE</small>}}

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|kòfí sɛ́
|Kofi go-COMPL
|"Kofi just went"—<small>RECENT PAST</small> (no marking)}}

Continuative aspect (sometimes called ''progressive'') denotes an action that is ongoing or repetitive. Continuative aspect is usually marked both by a preverbal particle ''nà'' (low tone) and by a change of the verb form. The verb ''sɛ́'', "go" used in the sentences below has the continuative form ''síé''. In sentences where both past tense particle ''ná'' and continuative particle ''nà'' are present, they combine to give the fused particle ''náà''. In sentences in the recent past tense, the preverbal continuative particle is omitted and continuative aspect is shown only on the verb.{{sfn|Jordan|1978}}

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|kòfí '''náà''' síé
|Kofi PAST+CONT go-CONT
|"Kofi was going"—<small>CONT + PAST</small>}}
{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|kòfí '''wè''' '''nà''' síé
|Kofi FUT CONT go-CONT
|"Kofi will be going"—<small>CONT + FUTURE</small>}}
{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|kòfí síé
|Kofi go-CONT
|"Kofi is going"—<small>CONT + RECENT PAST</small>}}

Two classes of verbs can be differentiated on the basis of their behaviour in aspectually marked sentences.{{sfn|Jordan|1978|p=85ff}} {{citation needed span|One class of verbs has two aspectually distinct forms, as seen in the above example sentences. Another class of verbs does not distinguish aspect—one and the same form shows up in both completive and continuative aspect. In sentences in the recent past tense, this gives rise to [[ambiguity]] since the preverbal continuative particle is omitted there. Thus, the sentence ''kòfí blú'' can be interpreted in the following two ways:|date=November 2022}}

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|kòfí blú|c1={{audio|kofiblu.ogg|&nbsp;}}
|Kofi swim-CONT
|"Kofi is swimming"—<small>CONT + RECENT PAST</small>}}

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|kòfí blú
|Kofi swim-COMPL
|"Kofi just swam"—<small>RECENT PAST</small> (no marking)}}

{{citation needed span|Considerable fusion takes place between [[pronoun|pronominal]] subjects and the preverbal particles. For example, ''ná'' "<small>PAST</small>" fuses with ''pé'', "they", to produce ''prá sɛ́'' (they-<small>PAST</small> go-completive), "they went", and ''wè'' "<small>FUTURE</small>" fuses with ''pé'' in ''píè sɛ́'' (they-<small>FUTURE</small> go-completive), "they will go".|date=November 2022}}

===Questions===
[[Question]]s can be formed in several ways in Nafaanra. Basic [[yes–no question]]s are constructed by adding a sentence-final question marker ''rá''. Constituent questions (sometimes called ''Wh-questions'' or ''question word questions'') are doubly marked. They contain a sentence-initial question word and are marked with a sentence-final question marker ''hin''.<ref>Examples adapted from Jordan 1980:NAF4{{Full citation needed|date=December 2022}}</ref>

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|u pan '''rá'''
|he come Q
|"Has he come?"—basic yes–no-question}}

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|'''ŋgi''' wra nya '''hin'''|c1={{audio|Ngiwranya.ogg||&nbsp;}}
|what he+PAST see Q
|"What did he see?"—constituent question}}

===Numbers===
The cardinal numbers without tonal marking are presented below;{{sfn|Jordan|Jordan|1980a|p=2}} where possible, the tone pattern is added based on the list in Rapp.{{sfn|Rapp|1933|pp=66–67}} {{citation needed span|Numbers six to nine are derived by adding the numbers one to four to ''kɔɔ'', "five", by means of the conjunction ''na''.|date=November 2022}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ {{citation needed span|The cardinal numbers of Nafaanra without tonal marking|date=November 2022}}
|-
! No.
! Nafaanra
! Supyire{{sfn|Carlson|1994|p=169}}
! Notes
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 1||núnu||nìŋkìn||
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 2||shíín||shùùnnì||
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 3||táárɛ̀||tàànrè||[[Mpre language|Mpre]]: ''eta''{{sfn|Rapp|1933}}
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 4||jíjirɛ̀||sìcyɛ̀ɛ̀rè||
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 5||kúnɔ||kaŋkuro||
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 6||kɔ́ɔ̀-ná-nù||baa-nì|| 5 + 1
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 7||kɔ́ɔ̀-na-shin||baa-shùùnnì|| 5 + 2
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 8||kɔ́ɔ̀-ná-tárɛ̀||baa-tàànrè|| 5 + 3
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 9||kɔ́ɔ̀-ná-jirɛ||baa-rìcyɛ̀ɛ̀rè|| 5 + 4
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 10||kɛ́||kɛ
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 20||fúlo||benjaaga||
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 30||fúlo na kɛ||benjaaga na kɛ|| 20 + 10
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 40||fúloe shiin|| || 20 × 2
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 50||fúloe shiin na kɛ|| || 20 × 2 + 10, Rapp ''féleshen-ná-kɛ''
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 60||fuloe taarɛ|| || 20 × 3, however compare Rapp ''félèko-a-ná-nò''
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 70||fuloe taarɛ na kɛ|| || 20 × 3 + 10, Rapp ''féleko-náshèn''
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 80||fuloe jijirɛ|| || 20 × 4, Rapp ''féleko-ná-tàrɛ''
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 90||fuloe jijirɛ na kɛ|| || 20 × 4 + 10, Rapp ''félèko-ná-nyèrɛ''
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 100||lafaa|| ||[[Mpre language|Mpre]]: ''ke-lafa'' (Rapp 1933)
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 200||lafɛɛ shiin|| ||
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 400||lafɛɛ jijirɛ|| ||
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | 1000||kagbenge nunu|| ||Rapp ''láfâ-kɛĭ'' (100 × 10) or ''káboŋge''
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | |2000||kagbenge shiin|| ||
|}

{{citation needed span|The numbers 11–19 are formed by adding 1–9 to 10 by means of the conjunction ''mbɔ'', e.g. ''kɛmbɔnunu'', "eleven", ''kɛmbɔkunɔ'', "fifteen". In the tens and higher, the Nafaanra and Supyire systems diverge. Multiplication of ''fulo'', "twenty," and addition of ''kɛ'', "ten", (by means of the conjunction ''ná'') is used to form the 30–90 tens. Perhaps surprisingly, there are considerable differences between Rapp (1933) and Jordan (1980) here. In Rapp's 60, 70 and 80, ''féle'' seems to be used to mark ten, which conjoined with 6, 7 and 8 forms 60, 70 and 80.|date=November 2022}}

Rapp (1933){{Full citation needed|date=November 2022}} compares the Nafaanra numerals for three (''táárɛ'') and hundred (''lafaa'') with ''eta'' and ''ke-lafa'' from [[Mpre language|Mpre]], a hitherto unclassified language from Ghana. The Mpre ''eta'' is [[Kwa languages|Kwa]]-like (cf. Brong ''esã'', [[Ga language|Ga]] ''etɛ''), whereas the Nafaanra form ''táárɛ'' is transparently related to the forms found in the other (non-Kwa) Senufo languages (e.g. Supyire ''tàànrè'').  Nafaanra ''lafaa'' "hundred" is a typical Kwa numeral and is most probably borrowed from one of the surrounding Kwa languages (cf. [[Ga language|Dangme]] ''làfá'', [[Gonja language|Gonja]] ''kì-làfá'', [[Ewe language|Ewe]] ''alafá''). Rapp's implication of affinity between Mpre and Nafaanra seems therefore unwarranted at this level.

{{citation needed span|[[Morphophonology|Morphophonological]] alternations occur here and there, most notably the reduction of ''kúnɔ'', "five" to ''kɔ́ɔ̀'' (preserving the tone pattern) and the change from ''lafaa'' to ''lafɛɛ'' in the hundreds.|date=November 2022}}

===Colour words===
There are 3 to 4 basic colors in Nafanan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Language Nafaanra |url=https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_naf |access-date=2022-12-26 |website=[[World Atlas of Language Structures]]}}</ref> {{citation needed span|The three basic [[colour]] words of Nafaanra are: ''wɔɔ'', "black", ''finge'', "white", and ''ɲiɛ'', "red". As with adjectives in Senufo languages, the form of the colour words reflects the noun class of the noun that is modified.|date=November 2022}}
* ''wɔɔ''—ki ''wɔ'' &nbsp; "it is black"
* ''finge''—ki ''finge'' &nbsp; "it is white"
* ''ɲiɛ''—ki ''ɲina'' &nbsp; "it is red"
The [[cognate]] forms in closely related Supyire are ''-ɲyɛ-'', "red; warm colored", and ''-fyìn-'', "white; light colored", in [[Supyire language|Supyire]]. These adjectives are related to the respective verbs ''fíníŋɛ́'', "be white; whiten" and ''ɲááŋá'', "be red; redden", which in turn are [[causative]] forms of the now defunct verbs ''fini'',"be white" and ''ɲana'', "be red".{{sfn|Carlson|1994|pp=154, 710n9, 10}}

==Sample sentences==
Sample Nafaanra sentences from the [[SIL International|SIL]]:{{sfn|Jordan|1978|pp=88–90}}

{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|mùùrà kà ní čàà mè gbú mè é nyìè tɛ́ɛ́ mè kí lóó|c1={{audio|muura.ogg|&nbsp;}}
|story some I want and-FUT beat and-FUT your ear put and-FUT it hear
|"I want to tell a story for you to hear."}}
{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|yɛ́ngè nà kòmó ǹdrá|c1={{audio|Yengena.ogg|&nbsp;}}
|true that hyena hide-COMPL
|"It's true that the hyena hid himself."}}
{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|ké bĺè kà kpáhù wá
|it day some frog not-there
|"On a certain day the frog wasn't here."}}
{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|ẃrè ǹnà pè kúú
|he not-CONT them kill-CONT
|"He wasn't killing them."}}
{{interlinear|lang=nfr|indent=3
|ná múúrò ḿnà kàà mà ná yo mà
|if fish you-PAST-CONT chew-CONT you-not past say-COMPL that
|"If you had been eating fish you would not have said that."}}

==Research==
[[Image:Nafaanra Delafosse 1904.png|right|thumb|300px|alt=Map of two dozen locations in half a dozen regions. The central region's name, "NAFANA", is magnified in an inset. Other region names include "ABRON" and "NTAKIMA"; location names include "Bondoukou", the largest location in the NAFANA region.|Fragment of Delafosse's (1904) linguistic map highlighting Nafaanra ("Nafana") in the borderland of Ivory Coast and Ghana. [[Bonduku]] is found on the left.]]
There is relatively little published on or in the Nafaanra language. The first linguistic publication to mention Nafaanra is Delafosse (1904), containing some notes on the Nafana people and a fairly extensive comparative Senufo word list, though it lacked any proper tonal marking. Rapp (1933) is an appendix to an article on the [[Kulango language]] containing a German-Nafaanra (''Nafana-Sprache'') word list of around 100 items, gathered during a stay of four hours at Sampa. Rapp notes in passing that special attention was paid to the marking of the tones.{{sfn|Rapp|1933|loc=p. 66: {{lang|de|"besondere Aufmerksamkeit wurde auf die Aufzeichnung der Tonhöhen verwandt"}}}}

After a period of silence on Nafaanra, Painter (1966) appeared, consisting of basic word lists of the Pantera and Fantera dialects. The SIL linguist Dean Jordan published an article on Nafaanra discourse in 1978, and together with his wife Carol Jordan has produced a translation of the [[New Testament]], which appeared in 1984.<ref>International Bible Society 1984</ref> The whole bible was translated in 2015.<ref name=e25/> Kropp-Dakubu's 1980 ''West African language data sheets'' vol II contains a few pages on Nafaanra put together in the late seventies by Dean and Carol Jordan, including a phonology, a list of nouns, a list of pronouns, a list of numbers, and some example sentences; tones are not marked.{{sfn|Kropp-Dakubu|1980}} A more detailed phonology of Nafaanra by Jordan, also containing a [[Swadesh list]], appeared in 1980.{{sfn|Jordan|1980}} {{citation needed span|Several books of Nafana folk tales have been published by the Summer Institute of Linguistics.|date=November 2022}} Mensah and Tchagbale in their 1983 linguistic atlas of Ivory Coast include a comparative Senufo word list of about 120 items; Nafaanra is present under the name "Nafara of Bondoukou".{{sfn|Mensah|Tchagbale|1983}} Hartell published an orthography of Nafaanra, lacking tonal marking, in 1993.{{sfn|Hartell|1993}} The area where Nafaanra is spoken has been the subject of recent archaeological-anthropological studies.{{sfn|Stahl|2004}}

==Notes==
{{noteslist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
=== Primary sources ===
* {{Cite book |last=Delafosse |first=Maurice |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k824366 |title=Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de 60 langues ou dialectes parlés à la Côte d'Ivoire et dans les régions limitrophes (avec des notes linguistiques et ethnologiques, une bibliographie et une carte) |year=1904 |language=fr |publisher=E. Leroux}}
* International Bible Society (1984): [https://web.archive.org/web/20110713004120/http://www.ifoba.com/find_a_bible/default.aspx?SysProductID=22342 Nyiɛkpɔɔ nyu nunu fɔŋgɔ].
* {{Cite book |first=Dean |last=Jordan |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4516192 |chapter=Nafaara tense-aspect in the folk tale |title=Papers on discourse |date=1978 |publisher=Summer Institute of Linguistics |editor-first=Joseph Evans |editor-last=Grimes |isbn=0-88312-061-5 |oclc=4516192 |pages=84–90}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Kropp-Dakubu |editor-first=Mary Esther |title=West African Language Data Sheets |publisher=West African Linguistic Society, [[Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden|African Studies Centre]] |language=en |volume=II |pages=138–143 |first1=Carol |last1=Jordan |first2=Dean |last2=Jordan |year=1980a |chapter=Nafaara}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jordan |first=Dean |url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/1616598 |title=Collected field reports on the phonology of Nafaara |date=1980b |publisher=[[Institute of African Studies]], University of Ghana |series=Collected language notes}}
* Painter, Colin (1966) ''Word lists of two Senufo dialects: Fantera et Pantera''. Legon: University of Ghana. (30p)
* {{Cite book |last=Rapp |first=Eugen Ludwig |title=Migration und kulturelle Diversität |chapter=Der Einfluss der Migration auf die Sprache |trans-title=The Náfana language in Ivory Coast and Gold Coast |year=1933 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-04688-5/10 |publisher=Mitteilungen des Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen (M.S.O.S.) |volume=36-3 |language=de |pages=66–69 |doi=10.3726/978-3-653-04688-5/10 |isbn=9783631652206 }}

=== Secondary sources ===
* {{cite book |last=Bendor-Samuel |first=John T. |year=1971 |chapter=Niger–Congo: Gur |editor-first=Thomas |editor-last=Sebeok |editor-first2=Jack |editor-last2=Berry |title=Linguistics in sub-saharan Africa |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783111562520-007/html |doi=10.1515/9783111562520-007 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |location=The Hauge/Paris |pages=141–178 |isbn=978-3-11-156252-0 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |title=Recent Field Work in Ghana: Report on Dompo and a note on Mpre |last=Blench |first=Roger |date=1999}}
* {{Cite book |last=Carlson |first=Robert |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/30895666 |title=A Grammar of Supyire |date=1994 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=3-11-014057-8 |location=Berlin |oclc=30895666 |doi=10.1515/9783110883053}}
* {{cite book |last=Hartell |first=Rhonda L. |year=1993 |title=The Alphabets of Africa |location=Dakar |publisher=UNESCO and SIL |oclc=464050942}}
* {{Cite book |last=Manessy |first=Gabriel |chapter=Les langues voltaïques |title=Les langues dans le monde ancien et moderne |date=1981 |publisher=Éditions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique |editor-first1=Jean |editor-last1=Perrot |editor-first2=Thomas |editor-last2=Leiper Kane Collection |isbn=2-222-01720-3 |location=Paris |oclc=9946042 |volume=I |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Mensah |first1=Emmanuel N. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PxTLQwAACAAJ |title=Atlas des langues gur de Côte d'Ivoire |last2=Tchagbale |first2=Zakari |date=1983 |publisher=Agence de coopération culturelle et technique / Institut de linguistique appliquée |language=fr |oclc=492982594 |location=Abidjan, Paris}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mills |first=Elizabeth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11484538 |title=Senoufo phonology, discourse to syllable (a prosodic approach) |date=1984 |publisher=Summer Institute of Linguistics |isbn=0-88312-087-9 |location=Dallas, TX |oclc=11484538|issn=1040-0850}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Stahl |first=Ann |author-link=Ann B. Stahl |date=2004 |title=Making History in Banda: Reflections on the Construction of Africa's Past |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25617131 |journal=Historical Archaeology |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=50–65 |doi=10.1007/BF03376632 |jstor=25617131 |s2cid=140961583 |issn=0440-9213|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |first1=Morris |last1=Swadesh |first2=Evangelina |last2=Arana Swadesh |first3=John T. |last3=Bendor-Samuel |first4=W. A. A. |last4=Wilson |year=1966 |title=A preliminary glottochronology of Gur languages |journal=Journal of West African Languages |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=27–65 |url=http://main.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/index.php/downloads/summary/8-volume0302/10-a-preliminary-glottochronology-of-gur-languages}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Westermann |first1=Diedrich |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/150447 |title=The Languages of West Africa |year=1970 |orig-date=1952 |publisher=Dawsons |location=Folkstone |first2=M. A. |last2=Bryan |first3=D. W. |last3=Arnott |isbn=0-7129-0462-X |oclc=150447 |edition=new}}

==Further reading==
*''Brɔfu ni yuu (a bridge material to English) Nafaanra''. Ghana Institute of Linguistics, Literacy and Bible Translation (1994)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060524165711/http://www.sil.org/computing/shoebox/Nafaanra.pdf Nafaanra dictionary <small>(PDF)</small>], by Dean Jordan of [[SIL International|SIL]].

{{Languages of Ghana}}
{{Gur languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nafaanra Language}}
[[Category:Senufo languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Ghana]]