View source for NASA Astronaut Group 2

{{Short description|2nd group of NASA astronauts}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use American English|date=September 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox NASA Astronaut Group
| image = File:Astronaut Group 2 - S62-6759.jpg
| caption = Group 2 astronauts. Back row, left to right: See, McDivitt, Lovell, White, Stafford. Front row: Conrad, Borman, Armstrong, Young. Before them are models of the [[Mercury spacecraft|Mercury]], [[Apollo spacecraft|Apollo]], and [[Gemini spacecraft]].
| name = Next Nine
| alt = Official group portrait
| year = 1962
| number = 9
| prev = [[Mercury Seven|1 (1959)]]
| next = [[NASA Astronaut Group 3|3 (1963)]]
}}
'''NASA Astronaut Group 2''' (nicknamed the "'''Next Nine'''" and the "'''New Nine'''") was the second group of [[astronaut]]s selected by the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA). Their selection was announced on September 17, 1962. The group augmented the [[Mercury Seven]]. President [[John F. Kennedy]] had announced [[Project Apollo]], on May 25, 1961, with the ambitious goal of putting a man on the Moon by the end of the decade, and more astronauts were required to fly the two-man [[Gemini spacecraft]] and three-man [[Apollo spacecraft]] then under development. The Mercury Seven had been selected to accomplish the simpler task of orbital flight, but the new challenges of [[space rendezvous]] and [[lunar landing]] led to the selection of candidates with advanced engineering degrees (for four of the nine) as well as [[test pilot]] experience.

The nine astronauts were [[Neil Armstrong]], [[Frank Borman]], [[Pete Conrad]], [[Jim Lovell]], [[James McDivitt]], [[Elliot See]], [[Thomas P. Stafford|Tom Stafford]], [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]], and [[John Young (astronaut)|John Young]]. The Next Nine were the first astronaut group to include civilian test pilots: See had flown for [[General Electric]], and Armstrong had flown the [[X-15]] [[rocket-powered aircraft]] for NASA. Six of the nine flew to the Moon (Lovell and Young twice), and Armstrong, Conrad, and Young walked on it as well. Seven of the nine were awarded the [[Congressional Space Medal of Honor]]. {{As of|December 2024}}, the last surviving member of the group is Lovell.

== Background ==
[[File:JFK at Rice University.jpg|thumb|"[[We choose to go to the Moon]]": President [[John F. Kennedy]] speaks on the nation's space effort at [[Rice University]] in [[Houston]], on September 12, 1962]]
The launch of the [[Sputnik 1]] satellite by the [[Soviet Union]] on October 4, 1957, started a [[Cold War]] technological and ideological competition with the United States known as the [[Space Race]]. The demonstration of American technological inferiority came as a profound shock to the American public.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|pp=28–29, 37}} In response to the [[Sputnik crisis]], a new civilian agency, the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA), was [[National Aeronautics and Space Act|created]] to oversee an American space program.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|p=82}} The [[Space Task Group]] (STG) at the NASA [[Langley Research Center]] in [[Hampton, Virginia]], created an American crewed spaceflight project called [[Project Mercury]].{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=29–30}}{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|pp=131–132}} The selection of the first astronauts, known as the "Original Seven" or "[[Mercury Seven]]",<ref>{{cite web |title=All 'Original Seven' American astronauts now dead |website=phys.org |url=https://phys.org/news/2016-12-american-astronauts-dead.html |date=December 8, 2016 |access-date= May 5, 2019}}</ref> was announced on April 9, 1959.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/spacesuits/historygallery/mer-apr59.html |title=Mercury – April 1959 |last=Deiss |first=Heather |date=June 5, 2013 |publisher=NASA |access-date=March 28, 2019 |archive-date=January 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117034749/https://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/spacesuits/historygallery/mer-apr59.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

By 1961, although it was yet to launch a person into space, the STG was confident that Project Mercury had overcome its initial setbacks, and that the United States had overtaken the Soviet Union as the most advanced nation in space technology. The STG began considering Mercury Mark II, a two-person successor to the [[Mercury spacecraft]]. This confidence was shattered on April 12, 1961, when the Soviet Union launched [[Vostok 1]], and [[cosmonaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first person to orbit the Earth. In response, President [[John F. Kennedy]] announced a far more ambitious goal on May 25, 1961: to put a man on the Moon by the end of the decade.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=3–4}} The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name: [[Project Apollo]].{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|p=15}} The two-person Mercury II spacecraft concept was formally announced by the STG head, [[Robert R. Gilruth]], on December 7, 1961, and on January 3, 1962, it was officially named [[Project Gemini]].{{sfn|Hacker|Grimwood|2010|pp=1–5}}

On April 18, 1962, NASA formally announced that it was accepting applications for a new group of astronauts who would assist the Mercury astronauts with Project Mercury, and join them in flying Project Gemini missions. It was anticipated that they might go on to command Project Apollo missions. Unlike the selection process for the Mercury Seven, which was carried out in secret, this selection was widely advertised; public announcements and the minimum standards were communicated to aircraft companies, government agencies and the [[Society of Experimental Test Pilots]].{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=5–6}}

== Selection criteria ==
{{quote|Right now, in the beginning, we are picking experienced test pilots, not because they are fighter pilots, but because they have experience in dealing with new machines, unusual situations, being scared to death yet reacting properly. We're not saying for a minute that no one except test pilots has this experience. But this group also has the engineering background that we're looking for to get our programs started.|[[Gus Grissom]], February 1963{{r|grissom196302}}}}

The five minimum selection criteria were that an applicant:{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|p=10}}
* was an experienced [[test pilot]], with 1,500 hours test pilot flying time, who had graduated from a military test pilot school, or had test pilot experience with NASA or the aircraft industry;
* had flown high-performance jet aircraft;
* had earned a degree in engineering or the physical or biological sciences;
* was a [[U.S. citizen]], under 35 years of age, and {{convert|6|ft|0|in}} or less in height; and
* was recommended by his employer.

The criteria differed from those of the Mercury Seven selection in several ways. The [[Gemini spacecraft]] was expected to be roomier than the Mercury one, so the height requirement was relaxed slightly. This made [[Thomas P. Stafford]] eligible. A college degree was now required, but could be in the biological sciences. Civilian test pilots were now eligible, but the requirement for experience in high-performance jets favored those with recent experience, and fighter pilots over those with multi-engine experience such as [[Scott Carpenter]] of the Mercury Seven. The age limit was lowered from 40 to 35 because whereas Mercury was a short-term project, Project Apollo was going to run until the end of the decade at least. The changed selection criteria meant that the selection panel could not simply select another group from the Mercury Seven finalists.<ref name="grissom196302">{{Cite interview |last=Grissom |first=Gus |author-link=Gus Grissom |interviewer=John P. Richmond, Jr. |title=The MATS Flyer Interviews Major Gus Grissom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZ7RZyYIsmIC&pg=PA4 |access-date=June 28, 2020 |work=The MATS Flyer |publisher=Military Air Transport Service, United States Air Force |date=February 1963 |pages=4–7}}</ref>{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|p=10}}{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|pp=118–119}}

At this time, [[Jerrie Cobb]], a female award-winning pilot, was pressing for women to be allowed to become astronauts. In 1961 she was one of thirteen women known as the [[Mercury 13]] who had passed the same medical evaluation tests given to the Mercury Seven astronauts as part of a USAF project that assessed the capability of women for spaceflight.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/flats.html |title=Lovelace's woman in space program |last=Weitekamp |first=Margaret A.| publisher=NASA |date=January 28, 2010 |access-date=May 6, 2019}}</ref> Although women were not prevented from applying to become NASA astronauts in 1962, the requirement for jet test pilot experience effectively excluded them. [[NASA Administrator]] [[James E. Webb]] made this point in a statement to the press in spring 1962, adding: "I do not think we shall be anxious to put a woman or any other person of particular race or creed into orbit just for the purpose of putting them there."<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=NASA Roundup |volume=1 |issue=12 |date=April 4, 1962 |title=More Astronauts to be Picked Soon |url=https://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/roundups/issues/62-04-04.pdf |access-date=May 6, 2019 }}</ref>

==Selection process==
The [[U.S. Navy]] (USN) and [[U.S. Marine Corps]] (USMC) submitted the names of all their applicants who met the selection criteria, but the [[U.S. Air Force]] (USAF) conducted its own internal selection process, and it only submitted the names of eleven candidates.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=10–11}} The Air Force ran them through a brief training course in May 1962 on how to speak and conduct themselves during the NASA selection process. The candidates called it a "charm school".{{sfn|Stafford|Cassutt|2002|p=36}} [[General (United States)|General]] [[Curtis LeMay]] told them:

{{quote|There are a lot of people who'll say you're deserting the Air Force if you're accepted into NASA. Well, I'm the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force|Chief of the Air Force]], and I want you to know I want you in this program. I want you to succeed in it, and that's your Air Force mission. I can't think of anything more important.{{sfn|Borman|Serling|1988|pp=87–88}} }}

In all, 253 applications were received by the June 1, 1962, deadline.{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|pp=118–119}} [[Neil Armstrong]] submitted his application a week after the deadline, but [[Walter C. Williams]], the associate director of the Space Task Group, wanted Armstrong for the space program, so he had Richard Day, who acted as secretary of the selection panel, add it to the pile of applications when it arrived. [[Paul Bikle]], the director of the NASA's [[Armstrong Flight Research Center|Flight Research Center]], and therefore Armstrong's boss, declined to recommend Armstrong for astronaut selection because he had misgivings about his performance.{{sfn|Hansen|2012|pp=195–197}}

[[File:Astronaut Groups 1 and 2 - S63-01419.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|left|The first two groups of astronauts selected by NASA. The Mercury Seven are seated at the front, with the Next Nine standing behind them.]]

The three-person selection panel consisted of Mercury Seven astronauts [[Alan Shepard]] and [[Deke Slayton]], and NASA test pilot [[Warren J. North]], although Williams sat in on some sessions.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|p=7}} They reduced the candidates to 32 finalists,{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=32–33}} from whom they hoped to select between five and ten new astronauts. Nine of the USAF's eleven candidates were chosen as finalists, and one of those rejected, [[Joe Engle]], was selected with [[NASA Astronaut Group 5]] in 1966.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=10–11}} Of the rest, thirteen were from the Navy, four were Marines, and six were civilians.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=32–33}} Four had been finalists in the Mercury Seven selection: [[Pete Conrad]], [[Jim Lovell]], [[John R. C. Mitchell|John Mitchell]] and [[Robert Solliday]].{{sfn|Burgess|2013|p=343}} Lovell had not been selected for the Mercury Seven due to a high [[bilirubin]] blood count.{{sfn|Kluger|Lovell|1995|pp=180–183}}

The finalists were sent to [[Brooks Air Force Base]] in [[San Antonio]] for medical examinations. The tests there were much the same as those employed to select the Mercury Seven.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=37–40}} One candidate was found to be {{convert|2|in|cm|0}} too tall.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|p=43}} Another four were eliminated on the basis of ear, nose and throat examinations.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=47–48}} The remaining 27 then went to [[Ellington Air Force Base]] near Houston, where the [[Manned Spacecraft Center]] (MSC) was being established. They were individually interviewed by the selection panel.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=50–52}}

Nine candidates  were selected, and their names forwarded to Gilruth for approval. Slayton informed each of them by phone on September 14.{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|p=120}} The nine were Neil Armstrong, [[Frank Borman]], Pete Conrad, Jim Lovell, [[James McDivitt]], [[Elliot See]], Tom Stafford, [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]], and [[John Young (astronaut)|John Young]].{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=64–67}} They arrived in Houston on September 15. To avoid tipping off the media, all checked into the [[Rice Hotel]] in Houston under the name of Max Peck, its general manager.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=62–63}} On September 17, the media crowded into the 1800-seat Cullen Auditorium at the [[University of Houston]] for the official announcement, but it was a more low-key event than the unveiling of the Mercury Seven three years before.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=64–66}}

As with those who had been passed over in the Mercury Seven selection, most of the rejected finalists went on to have distinguished careers. Three achieved [[flag rank]]: [[William E. Ramsey]] became a [[vice admiral (United States)|vice admiral]] in the Navy, [[William H. Fitch]] a [[lieutenant general (United States)|lieutenant general]] in the Marine Corps and [[Kenneth Weir]], a [[major general (United States)|major general]] in the Marine Corps.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|p=343}} Four would become NASA astronauts in later selections: [[Alan Bean]], [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] and [[Richard F. Gordon Jr.|Richard Gordon]] in 1963, and [[Jack Swigert]] in 1966.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|p=67}} [[Francis G. Neubeck]] was selected as an astronaut for the [[Manned Orbiting Laboratory]] program, but never flew in space.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=117–120}}

==Demographics==
Like the Mercury Seven, all of the Next Nine were male and white, and all were married, with an average of two children.<ref name="Time" /> Unlike the Mercury Seven, not all were [[Protestant]]s; McDivitt was the first [[Roman Catholic]] chosen as an astronaut.{{sfn|French|Burgess|2007|p=26}}<ref name="The Catholic Advocate">{{cite news |newspaper=The Advocate |volume=18 |issue=11 |date=March 13, 1969 |title=Profile of an Astronaut: The Jim McDivitt A Pastor Knows |first=Clifford |last=Stevens |url=https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=ca19690313-01.2.64 |access-date=August 23, 2021 }}</ref> Conrad, Lovell and Young were from the Navy; Borman, McDivitt, Stafford and White from the Air Force; and Armstrong and See were civilians,{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=64–67}} although both had served in the Navy.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=145–147}}{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=154–155}}  All were test pilots, and Borman and McDivitt were also early graduates of the USAF [[Aerospace Research Pilot School]] (ARPS).{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|p=120}}

Their average age at the time of selection was 33 years and one month, compared to 34 years and ten months for the Mercury Seven when they were selected in April 1959. They had an average of 2,800 flying hours each, 1,900 of them in jets. This was 700 fewer flying hours than the Mercury Seven, but 200 more hours in jets. Their average weight was slightly higher – {{convert|161.5|lb}} compared to {{convert|159|lb}}.<ref name="Time">{{cite magazine |magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |title=Space: Nine More Astronauts |date=September 28, 1962 |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,940092,00.html |access-date=May 6, 2019 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="bios">{{cite news |newspaper=NASA Roundup |volume=1 |issue=24 |date=September 19, 1962 |pages=1, 4–5 |title= MSC Names Nine New Pilot Trainees |url=https://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/roundups/issues/62-09-19.pdf |access-date=May 7, 2019 }}</ref> Their mean IQ was 132 on the [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]].{{sfn|Collins|2001|p=42}} All had earned Bachelor of Science degrees. Three had Master of Science degrees in [[aeronautical engineering]]: Borman from the [[California Institute of Technology]], See from the [[University of California at Los Angeles]], and White from [[University of Michigan]].{{sfn|Burgess|2013|p=54}}

== Group members ==
{{sticky header}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header"
|+ Next Nine astronauts
|-
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Image
! scope="col" | Name
! scope="col" | Born
! scope="col" | Died
! scope="col" style="min-width: 150px;" | Career
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| [[File:Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong (1964).jpg|120px|alt=Portrait]]
|data-sort-value=Armstrong|[[Neil Armstrong|Neil A. Armstrong]]
|data-sort-value={{dts|August 5, 1930}}|[[Wapakoneta, Ohio]],<br />August 5, 1930 
| {{dts|August 25, 2012}}|[[Fairfield, Ohio]],<br />August 25, 2012
|Armstrong graduated from [[Purdue University]] with a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering in 1955. He flew 78 combat missions in the [[Korean War]] as a [[naval aviator]], and then became a test pilot for the [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] (the forerunner of NASA) at the  [[Armstrong Flight Research Center|High-Speed Flight Station]] at [[Edwards Air Force Base]], where he flew the [[X-15]] [[rocket-powered aircraft]]. He made his first spaceflight as commander of [[Gemini 8]] in March 1966, becoming NASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilot [[David Scott]], he performed the first [[Spacecraft docking and berthing mechanisms|docking]] of two [[spacecraft]], but the mission was aborted after Armstrong was compelled to use some of his re-entry control fuel to address a dangerous roll caused by a stuck [[spacecraft propulsion|thruster]]. During training for his second and last spaceflight, as commander of [[Apollo 11]], he ejected from the [[Lunar Landing Research Vehicle]] moments before a crash. In July 1969, he and his [[lunar module pilot]], [[Buzz Aldrin]], became the first people to [[Moon landing|land on the Moon]]. Armstrong was the first person to step onto its surface, and he spent two and a half hours outside the spacecraft. He earned a Master of Science degree in aerospace engineering from the [[University of Southern California]] in 1970. He resigned from NASA in 1971, and taught aerospace engineering at the [[University of Cincinnati]] until 1979. He served on the [[Apollo 13]] accident investigation, and on the [[Rogers Commission Report|Rogers Commission]], which investigated the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster]].
|<ref name="bios"/>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=145–147}}
|-
| [[File:Frank Borman NASA Portrait (S64-31455).jpg|120px|alt=Portrait]]
|data-sort-value=Borman| [[Frank Borman|Frank F. Borman II]]
|data-sort-value={{dts|March 14, 1928}}|[[Gary, Indiana]],<br />March 14, 1928 
| {{dts|November 7, 2023}}|[[Billings, Montana]],<br />November 7, 2023
|Borman received a Bachelor of Science degree from the [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point, New York|West Point]], in 1950. He joined the USAF and became a [[fighter pilot]]. He earned a Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from the California Institute of Technology in 1957. He was an assistant professor of [[thermodynamics]] and [[fluid mechanics]] at West Point from 1957 to 1960. He graduated from the [[U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School|USAF Experimental Test Pilot School]] with Class 60-C, and from the ARPS with Class I. He was initially selected for [[Gemini 5]] with Mercury astronaut [[Gus Grissom]], but Grissom was moved to Gemini 3, with Young as his pilot. Borman commanded the [[Gemini 7]] mission in December 1965. On this mission he and Lovell spent two weeks in space, during which they performed the first [[space rendezvous]] with [[Gemini 6A]]. After the January 1967 [[Apollo 1]] fire in which astronauts Grissom, White, and [[Roger Chaffee]] died, he was the astronaut representative on the accident investigation board. In December 1968, he commanded [[Apollo 8]], the first crewed circumlunar mission. He retired from NASA and the USAF in 1970 and joined [[Eastern Airlines]], eventually becoming its [[Chairman of the Board]] in December 1976.
|<ref name="bios"/>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=147–149}}{{sfn|Borman|Serling|1988|p=102}}{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|pp=136–138}}<ref>{{cite news |title=NASA astronaut Frank Borman who commanded Apollo 8 to the moon dies |publisher=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/11/09/953342565/nasa-apollo-gemini-astronaut-frank-borman-dies |access-date=November 9, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Pete Conrad in 1964.jpg|120px|alt=Portrait]]
|data-sort-value=Conrad|[[Pete Conrad|Charles (Pete) Conrad Jr.]]
|data-sort-value={{dts|June 2, 1930}}|[[Philadelphia]], Pennsylvania,<br />June 2, 1930  
| {{dts|July 8, 1999}}|[[Ojai, California]],<br />July 8, 1999
|Conrad graduated from [[Princeton University]] in 1953 with a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering. He joined the Navy and became a naval aviator. In 1958, he graduated from the [[United States Naval Test Pilot School]] at [[Naval Air Station Patuxent River]], [[Patuxent, Maryland]] as part of Class 20. He set an eight-day space endurance record along with his command pilot, Mercury astronaut [[Gordon Cooper]], on his first spaceflight, the [[Gemini 5]] mission in August 1965. The following year he commanded the [[Gemini 11]] mission, on which he and pilot Dick Gordon set an altitude record of {{convert|850|mi}}. He became the third person to walk on the Moon as commander of [[Apollo 12]] in 1969 after landing the lunar module ''Intrepid'' in the [[Ocean of Storms]]. He and pilot Alan Bean made two moonwalks, recovering components from the [[Surveyor 3]] probe, which had landed there two years before. In 1973 he commanded [[Skylab 2]], the first crewed Skylab mission, and spent 28 more days in space. On this mission, he and his crewmates repaired significant launch damage to the [[Skylab]] [[space station]]. He retired from NASA and the Navy in 1973.
|<ref name="bios"/>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=147–149}}{{sfn|Conrad|Klausner|2005|pp=113–118}}
|-
| [[File:Jim Lovell official 1964 portrait.jpg|120px|alt=Portrait]]
|data-sort-value=Lovell|[[Jim Lovell|James A. Lovell Jr.]]
|data-sort-value={{dts|March 25, 1928}}|[[Cleveland]], Ohio,<br />March 25, 1928  
| {{dts|December 31, 2100|format=hide}} <!-- Hidden sort key for living astronaut -->
|Lovell graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree from the [[United States Naval Academy]] at [[Annapolis, Maryland]], with the Class of 1952, and became a naval aviator. In 1958, he graduated from the [[United States Naval Test Pilot School]] with Class 20. He flew as the pilot of the [[Gemini 7]] mission in December 1965 during which he and Borman spent two weeks in space and conducted the  first space rendezvous with [[Gemini 6A]]. In November 1966 he commanded the [[Gemini 12]] mission with [[Buzz Aldrin]] as his pilot. He was the [[command module pilot]] on the [[Apollo 8]] mission in December 1968, during which he, Borman and [[Bill Anders]] conducted the first crewed circumlunar mission. In April 1970, he became the first person to fly in space four times, and the first to travel to the Moon twice, when he commanded the ill-fated [[Apollo 13]] mission. He resigned from NASA and the Navy on March 1, 1973.
|<ref name="bios"/>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=150–152}}
|-
| [[File:James A. McDivitt portrait.jpg|120px|alt=Portrait]]
|data-sort-value=McDivett| [[James McDivitt|James A. McDivitt]]
|data-sort-value={{dts|June 10, 1929}}|Chicago, Illinois,<br />June 10, 1929  
| {{dts|October 13, 2022|}}|[[Tucson, Arizona]],<br />October 13, 2022
|McDivitt joined the USAF in 1951 and flew 145 combat missions in the Korean War. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from the University of Michigan, graduating first in the class in 1959. That year he also graduated from the [[U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School|USAF Experimental Test Pilot School]] with Class 59-C, and he graduated from the ARPS with Class I in 1960. He commanded the [[Gemini 4]] mission, during which White performed the first U.S. [[extravehicular activity|spacewalk]]. He was the first astronaut to command his first space mission. In March 1969, he commanded the [[Apollo 9]] flight, which was the first crewed flight test of the Lunar Module and the complete set of Apollo flight hardware. He later became Manager of Lunar Landing Operations and was the Apollo Spacecraft Program Manager from 1969 to 1972. In February 1972, he was promoted to the rank of [[brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]], becoming the first astronaut to reach that rank. He retired from NASA and the USAF later that year to pursue a career in the aviation industry, and became a senior vice president at [[Rockwell International]].
|<ref name="bios"/>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=152–153}}{{sfn|French|Burgess|2007|p=26}}<ref name="The Catholic Advocate" />
|-
|[[File:Elliot See - S64-29933.jpg|120px|alt=Portrait]]
|data-sort-value=See|[[Elliot See|Elliot M. See, Jr.]]
|data-sort-value={{dts|July 23, 1927}}|[[Dallas]], Texas,<br />July 23, 1927 
|{{dts|February 28, 1966}}|[[St. Louis]], [[Missouri]],<br />February 28, 1966
|See graduated from the [[United States Merchant Marine Academy]] in 1949 with a Bachelor of Science degree in [[marine engineering]] and a commission in the [[United States Naval Reserve]]. That year he joined [[General Electric]]. He served on active duty with the U.S. Navy from 1953 to 1956, then rejoined General Electric, becoming a test pilot. He earned a Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from the University of California in Los Angeles in 1962. See was chosen as the command pilot of [[Gemini 9]], but died in a [[1966 NASA T-38 crash|T-38 plane crash]] less than four months before launch.
|<ref name="bios"/>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=154–155}}
|-
|[[File:Tom Stafford in 1964.jpg|120px|alt=Portrait]]
|data=sort-value=Stafford|[[Thomas P. Stafford]]
|data-sort-value={{dts|September 17, 1930}}|[[Weatherford, Oklahoma]],<br />September 17, 1930 
| {{dts|March 18, 2024}}|[[Satellite Beach, Florida]],<br />March 18, 2024
|Stafford graduated with a Bachelor of Science  degree from the [[United States Naval Academy]] at [[Annapolis, Maryland]] with the Class of 1952 and joined the USAF.  He graduated from the [[U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School|USAF Experimental Test Pilot School]] with Class 58-C. He made his first spaceflight in December 1965 as the pilot of [[Gemini 6A]], which made the first space rendezvous, with Gemini 7. In June of the following year he commanded [[Gemini 9A]]. In 1969, Stafford was the commander of [[Apollo 10]], the second crewed mission to orbit the Moon and the first to fly a Lunar Module in lunar orbit, descending to an altitude of {{convert|9|mi}} above its surface. On the return to Earth, the Apollo 10 spacecraft achieved a speed of {{convert|24791|mph}}, setting the record for the fastest speed achieved by human beings. In 1975, Stafford was the commander of the [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] flight, the first joint U.S.-Soviet space mission. He was a brigadier general at the time of the mission, becoming the first general officer to fly in space, as well as the first member of his Naval Academy class to pin on the first, second, and third stars of a general officer. He retired from the USAF in 1979.
|<ref name="bios"/><ref name="Apollo 10">{{cite web |publisher=BBC |title=How fast could humans travel safely through space? |url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20150809-how-fast-could-humans-travel-safely-through-space |first=Adam |last=Hadhazy |date=August 10, 2015 |access-date= May 7, 2019}}</ref>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=155–156}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Thomas P. Stafford :: Notable Graduates :: USNA |publisher=United States Naval Academy |url=https://www.usna.edu/Notables/astronauts/1952stafford.php |access-date=August 23, 2021}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Ed White in 1964.jpg|120px|alt=Portrait]]
|data-sort-value=White|[[Ed White (astronaut)|Edward H. White II]]
|data-sort-value= {{dts|November 14, 1930}}|[[San Antonio]], Texas,<br />November 14, 1930  
| {{dts|January 27, 1967}}|[[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral, Florida]],<br />January 27, 1967 
|White received a Bachelor of Science degree from the [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point, New York|West Point]], graduating with the Class of 1952. He joined the USAF and became a [[fighter pilot]]. He earned a Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from the University of Michigan in 1959.  He graduated from the [[U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School|USAF Experimental Test Pilot School]] with Class 59-C. In June 1965, he flew on [[Gemini 4]] as its pilot, during which he conducted the first American [[spacewalk]]. He was selected as the Senior Pilot of [[Apollo 1]], the inaugural flight of the Apollo spacecraft. White was killed in the fire on the launch pad test in January 1967, a month before the scheduled liftoff.
|<ref name="bios"/>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=156–158}}
|-
|[[File:John Young in 1962.jpg|120px|alt=Portrait]]
|data-sort-value=Young|[[John Young (astronaut)|John W. Young]]
|data-sort-value={{dts|September 24, 1930}}|San Francisco, California,<br />September 24, 1930 
|{{dts|January 5, 2018}}|[[Houston]], [[Texas]],<br />January 5, 2018
|Young graduated from [[Georgia Institute of Technology]] with a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering in 1952 and joined the Navy. He set world time-to-climb records for {{convert|3000|m}} and {{convert|25000|m}}. His first space mission was as pilot of [[Gemini 3]], the first crewed Gemini mission,  in March 1965. He went on to command [[Gemini 10]] in July 1966. In May 1969, he was Command Module pilot of [[Apollo 10]], the "dress rehearsal" for the [[Apollo 11]] Moon landing. On the way back to Earth, the Apollo 10 crew reached a speed of {{convert|24791|mph}}, the highest speed attained by a crewed vehicle. He returned to the Moon in April 1972 as commander of [[Apollo 16]], the fifth crewed lunar landing, becoming the ninth person to walk on the Moon and the second to fly to it twice. He served as [[Chief of the Astronaut Office]] from 1974 to 1987. In April 1981, he commanded the [[STS-1]] mission, the maiden flight of the {{OV|102}}. When he commanded [[STS-9]], the first [[Spacelab]] mission, in November 1983, he became the first person to travel into space six times.
|<ref name="bios"/><ref name="Apollo 10"/>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=158–159}}
|}

== Assimilation ==
The new astronauts became known as the Next Nine,{{sfn|Wolfe|1979|pp=392–393}} or the New Nine.{{sfn|Koppel|2013|p=x}} They moved to the Houston area in October 1962. Most of them bought lots and built houses in [[Nassau Bay, Texas|Nassau Bay]], a new development to the east of the MSC.{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|p=123}} Conrad and Lovell built houses in [[Clear Lake City (Greater Houston)|Timber Cove]], south of the MSC.{{sfn|Koppel|2013|pp=103–104}} Developers in Timber Cove and Nassau Bay offered astronauts mortgages with small down payments and low interest rates.{{sfn|Wolfe|1979|p=396}} The MSC complex was not yet complete, so NASA temporarily leased office space in Houston.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|p=163}} Slayton's wife Marge and Borman's wife Susan organized an Astronauts' Wives Club along the lines of the Officers' Wives Clubs  that were a feature of military bases. As Slayton was in charge of astronaut activities, Marge was considered to be the equivalent of the [[commanding officer]]'s wife.{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|p=123}}{{sfn|Wolfe|1979|pp=396–398}} The nine were honored guests at Houston society parties, such as those thrown by socialite [[Joanne Herring]], and their wives received $1,000 [[Neiman Marcus]] gift vouchers ({{Inflation|US|1000|1962|fmt=eq|r=-3}}) from an anonymous source.{{sfn|Koppel|2013|pp=110–111}}

A lawyer, Henry Batten, agreed to negotiate a deal with [[Field Enterprises]] for their personal stories, along the lines of the ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine deal enjoyed by the Mercury Seven, for no fee. As with the ''Life'' deal, there was some disquiet about the propriety of astronauts cashing in on government-created fame, but Mercury Seven astronaut [[John Glenn]] intervened, and personally raised the matter with Kennedy, who approved the deal.{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|p=123}} The deals with Field and [[Time-Life]] (which owned ''Life'' magazine) earned each of the Next Nine astronauts $16,250 ({{Inflation|US|16250|1962|fmt=eq|r=-3}}) per annum over the next four years, and provided them with $100,000 [[life insurance]] policies ({{Inflation|US|100000|1962|fmt=eq|r=-3}}). Due to the dangerous nature of an astronaut's job, insurance companies would have charged them unaffordably high premiums.{{sfn|Burgess|2013|p=164}}

== Training ==
[[File:Next Nine Desert Survival Training.jpg|thumb|left|The Next Nine during desert survival training in Nevada in August 1963. Front row, left to right: Borman, Lovell, Young, Conrad, McDivitt, White. Back row, left to right: Raymond Zedehar, Stafford, Slayton, Armstrong and See]]
Astronaut training was supervised by Raymond Zedehar, who reported to Warren North, the Director of Flight Crew Operations at the MSC. Initially, each of the astronauts was given four months' of classroom instruction on subjects such as [[spacecraft propulsion]], [[orbital mechanics]], [[astronomy]], [[computing]], and [[space medicine]]. Classes were for six hours a day, two days a week. There was also familiarization with the Gemini spacecraft, [[LGM-25C Titan II|Titan II]] and [[SM-65 Atlas|Atlas]] boosters, and the [[Agena target vehicle]]. After classroom training was completed, there was a series of seminars on space science. The astronaut's lack of scientific training was recognized, but it was hoped that this would bring their knowledge up to a level where they could communicate with scientists. The first was delivered by [[Homer E. Newell Jr.]], NASA's Director of Space Sciences. Subsequent seminars covered topics such as the USAF's X-15 and [[X-20 Dyna-Soar]] programs, and the development of [[nuclear rocket engines]]. Geologist [[Eugene Shoemaker]] developed a training plan to teach the astronauts the fundamentals of selenology, the [[geology of the Moon]]. In January 1963 they went to [[Flagstaff, Arizona]], where they studied the [[Meteor Crater]] and [[lava]] flows, and observed the Moon through the telescope at the [[Lowell Observatory]].<ref name="Training of Astronaut candidates">{{cite press release |title=Training of Astronaut candidates |date=January 26, 1963 |id=63-10 |publisher=NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83115main_1963.pdf |access-date=September 17, 2021}}</ref>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=165–169}}

In Zero-G training at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]] in Ohio on May 20, 1963, each the Next Nine astronauts flew two flights in a [[reduced-gravity aircraft]], a modified [[KC-135 Stratotanker]] aircraft. Each flight flew 20 [[parabola]]s that gave them between 20 and 30 seconds of weightlessness. Jungle survival training was conducted for all sixteen Mercury Seven and Next Nine astronauts at the  USAF Tropic Survival School at [[Albrook Air Force Station]] in Panama in June. This was the first time that the two groups had trained together. This was followed in August by desert survival training at Stead Air Force Base in [[Nevada]], and field exercises at [[Carson Sink]]. Each astronaut had to survive on {{convert|4|L|USpt|-1|sp=us|spell=on}} of water and the food in their spacecraft survival packs. In September, all sixteen were given instruction in parachute landings on land and water, but only the Next Nine attended the second phase of the program, water survival training on the [[Dilbert Dunker]] at the USN school at the [[Naval Air Station Pensacola]] in Florida and on [[Galveston Bay]].{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=170–174}}

Following the precedent set by the Mercury Seven, each of the Next Nine was assigned a special area in which to develop expertise that could be shared with the others, and to provide astronaut input to designers and engineers.{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|p=123}} Armstrong was responsible for trainers and simulators; Borman for boosters, with special responsibility for abort systems; Conrad for cockpit layout, pilot controls and systems integration; Lovell for recovery systems, including the parachutes, [[paraglider]] and [[lunar module]]; McDivitt for guidance and navigation systems; See for electrical systems and coordination of mission planning; Stafford for communications systems, mission control and the ground support network; White for flight control systems, and Young for environmental control systems, survival gear, personal equipment and [[space suit]]s.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Training of Astronaut candidates |date=January 26, 1963 |id=63-13 |publisher=NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83115main_1963.pdf |access-date=September 17, 2021}}</ref>{{sfn|Burgess|2013|pp=166–167}}

== Legacy ==
[[File:President Reagan Presents Medals - GPN-2000-001679.jpg|thumb|right|President [[Ronald Reagan]] presents John Young with the Congressional Space Medal of Honor as well as NASA's Distinguished Service Medal.]]
Collins wrote that in his opinion "this group of nine was the best NASA ever picked, better than the seven that preceded it, or the fourteen, five, nineteen, eleven and seven that followed."{{sfn|Collins|2001|p=32}} Slayton felt so too, describing them as "probably the best all-round group ever put together."{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|p=119}} Looking over the tentative schedule of Apollo missions, Slayton calculated that up to 14 three-person crews might be required, but the 16 astronauts on hand could fill just five. Though he considered the schedule to be optimistic, he did not want a shortage of astronauts to be the reason the schedule could not be met, and he therefore proposed another round of recruiting.{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|p=132}} On June 5, 1963, NASA announced that it was seeking another ten to fifteen new astronauts.{{sfn|Morse|Bays|1973|p=61}}

The Next Nine went on to illustrious careers as astronauts. Apart from See and White, who were killed in a T-38 crash and in the Apollo fire, respectively, all went on to command Gemini and Apollo missions. Six of the nine flew to the Moon (Lovell and Young twice), and Armstrong, Conrad and Young walked on it as well.<ref>{{cite web |title=Apollo Astronauts  |publisher= National Air and Space Museum |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/astronauts/ |access-date= May 8, 2019}}</ref> Seven of the nine received the [[Congressional Space Medal of Honor]] for their service, valor, and sacrifice:<ref name="nasa_list">{{cite web | url=https://history.nasa.gov/spacemedal.htm | title=Congressional Space Medal of Honor | publisher=NASA | date=April 28, 2006 | access-date=May 5, 2019 }}</ref>
* Armstrong, for commanding [[Apollo 11]], the first lunar landing;<ref name="Carter">{{cite web |title=Kennedy Space Center, Florida Remarks at the Congressional Space Medal of Honor Awards Ceremony  |publisher= The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/kennedy-space-center-florida-remarks-the-congressional-space-medal-honor-awards-ceremony |access-date= May 8, 2019}}</ref>
* Borman, for commanding [[Apollo 8]], the first crewed mission to the Moon;<ref name="Carter" />
* Conrad, for commanding [[Skylab 2]], and saving the damaged station;<ref>{{cite web   |publisher=NASA   |title=NASA Honors Apollo 12 Commander Charles Conrad   |url=https://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/features/conrad_ambassador_of_exploration.html   |access-date=May 8, 2019   |archive-date=October 22, 2016   |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022084435/http://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/features/conrad_ambassador_of_exploration.html   |url-status=dead   }}</ref>
* Lovell, for commanding the ill-fated [[Apollo 13]];<ref>{{cite web |title=Remarks on Presenting the Congressional Space Medal of Honor to James A. Lovell, Jr., and an Exchange With Reporters  |publisher= The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-presenting-the-congressional-space-medal-honor-james-lovell-jr-and-exchange-with |access-date= May 8, 2019}}</ref>
* Stafford, for commanding the international Cold War [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]];<ref>{{cite web|title=Moon Rock to be Awarded to Apollo-Soyuz Astronaut Thomas Stafford|url=http://www.space.com/1243-moon-rock-awarded-apollo-soyuz-astronaut-thomas-stafford.html|website=Space.com |first=Robert Z. |last= Pearlman |date=June 27, 2005 |access-date=May 7, 2017}}</ref>
* White, posthumously, killed in the [[Apollo 1]] fire;<ref name="Clinton">{{cite web|title=William J. Clinton: Remarks on Presenting the Congressional Space Medal of Honor Posthumously to Roger B. Chaffee and Edward H. White II |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-presenting-the-congressional-space-medal-honor-posthumously-roger-b-chaffee-and |publisher=The American Presidency Project |access-date=May 7, 2019}}</ref> and
* Young, for commanding the first Space Shuttle mission, [[STS-1]], in the {{OV|102|full=no}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Remarks at a White House Luncheon Honoring the Astronauts of the Space Shuttle Columbia  |publisher= The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-white-house-luncheon-honoring-the-astronauts-the-space-shuttle-columbia |access-date= May 8, 2019}}</ref>

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== General references ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Atkinson |first1=Joseph D. |last2=Shafritz |first2=Jay M. |name-list-style=amp |title=The Real Stuff: A History of NASA's Astronaut Recruitment Program |location=New York |publisher=Praeger |series=Praeger special studies |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-03-005187-6  |oclc=12052375  }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borman |first1=Frank |author-link1=Frank Borman |last2=Serling |first2=Robert J. |author-link2=Robert J. Serling |name-list-style=amp |title=Countdown: An Autobiography |location=New York |publisher=Silver Arrow |date=1988 |isbn=0-688-07929-6 |oclc=17983615  |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/countdownautobio0000borm }}
* {{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S. Jr. |name-list-style=amp |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4205/cover.html |series=NASA History Series |date=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |lccn=79001042 |id=SP-4205 }}
* {{cite book |last=Burgess |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Burgess (author) |title=Selecting the Mercury Seven: The Search for America's First Astronauts |location=New York; London |publisher=Springer |year=2011 |series=Springer-Praxis books in space exploration |isbn=978-1-4419-8405-0 |oclc=747105631  }}
* {{cite book |last=Burgess |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Burgess (author) |title=Moon Bound: Choosing and Preparing NASA's Lunar Astronauts |location=New York; London |publisher=Springer |year=2013 |series=Springer-Praxis books in space exploration |isbn=978-1-4614-3854-0|oclc=905162781  }}
* {{cite book   |last = Collins |first = Michael |author-link=Michael Collins (astronaut) |year = 2001 |orig-year=1974| title = Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys|title-link=Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys |location=New York |publisher = Cooper Square Press |isbn = 978-0-8154-1028-7 |oclc=45755963 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Conrad |first1=Nancy |last2=Klausner |first2=Howard |name-list-style=amp |title=Rocketman: Astronaut Pete Conrad's Incredible Ride to the Moon and Beyond |date=May 2005 |location=New York |publisher=New American Library |isbn=0-451-21509-5 |oclc=57311427  |url=https://archive.org/details/rocketmanastrona00conr }}
* {{cite book |last1=French |first1=Francis |author-link1=Francis French (author) |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |name-list-style=amp|author-link2=Colin Burgess (author) |title=In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility |title-link=In the Shadow of the Moon (book) |year=2007 |location=Lincoln, Nebraska |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1128-5 |oclc=804741762 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hacker|first1=Barton C. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |name-list-style=amp |title=On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4203.pdf |series=NASA History Series |year=2010 |orig-year=1977 |publisher=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-16-067157-9 |id=NASA SP-4203 |oclc=945144787 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hansen |first=James R. |title=First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4767-2781-3 |oclc=1029741947 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kluger |first1=Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey Kluger |first2=Jim |last2=Lovell |author-link2=Jim Lovell |name-list-style=amp |title=Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13 |publisher=Pocket Books |date=July 1995 |location=New York |isbn=0-671-53464-5 |oclc=1053909345  |url=https://archive.org/details/apollo1300love }}
* {{cite book |last=Koppel |first=Lily |author-link=Lily Koppel |title=The Astronaut Wives Club |title-link=The Astronaut Wives Club (book) |year=2013 |publisher=Grand Central Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4555-0325-4 |oclc=816563627  }}
* {{cite web |last1=Morse |first1=Mary Louise |last2=Bays |first2=Jean Kernahan |name-list-style=amp |title=The Apollo Spacecraft – A Chronology, Volume II: November 8, 1962 – September 30, 1964 |series=The NASA Historical Series |year=1973 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |id=NASA SP-4009 |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4009vol2.pdf }}
* {{cite book |last1=Slayton |first1=Donald K. "Deke" |author-link1=Deke Slayton |last2=Cassutt |name-list-style=amp |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Cassutt |title=Deke! U.S. Manned Space: From Mercury to the Shuttle |year=1994 |publisher=Forge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-312-85503-1 |oclc=937566894  |url=https://archive.org/details/dekeusmannedspac00slay }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Stafford |first1 = Thomas P. |author-link = Thomas P. Stafford |last2 = Cassutt |first2 = Michael |author2-link = Michael Cassutt |name-list-style=amp |title = We Have Capture |publisher = Smithsonian Institution Press |date = 2002 |location = Washington, D.C. |isbn = 978-1-58834-070-2 |oclc = 829407543 |url = https://archive.org/details/wehavecapturetom00staf }}
* {{cite book |last1=Swenson |first1=Loyd S. Jr. |first2=James M. |last2=Grimwood |first3=Charles C. |last3=Alexander |name-list-style=amp |title=This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19990026158.pdf  |series=The NASA History Series |year=1966 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location=Washington, DC |oclc=569889 |id=NASA SP-4201 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wolfe |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Wolfe |title=The Right Stuff |title-link=The Right Stuff (book) |location=New York |year=1979 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-553-27556-8 |oclc=849889526  }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons inline}}

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