View source for Muskogean languages

{{Short description|Language family of Southeast US}}
{{Redirect|Muskogean|the indigenous people|Muscogee}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Muskogean
| region        = Southeastern [[North America]]
| familycolor   = American
| family        = One of the world's primary [[language family|language families]]
| glotto        = musk1252
| glottorefname = Muskogean
| child1        = [[Choctaw language|Choctaw]]–[[Chickasaw language|Chickasaw]]
| child2        = [[Alabama language|Alabama]]–[[Koasati language|Koasati]]
| child3        = [[Mikasuki language|Hitchiti–Mikasuki]]
| child4        = [[Muscogee language|Muscogee]]
| child5        = [[Apalachee language|Apalachee]]
| child6        = [[Houma language|Houma]]
| map           = Muskogean map labeled.svg
| mapcaption    = Pre-contact distribution of Muskogean languages
| ancestor      = 
| glottoname    = 
| notes         = 
}}

'''Muskogean''' ({{IPAc-en|m|@|'|s|k|ou|g|i|@n}} {{respell|mə|SKOH|ghee|ən}}; also '''Muskhogean''') is a [[language family]] spoken in the [[Southeastern United States]]. Members of the family are [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Indigenous Languages of the Americas]]. Typologically, Muskogean languages are highly [[Synthetic language|synthetic]] and [[agglutinative]]. One documented language, [[Apalachee language|Apalachee]], is no longer spoken, and the remaining languages are critically endangered.

==Genetic relationships==

===Family division===
The Muskogean family consists of [[Alabama language|Alabama]], [[Chickasaw language|Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw language|Choctaw]], [[Creek language|Muscogee]] (or Creek), [[Koasati language|Koasati]], [[Apalachee language|Apalachee]], and [[Mikasuki language|Hitchiti-Mikasuki]].<ref>Jack B. Martin. "Muskogean" ''The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America'' Vol. 13.2 (2023) p. 1577–1600</ref> [[Hitchiti]] is generally considered a dialect of Mikasuki.<ref>Hardy 2005, p. 69</ref> "Seminole" is sometimes used for a dialect of Muscogee spoken in Oklahoma.<ref>(Hardy 2005: 70; see also Mithun 2005: 462, Martin 2023).</ref>

The major subdivisions of the family have long been controversial, but the following lower-level groups are universally accepted: Choctaw–Chickasaw, Alabama–Koasati, Hitchiti–Mikasuki, and Muscogee.<ref>Broadwell 1992, p. 1</ref><ref>Hardy 2005, p. 70</ref><ref>Martin & Munro 2005, p. 299</ref> Apalachee is [[Language death|no longer spoken]]; its precise relationship to the other languages is uncertain, but [[Mary Haas]] and [[Pamela Munro]] both classify it with the Alabama–Koasati group.<ref>Broadwell 1992, pp. 3; 41–42, footnote 2</ref>

====Haas's classification====
For connections among these groupings, one influential classification is that of Mary Haas and Karen Booker, in which "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw) is seen as one major branch, and "Eastern Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati, Hitchiti-Mikasuki, and Muscogee) as another. Within Eastern Muskogean, Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki are generally thought to be more closely related to each other than to Muscogee.<ref name="H2005classification">Hardy 2005, pp. 70-71</ref> That classification is reflected in the list below:<ref>Mithun 2005, p. 461</ref><ref>Campbell 1997, p. 147</ref><ref>Martin, Jack B. 2004. ''Languages. Handbook of North American Indians''. "The Southeast". Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian.</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Muskogean'''
** Western Muskogean
*** '''[[Chickasaw language|Chickasaw]]'''
*** '''[[Choctaw language|Choctaw]]''' (also called Chahta, Chacato)
** Eastern Muskogean
*** '''[[Creek language|Muscogee]]''' (also called Muskogee, Maskoke, Mvskoke, Seminole, and Creek)
*** '''[[Mikasuki language|Hitchiti-Mikasuki]]''' (also called Miccosukee)
*** Apalachee–Alabama–Koasati
**** '''[[Apalachee language|Apalachee]]''' {{extinct}}
**** '''[[Alabama language|Alabama]]''' (also called Alibamu)
**** '''[[Koasati language|Koasati]]''' (also called Coushatta)
{{tree list/end}}

====Munro's classification====
A different classification has been proposed by [[Pamela Munro]]. In her classification, the languages are divided into a "Southern Muskogean" branch (Choctaw-Chickasaw, Alabama-Koasati, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki) and a "Northern Muskogean" one (Muscogee). Southern Muskogean is then subdivided into Hitchiti-Mikasuki and a "Southwestern Muskogean" branch containing Alabama-Koasati and "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw).<ref name="H2005classification" /> The classification is reflected in the list below:<ref name="C1997pg148">Campbell 1997, p. 148</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Muskogean'''
** Northern Muskogean
*** '''[[Creek language|Muscogee]]'''
** Southern Muskogean
*** '''[[Mikasuki language|Hitchiti-Mikasuki]]'''
*** Southwestern Muskogean
**** '''[[Apalachee language|Apalachee]]''' {{extinct}}
**** ''Alabama–Koasati''
***** '''[[Alabama language|Alabama]]'''
***** '''[[Koasati language|Koasati]]'''
**** ''Western Muskogean''
***** '''[[Chickasaw language|Chickasaw]]'''
***** '''[[Choctaw language|Choctaw]]'''
{{tree list/end}}

===Broader relationships===
====Possible Muskogean languages====
Several sparsely attested languages have been claimed to be Muskogean languages. George Broadwell suggested that the languages of the [[Yamasee]] and [[Guale]] were Muskogean.<ref name="Campbell149">Campbell 1997, p. 149</ref><ref>Broadwell 1992, pp. 41–42, fn. 2</ref> However, William Sturtevant argued that the "Yamasee" and "Guale" data were Muscogee and that the language(s) spoken by the Yamasee and Guale people remain unknown.<ref>Sturtevant 1994, referenced in Campbell 1997, p. 149</ref> It is possible that the Yamasee were an amalgamation of several different ethnic groups and did not speak a single language. Chester B. DePratter describes the Yamasee as consisting mainly of speakers of Hitchiti and Guale.<ref>{{NRHP url|id=64500575|title=Dr. Chester B. DePratter, "The Foundation, Occupation, and Abandonment of Yamasee Indian Towns in the South Carolina Lowcountry, 1684–1715"}}, National Register Multiple Property Submission</ref> The historian Steven Oatis also describes the Yamasee as an ethnically mixed group that included people from Muskogean-speaking regions, such as the early colonial-era native towns of ''Hitchiti'', ''Coweta'', and ''Cussita''.<ref>{{cite book |last= Oatis |first= Steven J. |title= A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, 1680–1730 |year= 2004 |publisher= University of Nebraska Press |isbn= 0-8032-3575-5}}</ref>

The [[Amacano people|Amacano]], [[Chacato]], [[Chine people|Chine]], Pacara, and [[Pensacola people|Pensacola]] people, who lived along the Gulf Coast of Florida from the [[Big Bend Coast]] to [[Pensacola Bay]], are reported to have spoken the same Muskogean language, which may have been closely related to Choctaw.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hann |first=John H. |title=The Native American World Beyond Apalachee |publisher=University Press of Florida |year=2006 |isbn=9-780-8130-2982-5 |pages=11, 20–21, 24, 43}}</ref><ref>Milanich:95, 96</ref><ref>Coker:6</ref><ref>Swanton:136</ref>

Sparse evidence indicates that a Muskogean language was spoken by at least some of the people of the paramount chiefdom of [[Cofitachequi]] in northeastern [[South Carolina]]. If so, that would be the most eastern outpost of Muskogean. The people of Cofitichequi were probably absorbed by nearby [[Siouan]] and [[Iroquoian]] speakers in the late 17th century.<ref>Hudson, Charles ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions'' Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990, pp. 68–73, 75</ref>

A vocabulary of the [[Houma Tribe|Houma]] may be another underdocumented Western Muskogean language or a version of [[Mobilian Jargon]], a pidgin based on Western Muskogean.

====Gulf====
{{main|Gulf languages}}
The best-known connection proposed between Muskogean and other languages is [[Mary Haas]]' [[Gulf languages|Gulf hypothesis]], in which she conceived of a macrofamily comprising Muskogean and a number of [[language isolate]]s of the southeastern US: [[Atakapa language|Atakapa]], [[Chitimacha language|Chitimacha]], [[Tunica language|Tunica]], and [[Natchez language|Natchez]]. While well-known, the Gulf grouping is now generally rejected by historical linguists.<ref name="Campbell149" /><ref>Campbell 1997, pp. 305–09</ref> Some Muskogean scholars continue to believe that Muskogean is related to Natchez.<ref>Campbell 1997, p. 305</ref>

==Features==
===Nouns===
Nouns in Muskogean languages may take prefixes indicating the person and number of a possessor. Noun phrases may be marked for [[grammatical case]], with a distinction between subjects (nominative case) and nonsubjects (oblique case). Some Muskogean languages have affixes indicating plural nouns (generally human nouns) or groups. 

===Verbs===
Muskogean verbs are highly synthetic, with affixes for tense, aspect, person, number, direction, and mood. While case marking is [[Nominative–accusative alignment|nominative–accusative]], person marking is [[Active–stative alignment|active–stative]], with separate series of agent, patient, and indirect object person markers.

Verbs have a complex system of [[ablaut]] indicating aspect. In Muskogean linguistics, the different forms are known as "grades" or "themes".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haas |first=Mary R. |date=1940 |title=Ablaut and Its Function in Muskogee |journal=Language |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=141–50 |JSTOR=}}</ref>

All the languages make use of suppletive verbs indicating the number of the subject in an intransitive verb or the number of the direct object in a transitive verb.

Innately-numbered verbal stems, Mikasuki:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=West |first=David |date=1974 |title=Number in the Mikasuki verb stem. |url=https://commons.und.edu/sil-work-papers/vol18/iss1/15/ |journal=Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session |volume=18 |issue=15 |page=135}}</ref>

{{interlinear
| indent = 2|haca:l-om|stand.SG.SBJ|"(one) is standing"
}}

{{interlinear
| indent = 2|loko:k-om|stand.DU|"(two) stand"
}}

{{interlinear
| indent = 2|loko:ka:c-om|stand.PL|"(three or more) stand"
}}

==Vocabulary==
Below is a list of basic vocabulary in five Muskogean languages from Broadwell (1992):<ref>Broadwell, George Aaron. (1992). ''[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.72.4700 Reconstructing Proto-Muskogean Language and Prehistory: Preliminary Results]''. Paper presented at the Southern Anthropological Society, St. Augustine, FL.</ref>

{{collapse top|Muskogean basic vocabulary from by Broadwell (1992)}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Chickasaw !! Choctaw !! Alabama !! Mikasuki !! Muscogee
|-
| all || mõma || mõma || óyha || maamos- || omalka
|-
| ashes || hottok || hitokchobi || histo || tolhambi || iisso
|-
| belly || ittakoba' || iffoka || ikfi || lampi || nalhki
|-
| big || ishto || chito || coba || coob- || lhakkii
|-
| bird || foshi' || hoshi || foosi || foosi || foswa
|-
| bite || kisili || kopooli || kachalhlhi || kabalikci || akkita
|-
| black || losa || losa || loca || looci || lasti
|-
| blood || issish || issish || lhakhani || picikci || caati
|-
| bone || foni' || foni || cokfoni || -fooni || iffoni
|-
| breast || ip shik || ip shik || pisi || owaaci || hokpi
|-
| burn || lowa || lowah || libatli || yill- || noklhita
|-
| claw || iyyakchosh || iyyakchosh || iyyaksi || iiyakoosi || ilinkososwa
|-
| cloud || hoshonti || hoshõti || onoolici || hosoti || aholocii
|-
| cold || kapassa || kapassa || kasatka || kapaali || kasappi
|-
| come || minti || m ti || ila || ont- || atita
|-
| die || illi || illi || illi || il- || ilita
|-
| dog || ofi' || ofi || ifa || iifi || ifa
|-
| drink || ishko || ishko || isko || isk- || iskita
|-
| dry || shila || shila || solotka || sokook- || kalhpii
|-
| ear || haksibis || haksobish || hakco || hacoobi || hakco
|-
| earth || yakni' || yakni || ihaani || yakni || iikana
|-
| eat || impa || pa || ipa || imp- || hompita
|-
| egg || akankoshi' || akãkoshi || akaakocóòsi || onaasi || costaki
|-
| eye || ishkin || nishkin || ittilhi || iti || tolhwa
|-
| fat (grease) || niha || bila || nitokci || niihi || nihaa
|-
| fire || lowak || lowak || tikba || iiti || tootka
|-
| fish || nani' || nani || lhalho || lhaalhi || lhalho
|-
| fly, to || wakaa || hika || wakayka || yakaal- || tamkita
|-
| foot || iyyi' || iyyi || iyyi || iyi || ili
|-
| full || kayya || kayya || kayya || labakni || fackita
|-
| give || ima || ima || inka || iik- || imita
|-
| good || chokma || achokma || kano || hiilhi || h lhi
|-
| green || okchamali || okchamaali || okcakko || honotbitalakci || laani
|-
| hair || pãshi'/hishi' || pãshi/hishi || hissi || tokisi || issi
|-
| hand || ilbak || ibbak || ilbi || ilbi || inki
|-
| head || ishkobo' || noshkobo || isbakko || yoosi || ika
|-
| hear || hánglo || haklo || haalo || hakl- || pohita
|-
| heart || chõkash || chõkash || conoska || conosbi || fiiki
|-
| horn || lapish || lapish || lapihci || lap-i || yapi
|-
| I || ano' || ano || ana || aani || ani
|-
| kill || abi || abi || ibi || ill c || iliicita
|-
| knee || iyyinto'lhka' || iyyi kalaaha || ittôlhpa || tolhpi || tolhkowa
|-
| know || ithána || ikhana || sobayli || ataalh || kilhlhita
|-
| lie down, to || tí'wa || talaaya || baláàli || talaal || wakkita
|-
| liver || salakha || salakha || illopi || lopi || lopi
|-
| long || falaa || falaaya || baski || backi || capki
|-
| louse || issap || issap || icha || hicahci || icka
|-
| man || hattak nakni' || hattak nakni || naani || nakni || honanwa
|-
| many || lawa || lawa || lawa || aconki || solkii
|-
| meat (flesh) || nipi' || nipi || nipo || akni || apiswa
|-
| mountain || onchaba || habik || bokkoscaaha ||  || iikanhalwii
|-
| mouth || iti || itialbi || icokhalbi || ici || cokwa
|-
| name || holhchifo || hohchifo || holcifa || hocilki || hocifka
|-
| neck || nokhistap || ikkõla || nokbi || nokbi || nokwa
|-
| new || himitta || himmona || hahpa || himaci || mocasi
|-
| night || oklhili' || ninak || tanka || niilhaki || nilhii
|-
| nose || ibichchala' || ibishakni || ibisaani || ibi || yopoo
|-
| not || ki'yo || kiiyo || mánko || maati || monks
|-
| one || chaffa || achaffa || caffaaka || lhaamin || hamkin
|-
| person (human) || hattak || hattak || aati || yaati || isti
|-
| rain || omba || õba || oyba || okoob- || oskita
|-
| red || homma || homma || homma || kitisci || caati
|-
| road (path) || hina' || hina || hini || hini || nini
|-
| root || haksish || hakshish || assikci || aski || yalomka
|-
| round || lhibokta || kalaaha || bonotka || polocki || polooki
|-
| say || aachi || aachi || manka || kaac || maakita
|-
| sand || shinok || shinok || sanco || samooci || oktaaha
|-
| see || p sa || p sa || hicha || hica || hicita
|-
| seed || nihi' || nihi || hilhikci || yiilhi || nilhka
|-
| sit || bínni'li || biniili || cokóòli || cokool- || leykita
|-
| skin || hakshop || hakshop || affakci || halbi || halhpi
|-
| sleep || nosi || nosi || noci || nooc- || nocita
|-
| small || iskanno'si || osi || cinoofa || wink- || cotki
|-
| smoke || shobohli || shobohli || sobotli || ockoci || ikkoci
|-
| stand || híkki'ya || hikiiya || lokóòli || lokooka || hoylhita
|-
| star || foshik || fichik || hociilhi || owaaciki || kocacampa
|-
| stone || tali' || tali || tali || tali || cato
|-
| sun || hashi' || hashi || hasi || haasi || hasi
|-
| swim || yopi || okshiniili || oohapka || opahk- || omeyyita
|-
| tail || hasimbish || has bis || haci || haaci || haci
|-
| that || yamma || ma || akki || ma || ma
|-
| this || yappa || pa || ya || ya || ya
|-
| thou || ishno' || chishno || isna || cihn- || ciimi
|-
| tongue || isõlash || ittõlas || icoolaksi || cokolaasi || tolaaswa
|-
| tooth || noti' || noti || innati || -nooti || noti
|-
| tree || itti' || itti || itto || ahi || ito
|-
| two || toklo || toklo || tôklo || toklan || hokkoolin
|-
| walk || nõwa || nowa || ciyahli || cayahl || yakapita
|-
| warm (hot) || lashpa || lashpa || ikba || hãyyi || hayyita
|-
| water || oka' || oka || oki || ooki || oywa
|-
| we || poshno' || pishno || posna || pohni || poomi
|-
| what || nanta || natah || náàsi || naaki || naaki
|-
| white || tohbi || tohbi || hatka || hatki || hatki
|-
| who || kata || katah || náksi || noolh- || isteyma
|-
| woman || ihoo || ohooyo || tayyi || tayki || hoktii
|-
| yellow || lakna || lakna || laana || lakni || laanii
|}
{{collapse bottom}}

==Proto-language==<!---[[Proto-Muskogean]] redirects here--->
{{Infobox proto-language
| name             = Proto-Muskogean
| familycolor      = American
| ancestor         = 
| target          = Muskogean languages
}}
===Phonology===
Proto-Muskogean is reconstructed as having the consonants (given in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcription):<ref>Booker 2005</ref>

{|  class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! rowspan="2"| [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2"| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2"| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! [[Central consonant|Central]]
! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
! Plain
! [[Labialisation|Labialized]]
|- align="center"
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]s
| {{IPA|*p}}
| {{IPA|*t}}
|
|
| {{IPA|*k}}
| {{IPA|*kʷ}}
|- align="center"
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]s
|
| {{IPA|*ts}}
|
| {{IPA|*tʃ}}
|
|
|- align="center"
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]s
|
| {{IPA|*s}}
| {{IPA|*ɬ}}
| {{IPA|*ʃ}}
| {{IPA|*x}}
| {{IPA|*xʷ}}
|- align="center"
! [[Nasal stop|Nasals]]
| {{IPA|*m}}
| {{IPA|*n}}
|
|
|
|
|- align="center"
! [[Approximant]]s
|
|
| {{IPA|*l}}
| {{IPA|*j}}
|
| {{IPA|*w}}
|-
! Other
|
| colspan="2" align="center"| *θ
|
|
|
|}

The phonemes reconstructed by Haas as {{IPA|*/x/}} and {{IPA|*/xʷ/}} show up as {{IPA|/h/}} and {{IPA|/f/}} (or {{IPA|/ɸ/}}<ref>Booker 2005, pg. 254</ref>), respectively, in all Muskogean languages;<ref>Booker 2005, pp. 248, 252, 254</ref> they are therefore reconstructed by some as {{IPA|*/h/}} and {{IPA|*/ɸ/}}.<ref name="C1997pg148" /><ref>Martin & Munro 2005, p. 318, fn. 2</ref> {{IPA|*/kʷ/}} appears as {{IPA|/b/}} in all the daughter languages except [[Creek language|Muscogee]] for which it is {{IPA|/k/}} initially and {{IPA|/p/}} medially. The value of the proto-phoneme conventionally written {{angle bracket|θ}} (or {{angle bracket|N}}) is unknown;<ref>Booker 2005, p. 286, footnote 7</ref> it appears as {{IPA|/n/}} in Western Muskogean languages and as {{IPA|/ɬ/}} in Eastern Muskogean languages. Haas reconstructed it as a voiceless {{IPA|/n/}} (that is, {{IPA|*/n̥/}}), based partly on presumed cognates in [[Natchez language|Natchez]].<ref name="C1997pg148" /><ref>Booker 2005, pp. 251–52</ref>

===Lexicon===
Proto-Muskogean lexical reconstructions by Booker (2005) are as follows.

{{collapse top|Proto-Muskogean reconstructions by Booker (2005)}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! no. !! gloss !! Proto-Muskogean !! branch
|-
| 1 || dove, pigeon || *pačiCi || 
|-
| 2 || stem, stalk || *apiCi || 
|-
| 3 || rock || *taliCi || 
|-
| 4 || tooth || *notiCi || 
|-
| 5 || skunk || *koniCo || 
|-
| 6 || (to) bloom || *pakanli || 
|-
| 7 || arrow || *θakiCi || 
|-
| 8 || night || *niθaki || 
|-
| 9 || yellow-shafted pucker || *xʷitokxaki || 
|-
| 10 || mulberry || *kʷixiCi || 
|-
| 11 || (to) copy, imitate || *a-xokʷa || 
|-
| 12 || behind || *yokʷala || 
|-
| 13 || pokeweed || *kosikʷaCa || 
|-
| 14 || (to) have ringworm || *xiClampakʷi || 
|-
| 15 || overtake || *¢aCki || 
|-
| 16 || (to) sleep || *no¢i || 
|-
| 17 || fox || *čolaCa || 
|-
| 18 || crawfish || *sakačiCo || 
|-
| 19 || otter || *osana || 
|-
| 20 || (to) boil || *moxoθi || 
|-
| 21 || pass through || *lompotVli || 
|-
| 22 || peel off || *čilaxʷa || 
|-
| 23 || pull, hold || *xalato || 
|-
| 24 || seed (in fruit) || *nixiliCi || 
|-
| 25 || ashes || *ixistoko || 
|-
| 26 || (to) sit (pl) || *kaxa || 
|-
| 27 || land || *ixakanika || 
|-
| 28 || (to) vomit) || *axowita || 
|-
| 29 || medicine || *axinlisi || 
|-
| 30 || axe || *čaxaxʷi || 
|-
| 31 || duck || *xʷočo || 
|-
| 32 || (to) name || *xocixʷa || 
|-
| 33 || screech owl || *xaxʷonlo || 
|-
| 34 || grandfather || *axʷaCo || 
|-
| 35 || (to) beat, stir up || *kʷaxʷo || 
|-
| 36 || (to) gnaw || *kalixʷi || 
|-
| 37 || fall off || *čilaxʷa || 
|-
| 38 || (to) whip, lash || *loCkanxʷo || 
|-
| 39 || chief, king || *minkkoCo || 
|-
| 40 || (to) protrude || *xʷama || 
|-
| 41 || bone || *xʷoniCi || 
|-
| 42 || liver, marrow || *lopiCi || 
|-
| 43 || (to) scratch, slice || *kalaxʷa || 
|-
| 44 || back (of body) || *θali || 
|-
| 45 || spring (of water) || *kaliCi || 
|-
| 46 || (to) doctor || *alikci || 
|-
| 47 || horn || *(i-)lapi || 
|-
| 48 || cuckoo || *talonktaCi || 
|-
| 49 || grubworm || *yolaCa || 
|-
| 50 || turtle || *lok¢iCa || 
|-
| 51 || (to) go || *aya || 
|-
| 52 || crane || *watonlaka || 
|-
| 53 || wildcat || *kowiCi || 
|-
| 54 || cricket || *šalontakiCa || 
|-
| 55 || squash || *šoksiCi || 
|-
| 56 || ant || *šonkkʷani || 
|-
| 57 || skin, rind || *axʷakšopi || 
|-
| 58 || son || *ošiCi || 
|-
| 59 || tendon, muscle, blood vessel, intestine || *xʷikši || 
|-
| 60 || yellow, green, brown || *lakna || 
|-
| 61 || trout || *¢akliCo || 
|-
| 62 || two || *toklo || 
|-
| 63 || sifting basket || *sakla || 
|-
| 64 || soft-shelled turtle || *xolakwaCa || 
|-
| 65 || hole, hollow || *olakkʷi || 
|-
| 66 || sun || *xasiCi || 
|-
| 67 || (to) offer || *wayli || 
|-
| 68 || hoe || *loyli || 
|-
| 69 || (to) mark || *čawli || 
|-
| 70 || persimmon || *xoθkoxʷa || 
|-
| 71 || mushroom || *paktiCo || 
|-
| 72 || sack, bag || *sokča || 
|-
| 73 || ghost || *silopi || 
|-
| 74 || turkey || *xʷakito || 
|-
| 75 || betsy bug || *i¢sonksiCo || 
|-
| 76 || (to) beg, plead for || *kosapi || 
|-
| 77 || hear || *xaklo || 
|-
| 78 || earthworm || *lakapčo || 
|-
| 79 || peach || *tapakonla || 
|-
| 80 || (of liquid) || *¢itko || 
|-
| 81 || flat and wide || *patakxa || 
|-
| 82 || wise || *ko¢tini || 
|-
| 83 || small || *i¢katini || 
|-
| 84 || (to) shoot at and hit || *i¢xo || 
|-
| 85 || smoke || *ičkoči || 
|-
| 86 || mother || *ičkiCi || 
|-
| 87 || rectum || *ičkoCkʷiko || 
|-
| 88 || (to) inflate || *sokpaxʷa || 
|-
| 89 || destroy, ruin || *xokpani || 
|-
| 90 || (to) adhere to || *alokpa || 
|-
| 91 || (to) pucker || *wiliksi || Proto-Eastern Muskogean
|-
| 92 || double || *poktaCa || 
|-
| 93 || tree || *iktiCo || 
|-
| 94 || frog || *sokaktiCi || 
|-
| 95 || pass wind || *xok¢o || 
|-
| 96 || upper arm || *sakkʷaCa || 
|-
| 97 || astringent tasting || *tikkʷa || 
|-
| 98 || opossum || *sokxaCa || 
|-
| 99 || rabbit || *čokxʷiCi || 
|-
| 100 || jaw, chin || *notakxʷa || 
|-
| 101 || bramble, briar || *kʷakčoko || Proto-Eastern Muskogean
|-
| 102 || rib, side || *nak¢iCi || 
|-
| 103 || flea || *kastiCo || 
|-
| 104 || (to) drink || *isko || 
|-
| 105 || rot, decay || *toskʷi || 
|-
| 106 || knee || *in-tolkopa || 
|-
| 107 || father || *iθkiCi || 
|-
| 108 || (to) steal || *xoθkopa || 
|-
| 109 || young || *ximanixta || 
|-
| 110 || day || *nixtaka || 
|-
| 111 || river || *xaxčaCi || 
|-
| 112 || hungry || *xox(ʷ)čaxʷa || 
|-
| 113 || different || *im-alaxka || 
|-
| 114 || (to) pinch || *yikixʷla || 
|-
| 115 || skin || *xalkʷiCi || 
|-
| 116 || wife || *xaliki || Proto-Eastern Muskogean
|-
| 117 || (to) forget || *ilxosi || Proto-Eastern Muskogean
|-
| 118 || (to) grow, sprout || *xolxʷanti || 
|-
| 119 || white oak || *kʷalyiCa || 
|-
| 120 || pine || *colyi || Proto-Eastern Muskogean
|-
| 121 || (to) raise animals || *apoykʷa || 
|-
| 122 || (to) eat (a meal) || *impa || 
|-
| 123 || (to) come || *ominti || 
|-
| 124 || pawpaw || *onkʷiCo || 
|-
| 125 || breast || *ipinsiki || 
|-
| 126 || (to) hide || *xolamxi || 
|-
| 127 || buy || *lonxʷa || 
|-
| 128 || (to) weave || *taCθa || 
|-
| 129 || (to) get warm from a heat source || *iCθi || 
|-
| 130 || (to) shoot at || *xonC¢a || 
|-
| 131 || war || *hoCli || 
|-
| 132 || (to) die || *iCli || 
|-
| 133 || pepper || *xoCma || 
|-
| 134 || (to) want, need || *kʷaCna || 
|-
| 135 || road || *xinaCi || 
|-
| 136 || dark || *tampki || 
|-
| 137 || stout || *lampko || 
|-
| 138 || snake || *¢inCtiCo || 
|-
| 139 || hard, rigid || *wantxa || Proto-Eastern Muskogean
|-
| 140 || shoot at || *xonC¢a || 
|-
| 141 || (to) cloak oneself || *anCči || 
|-
| 142 || [[whippoorwill]] || *xačokkʷilankkʷila || 
|-
| 143 || [[Canada goose]] || *axankxaCa || 
|-
| 144 || grasshopper || *xatankxʷaCo || 
|-
| 145 || grass || *panxsi || 
|-
| 146 || true || *anxli || 
|-
| 147 || hand, lower arm || *ilmkʷi || 
|-
| 148 || (to) rain || *oynkʷa || 
|-
| 149 || whoop like an Indian || *paynxa || 
|-
| 150 || (to) flow || *xoxʷayxna || 
|-
| 151 || heavy || *waylki || 
|-
| 152 || buy || *čowmpa || 
|-
| 153 || (to) suck || *sočonka || 
|-
| 154 || frost || *xitontiki || 
|-
| 155 || (to) play a game || *xompani || Proto-Eastern Muskogean
|-
| 156 || winter || *oθanxʷaCi || 
|-
| 157 || (to) pierce || *lompotVli || 
|}
{{collapse bottom}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has a list of reconstructed forms at '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Muskogean reconstructions|Appendix:Proto-Muskogean reconstructions]]'''''}}
*[http://www.native-languages.org/fammus.htm Muskogean Language Family] page at native-languages.org
*[http://www.chickasaw.tv/culture-keepers/video/the-origin-of-the-chickasaw-language/list/language Chickasaw Language Information & Videos] - Chickasaw.TV

==Bibliography==
* Booker, Karen. (2005). "Muskogean Historical Phonology." In Hardy, Heather Kay and Scancarelli, Janine (eds.), ''Native languages of the Southeastern United States'', 246–298. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
* Broadwell, George Aaron. (1992). ''[http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/flora.pdf Reconstructing Proto-Muskogean Language and Prehistory: Preliminary Results] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060107085838/http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/flora.pdf |date=2006-01-07 }}'' (PDF). Paper presented at the Southern Anthropological Society, St. Augustine, FL. Retrieved on 2009-05-03.
* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509427-1}}.
*Coker, William S. (1999) "Pensacola, 1686–1821." in Judith Anne Bense. (1999) Editor. ''Archaeology of colonial Pensacola.'' University Press of Florida. {{ISBN|0-8130-1661-4}} Found at [https://books.google.com/books?id=_WnLuhfm7vAC&q=archaeology+of+colonial+pensacola Google Books]
* Crawford, James M. (Ed.). (1975a). ''Studies in Southeastern Indian Languages''. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
* Crawford, James M. (1975b). "Southeastern Indian Languages". In Crawford (ed.) 1975, pp.&nbsp;1–120.
* Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). ''Languages''. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. {{ISBN|0-16-048774-9}}.
* Haas, Mary (1951). "The Proto-Gulf word for water (with notes on Siouan–Yuchi)". ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' '''17''': 71–79.
* Haas, Mary. (1952). "The Proto-Gulf word for 'land' (with notes on Proto-Siouan)". ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' '''18''':238–240.
* Haas, Mary. (1973). "The Southeast". In [[T. A. Sebeok]] (Ed.), ''Linguistics in North America'' (part 2, pp.&nbsp;1210–1249). The Hague: Mouton.
* Hardy, Heather. (2005). "Introduction". In Hardy & Scancarelli 2005, pp.&nbsp;69–74.
* Hardy, Heather & Janine Scancarelli. (2005). ''Native Languages of the Southeastern United States''. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
*Hopkins, Nicholas A. ''[http://www.famsi.org/research/hopkins/SouthEastUSLanguages.pdf The Native Languages of the Southeastern United States]'' (PDF). Report for the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. Retrieved on 2009-05-03.
*Martin, Jack B. (2004). "Languages." In Raymond D. Fogelson ed., Handbook of North American Indians. The Southeast, 68–86.
* Martin, Jack B. (2023) "Muskogean." ''The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America'' Vol. 13.2, pp. 1577–1600 Available at: <nowiki>http://works.bepress.com/jackb-martin/11/</nowiki>
* Martin, Jack B. & Pamela Munro. (2005). "Proto-Muskogean Morphology". in Hardy & Scancarelli eds., pp.&nbsp;299–320
*Milanich, Jerald T. (1995). ''Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe''. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. {{ISBN|0-8130-1360-7}}
* Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-23228-7}} (hbk); {{ISBN|0-521-29875-X}}.
* Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). ''Linguistics in North America'' (parts 1 & 2).  Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976).
* Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). ''Handbook of North American Indians'' (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).
* Sturtevant, William C. (1994). "The Misconnection of Guale and Yamasee with Muskogean". ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' '''60''':139–148.
*Swanton, John Reed. (1952) ''The Indian Tribes of North America.'' Found at [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpx6WoPz7xIC&q=pensacola+indians Google Books]
*West, David (1974). "Number in the Mikasuki verb stem". ''Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session''. '''18''' (15).

{{Mississippian and related cultures}}
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}
{{Language families}}
{{North American languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muskogean Language}}
[[Category:Muskogean languages| ]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southeast]]
[[Category:South Appalachian Mississippian culture]]
[[Category:Gulf languages]]