View source for Music of Sudan

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{{for-text|the music of South Sudan that was part of Sudan until 2011|[[South Sudan#Culture|South Sudan Culture]]}}
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[[File:Mohamed Elamin Sudanese Singer.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Famous singer [[Mohammed al Amin]] and his band]]

[[File:Sudanese national anthem, performed by the U.S. Navy Band.oga|thumb|Sudanese national anthem, performed by the U.S. Navy Band]]

The rich and varied '''music of Sudan''' has traditional, rural, northeastern African roots<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 June 2018|title=Traditional music in Africa|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/traditional-music-africa|access-date=15 November 2019|website=Music in Africa|language=en}}</ref> and also shows [[Arabic music|Arabic]], [[Popular music|Western]] or other [[Music of Africa|African]] influences, especially on the popular [[Urban contemporary|urban music]] from the early 20th century onwards. Since the establishment of big cities like [[Khartoum]] as melting pots for people of diverse backgrounds, their [[cultural heritage]] and tastes have shaped numerous forms of modern popular music.<ref name=":0">{{Citation| last =Sikainga| first =Ahmad| contribution =A short history of Sudanese popular music | year =2012 | title =The Sudan Handbook |url=https://riftvalley.net/index.php/publication/sudan-handbook| editor1-last =Ryle | editor1-first =John| editor2-last =Willis | editor2-first =Justin| editor3-last =Baldo | editor3-first =Suliman| editor4-last =Madut Jok| editor4-first =Jok | pages =243–253 |edition=digital| place =London | publisher =Rift Valley Institute |isbn=9781847010308|jstor=
| contribution-url = }}</ref> In the [[Globalization|globalized world]] of today, the creation and consumption of music through satellite TV or on the Internet is a driving force for cultural change in Sudan, popular with local audiences as well as with [[:Category:Sudanese diaspora|Sudanese living abroad]].

Even after the secession of [[South Sudan]] in 2011, the [[Sudan]] of today is very diverse, with [[Sudan#Ethnic groups|five hundred plus ethnic groups]] spread across the territory of what is the third largest country in Africa. The cultures of its ethnic and social groups have been marked by a complex cultural legacy, going back to the [[Islamization of the Sudan region|spread of Islam]], the regional history of the slave trade and by [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] African and [[Arab]] cultural heritage. Though some of the ethnic groups still maintain their [[Indigenous language|own African language]], most Sudanese today use the distinct [[Sudanese Arabic|Sudanese version of Arabic]].

Due to its geographic location in North Africa, where [[Culture of Africa|African]], [[Arabic culture|Arabic]], [[Christian culture|Christian]] and [[Islamic culture]]s have shaped people's identities, and bordering the [[Sahel]] region, Sudan has been a cultural crossroads between North, East and West Africa, as well as the [[Arabian Peninsula]], for hundreds of years. Thus, it has a rich and very diverse musical culture, ranging from traditional folk music to Sudanese popular urban music of the 20th century and up to the internationally influenced [[African pop music|African popular music]] of today.

Despite religious and cultural objections towards music and dance in public life, musical traditions have always enjoyed great popularity with most Sudanese. Apart from singing in [[Modern Standard Arabic|Standard Arabic]], the majority of Sudanese singers express their lyrics in Sudanese Arabic, thereby touching the feelings of their national audience as well as the growing number of Sudanese living abroad, notably in Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf countries. Even during times of wide-ranging restrictions of public life imposed by the government, public concerts or the celebration of weddings and other social events with music and dance have always been part of cultural life in Sudan.<ref name="verney2005">Verney, Jerome and Yassin, 2006, pp. 397-407</ref>

== Folk music and other traditional musical forms ==
[[File:Sudanese Traditional music instrument.JPG|thumb|A man playing traditional Sudanese drums.]]
{{Further|Sub-Saharan African music traditions}}

=== Rural traditional music and dance ===
As in other neighboring African regions, the traditional musical styles of Sudan are ancient,{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Archaeologists of the [[British Museum]] found so-called ''[[rock gong]]s'' from prehistoric times, that are thought to have been used as instruments in social activities by civilizations that lived near the Nile. See the video by The British Museum in the following reference.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/rq0DjwSZzkc Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160116132127/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rq0DjwSZzkc Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Cite web|last=The British Museum|date=15 January 2016|title=How to play an ancient rock gong|website=[[YouTube]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rq0DjwSZzkc|access-date=2 May 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref>}} rich and diverse, with different [[Regions of Africa|regions]] and [[ethnic group]]s having many distinct musical traditions. [[Music of Africa|Music in Africa]] has always been very important as an integral part of [[Religion in Africa|religious]] and social life of communities. Performances of songs, dance and instrumental music are used in [[ritual]]s and social [[Ceremony|ceremonies]] like weddings, [[circumcision]] rites or to accompany the [[Kharga Oasis#Darb El Arba'īn caravan route|long camel treks]] of the [[Bedouin]]s and [[Pastoralism|sedentary]] Arabs. In these performances, music always has been a social event, marked by the combination of performers, lyrics, music and the participation of the community, like dancing or other types of sharing a musical event. Traditional music and its performance have been handed down from generation to generation by accomplished musicians to younger generations and was not written down, except in recent times by formally trained musicians or [[Ethnomusicology|ethnomusicologists]].{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The University of Khartoum's Institute for African and Asian Studies has a department for musicology with a large collection of visual, sound and written material.<ref>{{Cite web|last=University of Khartoum|title=Institute of African and Asian studies|url=http://staffpages.uofk.edu/institute-of-african-and-asian-studies-iaas}}</ref>}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.andariya.com/post/Dr-Ali-Al-Daw-Music-as-Heritage|title=Dr. Ali Al Daw: Music as Heritage|last=Ahmed|first=AlRumaisa|date=1 May 2017|website=Andariya.com|access-date=21 November 2019}}</ref><ref>In his report on the Nubian musician Dahab from 1973, ethnomusicologist Artur Simon gives a detailed description of the social and artistic aspects of traditional Nubian music and the changes it had undergone through modern society. See {{Cite book|last=Simon|first=Artur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYNC0A_UpkAC&q=artur+simon+dahab&pg=PA83|title=Kisir and tanbura: Dahab Khalil, a Nubian musician from Sai, talking to Artur Simon from Berlin|date=2012|publisher=Simon Bibliothekswissen|isbn=978-3-940862-34-1|language=en, de}}</ref>

In contrast to [[Arabic music#Art music|traditional Arabic music]], most Sudanese music styles are [[Pentatonic scale|pentatonic]], and the simultaneous beats of percussion or singing in [[polyrhythm]]s are further prominent characteristics of Sudanese music.<ref>{{Cite book|last=|title="Sudan". The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians|publisher=Macmillan Publishers Ltd.|year=1995|editor-last=Sadie|editor-first=Stanley|editor-link=Stanley Sadie|pages=327–331}}</ref> The music of Sudan also has a strong tradition of [[:Category:Sudanese poets|lyrical expression]] that uses oblique metaphors, speaks about love, the history of a tribe or the beauty of the country. In his essay '''Sudanese Singing 1908–1958''', author El Sirr A. Gadour translated an example for the lyrics of a love song from the beginning of the 20th century as follows:<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Gadour|first=El Sirr A.|date=26 April 2006|title=Sudanese singing 1908–1958|url=http://www.dur.ac.uk/justin.willis/gadour.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060426214939/http://www.dur.ac.uk/justin.willis/gadour.htm|archive-date=26 April 2006|access-date=8 May 2020|website=Durham University Community}}</ref>
[[File:Native Minstrels (1906) - TIMEA.jpg|thumb|Tribal minstrels with [[Tanbūra (lyre)|tanbūra]], 1906]]

{{Poem quote|text=O beautiful one, draw near
Reveal your cheek's scarifications 
Let my elation be hallucination in love 
The sting of a scorpion 
Is more bearable than your disdain.|char=|sign=|title=|source=}}

One of the most typical East African instruments, called ''[[Tanbūra (lyre)|tanbūra]]'' or ''[[kissar]]'' in Nubian music,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Plumley|first=Gwendolen Alice|title=El Tanbur: The Sudanese lyre or the Nubian kissar|publisher=Town and Gown Press|year=1976|isbn=9780905107028}}</ref> was traditionally played by the singers as the usual accompaniment for such songs, but this Sudanese [[lyre]] has largely been replaced in the 20th century by the Arabic [[oud]].{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Through his concerts and recordings for Western music labels, the late composer and oud player [[Hamza El Din]] became internationally known. He was of Southern Egyptian Nubian origin, and sang both in his native dialect of Sudanese Arabic as well as in the [[Nubian languages|Nubian language]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-may-30-me-din30-story.html|title=Hamza El Din, 76; musician popularized North Africa's ancient traditional songs|date=30 May 2006|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=22 March 2021|language=en-US|issn=0458-3035}}</ref>}} middle eastern Drums, [[Hand Clapping|hand clapping]] and dancing are other important elements of traditional musical performances, as well as the use of other [[Arabic musical instruments|Arabic instruments]] , like [[Rebab|rabbabas]] , [[Mizmar (instrument)|mizamars]] and [[Qanun (instrument)|qanun]]. One example for this are the elaborate wooden [[gourd]] trumpets, called al Waza,<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 September 2019|title=Al-waza : A musical instrument reflecting the Sudanese heritage|url=https://khartoumstar.com/en/2019/09/05/al-waza-a-musical-instrument-reflecting-the-sudanese-heritage/|access-date=14 November 2019|website=Khartoum Star|language=en-US|archive-date=6 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906014912/https://khartoumstar.com/en/2019/09/05/al-waza-a-musical-instrument-reflecting-the-sudanese-heritage/|url-status=dead}}</ref> played by the [[Berta people]] of the [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile state]].<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/AjFiWHT-Hds Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20201216211730/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AjFiWHT-Hds&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Citation|last=CGTN Africa|title=Waza trumpet returns as residents in Sudan's Blue Nile region mark end of harvest|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AjFiWHT-Hds|publication-date=16 January 2016|language=en|access-date=23 March 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

''[[A History of the World in 100 Objects|The History of the World in 100 Objects]]'' features a large wooden [[slit drum]] in the shape of a buffalo from southern Sudan, probably made in the 19th century for traditional performances in larger ensembles or to summon warriors, that is now held in the [[British Museum]] in London.<ref>{{Cite web|title=BBC - A History of the World - Object : Sudanese slit drum|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/FMgugdskR7eaWj_ST2fAeQ|access-date=2022-02-21|website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> A copper [[kettle drum]] that was reputedly used by [[Mahdist War|Mahdist forces]] in the [[Battle of Omdurman]] (1898) is in the collection of the National Army Museum in London.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kettle drum |url=http://minim.ac.uk/index.php/explore/ |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=MINIM-UK |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== The role of women in traditional music ===
[[File:Sudanese Music.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Sudanese women performing at a traditional festival or wedding celebration]]In many ethnic groups, distinguished women play an important role in the social celebration of a tribe's virtues and history. In her report about women as singers in [[Darfur]], the ethnomusicologist Roxane Connick Carlisle recounts her fieldwork during the 1960s in three ethnic groups. She describes the common traits of these [[bard]]s from the [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]] ethnic group like this:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carlisle|first=Roxane Connick|date=1975|title=Women singers in Darfur, Sudan Republic|journal=The Black Perspective in Music|volume=3|issue=3|pages=253–268|doi=10.2307/1214011|issn=0090-7790|jstor=1214011}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text="Free vocal rhythm and simple meter throughout, undulating and generally descending solo melodies ranging within an octave, great importance given to meaningful text, a syllabic setting of text to tone level, and a generally relaxed and thoughtful performance of songs – these are the traits present in the repertories of Zaghawi female bards and non-specialist singers. (...) Her personal character must have won the respect of her people, before she can be acceptable functionally as someone with power to move their thoughts and their emotional reactions into the areas she directs. She must be acknowledged as the most clever and witty singer; often she must embody the idea of physical attraction, and particularly she must have the gift of poetry and improvisation, all this encompassed in a person of dignified bearing."|sign=Roxane Connick Carlisle|source=''Women singers in Darfur, Sudan Republic (1976)'', p. 266}}

Another traditional form of women's role in [[oral poetry]] are the songs of [[praise]] or [[Mockery|ridicule]] of singers in [[western Sudan]], called ''Hakamat''. These are women of high social standing, respected for their eloquence, intuition and decisiveness, who may both [[Incitement|incite]] or [[Defamation|vilify]] the men of their [[tribe]], when engaged in [[feud]]s with other tribes. The social impact of these ''Hakamat'' can be so strong, that they have been invited by [[peacebuilding]] initiatives in Darfur to exert their influence for [[conflict resolution]] or contemporary social issues, like [[environmental protection]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Evans-Pritchard|first=Blake|date=4 January 2012|title=Female singers stir blood in Darfur|url=https://iwpr.net/global-voices/female-singers-stir-blood-darfur|access-date=2 July 2020|website=Institute for War and Peace Reporting|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Leigh|first=Amy|date=25 February 2021|title=Darfur's Women 'Hamakat' elders revise songs for peace|url=https://www.rightsforpeace.org/post/women-hamakat-elders|access-date=27 March 2021|website=Rights for Peace|language=en}}</ref>

Sudanese women are also known both at home and in the wider region for their role as singers and musicians playing the dalooka drum in ''aghani al-banat'' (transl.: Girls' songs)<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Exploring Aghani al-banat: A postcolonial ethnographic approach to Sudanese women's songs, culture, and performance |url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/pg_10?::NO:10:P10_ETD_SUBID:58589 |publisher=Ohio University |date=2003 |language=en |first=Saadia I. |last=Malik |degree=PhD }}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> as well as for their spiritual musical performances called [[zār]], believed to be able to [[Exorcism|exorcise]] evil spirits from possessed individuals.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Al Safi|first=Ahmad|title=Possession cults|url=http://aalsafi.tripod.com/tm/management/possession.htm|access-date=29 May 2020|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Egyptian "zar" ritual|url=https://en.qantara.de/content/the-egyptian-zar-ritual|access-date=22 March 2021|website=Qantara.de – Dialogue with the Islamic World|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Drummer at Hamed el-Nil Mosque (8625532075).jpg|thumb|A Sufi participant during the Friday afternoon [[Dhikr|''zikr'']] at the tomb of Sheikh Hamed el-Nil in Omdurman.]]

=== Zikr rituals as religious forms of recitation and performance ===
The numerous brotherhoods of [[Sufi]] [[dervish]]es in Sudan are religious, mystical groups that use prayers, music and ritual dance to achieve an [[altered state of consciousness]] in an Islamic tradition called ''[[zikr]]'' (remembrance). These ritualized ''zikr'' ceremonies are, however, not considered by the faithful as musical performances, but as a form of prayer. Each order or lineage within an order has one or more forms for ''zikr'', the [[liturgy]] of which may include [[recitation]], [[instrumental music|instrumental accompaniment by drums]], dance, [[costume]]s, [[incense]], and is sometimes leading to [[religious ecstasy|ecstasy]] and [[trance]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Touma|first1=Habib Hassan|title=The music of the Arabs|last2=Schwartz|first2=Laurie (trans.)|publisher=Amadeus Press|year=1996|isbn=0-931340-88-8|location=Portland, Oregon|pages=162|jstor=|oclc=|author-link=Habib Hassan Touma}}</ref> ''Zikr'' rituals are most often celebrated on late Friday afternoons, like the one at the tomb of Sheikh Hamed el-Nil in [[Omdurman]].''<ref>{{Cite web|last=Breu|first=Philipp|title=The Sufis of Khartoum|url=https://en.qantara.de/content/the-sufis-of-khartoum|access-date=10 November 2019|website=Qantara.de – Dialogue with the Islamic World|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2016/feb/05/the-psychedelic-world-of-sudans-sufis-in-pictures|title=The psychedelic world of Sudan's Sufis – in pictures|last1=Kheir|first1=Ala|date=5 February 2016|work=The Guardian|access-date=10 November 2019|last2=Burns|first2=John|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|last3=Algrefwi|first3=Ibrahim}}</ref>''

== Brass bands and the origins of modern Sudanese music ==
From the early 1920s onwards, radio, records, film and later television have contributed to the development of Sudanese popular music by introducing new instruments and styles. Already during the [[Turkish Sudan|Turkish-Egyptian rule]] and later during the [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian condominium]] until independence, first Egyptian, and then [[Marching band#Military style|British military bands]] left their mark, especially through the musical training of Sudanese soldiers and by introducing Western [[brass instrument]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Eyre|first=Banning|date=20 September 2018|title=Ahmad Sikainga on the two Sudans|url=https://afropop.org/articles/ahmad-sikainga-on-the-two-sudans|access-date=7 May 2020|website=Afropop Worldwide|language=en}}</ref> According to social historian Ahmad Sikainga, "Sudanese members of military bands can be regarded as the first professional musicians, taking the lead in the process of modernization and [[Indigenization|indigenisation]]."<ref>Sikainga, 2012, p. 247</ref>{{refn|group=lower-alpha|As early as 1874, the German traveller [[Gustav Nachtigal]] reported that the Turkish Governor-General's army band played European anthems, marches and dances in his honour. Source: Gustav Nachtigal ''Sahara and Sudan''. Translated from the original German with an introduction and notes by [[Allan George Barnard Fisher|Allan G. B. Fisher]] and H. J. Fisher. Volume IV: ''Wadai and Darfur'', p. 394. London-New York-Berkeley. 1971-1987}} Today still, such marching bands represent a characteristic element in Sudan, playing the [[Nahnu Jund Allah Jund Al-watan|National Anthem]] on [[History of Sudan (1956–69)|Independence Day]] and other official celebrations.

== Development of modern Sudanese music ==

=== The 1920s: hageeba, the origin of modern popular music in Sudan ===
[[File:Msawa_nurkum_Msawa_nurkum_Karouma_record_label.jpg|thumb|[[Phonograph record|78-rpm gramophone record]] with two parts of a hageeba song by [[Abdel Karim Karouma]], late 1920s or 1930s]]

The strongest stylistic influence in the development of modern popular Sudanese music has become known as ''hageeba'' music (pronounced ''hagee-ba'' and meaning ''"briefcase"''). The name ''hageeba'', however, was only applied much later to popular songs from the 1920s, when radio presenter Ahmed Mohamed Saleh talked about old records, collected in his briefcase for his show ''hageebat al-fann'' (a''rtistic'' ''briefcase''), that he presented on [[Media of Sudan#Radio and television|Radio Omdurman]] during the 1940s.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|For a concise and well-researched overview of the origins and later developments of haqeeba music, as well as some links to contemporary, electronic versions, see the webpage by Sudanese cultural platform 'Locale' and musician Sammany Hajo.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Locale & Sammany|title=A Brief Introduction to Haqeeba|url=http://localesd.com/project/berif-introduction-haqeeba|access-date=30 July 2020|website=localesd.com}}</ref>}}

In terms of the history of music of Sudan, the label ''hageeba'' applies to an important change in the development of modern music: A new urban style of singing and lyrics was evolving, moving away from tribal [[Folk music|folk songs]] and the melodies of religious, devotional singing. This style was inaugurated by the singer Muhamad Wad El Faki, as well as others like Muhamad Ahmed Sarour, who were later inspired by Wad El Faki.<ref name=":1" /> These songs were initially inspired by the vocal tradition of Islamic praise chanting for the [[prophet Muhammad]], known as ''[[madeeh]]''.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|"Madīḥ means praise, praise poem, glorification and, in this context, praise hymn in honour of Allah and the Prophet Muhammad. One of the most famous madīḥ traditions in northern Sudan can be traced back to its founder Hajj El-Mahi, who lived in Kassinger near Kareima from c1780 to 1870. He is said to have composed about 330 religious poems that continue to be sung with an accompaniment of two ṭar. His descendants still cultivate this tradition. The song texts often reveal rapturous religiosity or moral intent. Their performance is part of private celebrations or public festivities, and can also be heard in the streets of the markets."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Simon|first=Artur|title=Islamic religious song and music|series=Grove Music Online|year=2001|doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.27077|isbn=978-1-56159-263-0|url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000027077}}</ref>}} Gradually, melodies known from ''madeeh'' were used by singers like Wad El Faki and others to accompany new, non-religious lyrics. During his childhood years at a [[Madrasa|religious school]], called ''[[Khalwa (school)|khalwa]]'' in Sudan, Wad El Faki had learned recitation in [[classical Arabic]], voice control and correct pronunciation. According to El Sirr A. Gadour, Wad El Faki "did not belong to any of the main ethnic communities in Omdurman. This freed him from a narrow identity and made him a 'general' singer, crossing the tribal barrier to broader national affiliation."<ref name=":1" />

''Hageeba'' started as essentially vocal music, sung by a lead singer and a chorus, with percussion coming from the [[tambourine]]-like [[Tar (drum)|''tar'']] frame drum. It was performed at weddings and other social occasions and soon became popular. – During the 1930s, the first commercial [[Phonograph record#History|78 rpm gramophone records]] of Sudanese musicians such as Muhamad Ahmed Sarour and [[Khalil Farah]] were recorded in Cairo and marketed from Omdurman, from where this new music spread to listeners in [[Khartoum (state)|greater Khartoum]] and other urban centres.<ref>Sikainga, 2012, p. 249</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Ille | first = Enrico | chapter = Sudan: Modern and contemporary performance practice |editor-last=Sturman | editor-first=Janet Lynn | title=The SAGE international encyclopedia of music and culture | date=2019 | publisher = SAGE Publications, Incorporated | isbn=978-1-4833-1773-1 | oclc=1090239829}}</ref>

=== 1930s – 1950s: rise of popular music through records, radio and music halls ===
Since the mid-1920s, modern instruments such as pianos, accordions and violins, as well as records and record players were imported.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|"Records, record players and the new instruments have been sold in Khartoum since 1925. In 1931 recordings were produced in Cairo for Serror and Khalil Farah, the latter accompanied by lute, piano and violin. These recordings quickly became popular in coffee shops in Khartoum. This popularity encouraged businessmen to produce more records with Sudanese singers, including Ibrahim Abdul Jalil, An-Naim Mohammed Nur, Karoma, Al-Amin Burhan, Ali Shaigui, and the female singers Mary Sharif, Asha Falatiya and Mahla al-Abadiya. They were accompanied by lute, accordion, piano, violin, flute, ''riqq'', ''ṭabla'' and, later, bongos. Other famous artists of that epoque were Zingar, Ismail Abdel Mu'ain, Hassan Atya and Awonda." Source: Artur Simon (2001) "Sudan, Republic of" in Grove Music online, see under Further reading.}} In the 1930s, a number of music companies opened in Sudan, among them the [[Gordon Memorial College]] musical company. One of its members, called Mohamed Adam Adham, composed the piece ''Adhamiya,'' one of the earliest formal Sudanese compositions, that is still often played.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 December 2005 |title=Sudanese singing 1908–1958 |work=By: El Sirr A. Gadour |url=http://www.dur.ac.uk/justin.willis/gadour.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060426214939/http://www.dur.ac.uk/justin.willis/gadour.htm |archive-date=26 April 2006 }}</ref>

The pioneers of this era were often singer-songwriters, including the prolific Abdallah Abdel Karim, called Karouma,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Abdel Karim Karouma|url=https://api.discogs.com/artists/4029024|access-date=12 November 2019|website=Discogs|language=en}}</ref> the innovative Ibrahim al-Abadi and Khalil Farah,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Khalil Farah|url=https://www.discogs.com/artist/3114905-خليل-فرح|access-date=28 March 2021|website=Discogs|language=en}}</ref> a poet and singer, who wrote the lyrics and music for the patriotic song ''Azza fi Hawak'' and was active in the Sudanese national movement.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hassan|first=Soha|date=15 July 2019|title=The Sudanese woman and the protest song|url=https://www.mediasupport.org/the-sudanese-woman-and-the-protest-song/|access-date=28 March 2021|website=International Media Support|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124190804/https://www.mediasupport.org/the-sudanese-woman-and-the-protest-song/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Verney, 2006, p. 398</ref> Al-Abadi was known for an unorthodox style of fusing traditional wedding poetry with music. Further, a specific style of rhythmic choral singing by Sudanese women evolved out of [[Griot|praise singing]] during the 1930s, called ''Tum Tum''. Originating from [[Kosti, Sudan|Kosti]] on the [[White Nile]], the lyrics of ''tum tum'' were romantic, but sometimes also talking about the [[Gender inequality in Sudan|difficulties of female life]]. The music was danceable and became quickly popular in urban centres.<ref>Sikainga, 2012, p. 249–250</ref>

The 1940s saw an influx of new names due to the rise of music programmes at Radio Omdurman.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lavoie|first=Matthew|title=The golden era of Omdurman songs|url=https://blogs.voanews.com/music-time-in-africa/2009/12/16/the-golden-era-of-omdurman-songs/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140919131150/http://blogs.voanews.com/music-time-in-africa/2009/12/16/the-golden-era-of-omdurman-songs/|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 September 2014|access-date=12 November 2019|website=VOA News|language=en}}</ref> Notable performers included Ismail Abdul Mu'ain, Hassan Attia and Ahmed al Mustafa. Another singer-songwriter was [[Ibrahim al Kashif]], who was called the ''Father of modern singing''. Al Kashif sang in the style of Mohamed Ahmed Sarour, a pioneer of ''hageeba'', and relied on what Abdel Karim Karouma had started, renewing popular singing styles. For live performances, there were also two dance halls in [[Khartoum]], St James' and the Gordon Music Hall.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=El Hassan|first=Idris Salim|date=|title=Khartoum: A portrait of an African colonial city|url=https://www.academia.edu/16173183|journal=Academia.edu|language=en|publisher=University of Khartoum}}</ref>

Subsequently, Sudanese popular music evolved into what is generally referred to as ''"post-hageeba"'', a style dominating in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s. This period was marked by the introduction of instruments from both East and West, such as the violin, [[accordion]], oud, [[tabla]] or [[bongo drum]]s. Further, a [[big band]] style with a [[string section]] and brass instruments came into existence. ''Post-hageeba'' music, mixed with Egyptian and Western elements has also been called ''al-aghani al-hadith'' (modern songs).<ref name="verney2006"/>

=== 1960s – 1980s: the Golden Age of popular music in Sudan ===
[[File:Sharhabil Ahmed and his band.jpg|thumb|Sharhabil Ahmed and his band]]

In the 1960s, American pop stars became well known, which had a profound effect on Sudanese musicians like Osman Alamu and Ibrahim Awad, the latter becoming the first Sudanese musician to dance on stage.<ref name="verney20062">Verney, 2006, p. 400</ref> Under these influences, Sudanese popular music saw a further [[Westernisation]] and the introduction of electric guitars and brass instruments. Guitar music also came from the South of the country, and was played like the [[Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]lese guitar styles. Congolese music like [[soukous]], as well as [[Cuban Rumba]], exerted a profound influence on Sudanese popular music.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|last=Nkrumah|first=Gamal|date=18 August 2004|title=Sharhabeel Ahmed: Sudan's king of jazz|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/703/profile.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050920130413/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/703/profile.htm|archive-date=20 September 2005|access-date=27 September 2005|work=Al-Ahram Weekly}}</ref>

Starting his career in the late 1950s, the Nubian singer, songwriter and instrumentalist Mohammed Wardi became one of Sudan's first [[superstar]]s. Despite his exile following the [[1989 Sudanese coup d'état|military coup in 1989]], his popularity in Sudan and beyond kept rising until his return in 2002 and up to his death in 2012.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=15 October 2020|title=Five songs that defined Sudan's golden era|url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/sudan-songs-golden-era-music-heritage|access-date=13 December 2020|website=Middle East Eye|language=en}}</ref>

Singer-songwriter [[Sayed Khalifa]] was one of the first Sudanese musicians trained in formal music theory, which he acquired at the Arab Music Institute in Cairo during the early 1950s. Like other Sudanese singers, he performed in both [[Modern Standard Arabic|Standard Arabic]] as well as in the Sudanese form of Arabic, thus appealing both to the educated elite and to the common people. Khalifa is known for his songs ''Ya Watani (My Homeland)'' and ''Izzayakum Keifinnakum (How are you?)''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=al Mubarak|first=Khalid|date=2001-07-17|title=Obituary: Sayed Khalifa|url=http://www.theguardian.com/news/2001/jul/17/guardianobituaries|access-date=2021-04-10|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

Performing from the late 1970s onward, a new popular singer was [[Mostafa Sid Ahmed]]. A teacher as a young man, he entered the College of Fine Arts and Music in Khartoum and composed his music to the [[lyrics]] of many well-known Sudanese poets like [[Azhari Mohamed Ali]] and [[Mahjoub Sharif]], often expressing the longing for freedom and the struggle of the Sudanese people against dictatorship.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vezzadini|first=Elena|date=May 2019|title=Leftist leanings and the enlivening of revolutionary memory: Interview with Elena Vezzadini|url=https://www.noria-research.com/cultures-of-the-left-and-revolutionary-memory-in-sudan/|access-date=7 January 2021|website=Noria research|language=en-US}}</ref>

An important development in modern Sudanese music was introduced by the group ''Sharhabil and his band'' – formed by a group of friends from Omdurman – namely [[Sharhabil Ahmed]]<ref name=":2" /> and his fellow musicians [[Ali Nur Elgalil]], Farghali Rahman, Kamal Hussain, Mahaddi Ali, Hassan Sirougy and Ahmed Dawood. Sharhabil's wife and member of the band, [[Zakia Abdul Gassim Abu Bakr]], was the first female guitarist in Sudan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-22|title=Interview with Sudan's first professional woman guitarist: 'The Ministry of Culture neglects Sudanese art'|url=https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/interview-with-sudan-s-first-professional-female-guitarist-the-ministry-of-culture-neglects-sudanese-art|access-date=2021-08-18|website=Radio Dabanga|language=en}}</ref> They introduced modern rhythms relating to Western pop and soul music, using electric guitars, double bass, and jazz-like brass instruments, with an emphasis on the rhythm section. Their lyrics were also poetic and became very popular. Up to the late 2010s, Sharhabil's band has been one of the leading names in Sudanese music, performing both at home as well as internationally. Another popular group of the late 1970s were called '''The Scorpions and Saif Abu Bakr'''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Eyre|first=Banning|date=20 September 2018|title=New releases of Sudanese music|url=https://afropop.org/articles/new-releases-of-sudanese-music|access-date=12 May 2020|website=Afropop Worldwide|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Al Balabil Sudanese musical group record cover.jpg|thumb|Record cover of the song "My way to school" by [[Al Balabil (musical group)|Al Balabil]]]]

Since the 1940s, women had slowly become socially acceptable on the musical scene: Well-known singers were Um el Hassan el Shaygiya and most of all, [[Aisha Musa Ahmad|Aisha al Falatiya]], who as early as 1943 was the first woman to sing on Sudanese radio. Another outstanding female singer and political activist of the years before and after Sudan's independence in 1956 was [[Hawa Al-Tagtaga]], who left a long lasting influence for the "moral and cultural [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] she bestowed on younger generations of Sudanese women singers who follow her tradition", as critic Magdy El Gizouli put it.<ref>{{Cite web|last=El Gizouli|first=Magdy|date=20 December 2012|title=Sudan's hawa: The banat come of age|url=https://sudantribune.com/spip.php?iframe&page=imprimable&id_article=44931|access-date=30 December 2020|website=sudantribune.com}}</ref>

During the 1970s, a wave of new women's groups became prominent on stage and the radio. Most famous among these was a band composed of three sisters called [[Al Balabil (musical group)|Al Balabil]] (transl.: The Nightingales). They formed as a band in 1971, appeared on many live and TV shows and became very popular across East Africa.<ref>For an interview in English with two of the singers, see the video on [[Al Jazeera Arabic|Aljazeera]]: {{Cite web|last=|date=21 June 2016|title=The 'Sudanese Supremes'|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/program/the-stream/2016/6/22/the-sudanese-supremes|access-date=12 November 2019|website=Al Jazeera English The Stream|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> The 1980s saw the rise of [[Hanan Bulu Bulu]], a singer whose performances were deemed by some as sensual and provocative. She was repeatedly detained by the authorities and even beaten up by hardliners.<ref name="Verney2006"/>

International popular genres like Western dance music, rock or pop music and [[African-American music]] have had a profound effect on modern Sudanese music. As in other African countries, one of these influences were the military [[brass band]]s. Playing in such bands attracted many young [[Military recruitment|military recruit]]s, who later carried their newly learned music style and instruments over to popular music. The result was a kind of dance music, referred to as (Sudanese) [[jazz]], which was not related to the American style of jazz, but similar to other modern dance music styles throughout East Africa. Prominent band leaders in this era include [[Abdel Gadir Salim]] and [[Abdel Aziz El Mubarak]], both of whom have achieved international fame and distribution of their albums.<ref name="verney2006">Verney, 2006, p. 399</ref>

In retrospect, the 1960s up to the 80s were called 'The Golden Age of Sudanese popular music'.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sohonie|first=Vik|date=23 September 2018|title=There was music on every corner of every street in Khartoum|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/music-corner-street-khartoum-180923092533419.html|access-date=12 November 2019|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref> This period was documented by [[Reissue|re-issue]]<nowiki/>d albums in 2018, when researchers from the US and Germany were looking for still existing recordings from that era. Out of this research, several digitised albums of popular music from Sudan were digitally [[remaster]]ed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hird|first=Alison|date=13 September 2018|title=World Music Matters – Sudan's forgotten musical heritage revived with violins and synths|url=http://www.rfi.fr/en/Sudans-forgotten-musical-heritage-rediscovered-Two-Niles-Sing-melody-violins-synths-Sudan|access-date=23 December 2019|website=RFI|language=en}}</ref> These included stars like Abdel Aziz El Mubarak, [[Kamal Tarbas]], [[Khojali Osman]], Abu Obeida Hassan,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Michaelson|first=Ruth|date=18 February 2020|title=Sudan's accidental megastar who came back from the dead|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/18/how-sudans-star-of-the-tambour-defied-death-and-dictatorship|access-date=10 May 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Kamal Keila, Sharhabil Ahmed, Hanan Bulu Bulu, Samira Dunia and, most famously, Mohammed Wardi  and have become available on the international market.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=14 September 2018|title=Two Niles to sing a melody: The violins & synths of Sudan|url=https://ostinatorecords.bandcamp.com/album/two-niles-to-sing-a-melody-the-violins-synths-of-sudan|access-date=23 December 2019|website=Ostinato Records}}</ref>

A special place among musicians from Sudan can be granted to composer, musician and music director [[Ali Osman (composer)|Ali Osman]], who settled in Cairo in 1978 and became one of the important figures in Egypt for classical and [[Contemporary classical music|contemporary music]] in the European tradition. After his beginnings in Sudan as a self-taught rock musician, he later turned to classical music and composed [[Symphony|symphonic works]] of Sudanese or Egyptian inspiration that have been performed internationally.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Metwali|first=Ati|date=25 February 2017|title=Remembering Ali Osman: Composer, academic and conductor of Egypt's Al nour wal amal orchestra|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/5/33/258834/Arts--Culture/Music/Remembering-Ali-Osman-composer,-academic-and-condu.aspx|access-date=10 June 2020|website=Ahram Online|language=en}}</ref>

=== 1990s – 2000s: restrictions through sharia law and the decline of popular music ===
After a [[1989 Sudanese coup d'état|military coup in 1989]], the imposition of ''sharia'' law by an [[Islamism|Islamist]] government brought about the closing of music halls and outdoor concerts, as well as many other restrictions for musicians and their audiences. Many of the country's most prominent musicians or writers were barred from public life, and in some cases even imprisoned. Others, like Mohammed al Amin, whose personal style of playing the oud influenced other musicians,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mohammed el Amin|url=http://www.sudanupdate.org/REPORTS/MUSIC/musicians/AMIN.HTM|access-date=14 November 2019|website=sudanupdate.org}}</ref> and Mohammed Wardi, took exile in Cairo or other places.<ref>Mohammed al Amin returned to Sudan in 1994 and Mohammed Wardi returned in 2003. See Verney, 2006, p. 400</ref> Traditional music suffered too, with East African ''zār'' ceremonies, where women conjure and exorcise evil spirits through music and dance, interrupted and deemed as 'pagan'.<ref>Verney, 2006, p. 403</ref> In this context of ceremonies for women, the singer Setona, born in [[Kordofan]] and raised in Khartoum, before she emigrated to Cairo in 1989, published two albums, called ''Tariq Sudan'' and ''Queen of Hena'', with some of her songs related to [[henna]] ceremonies.<ref>See the [http://weltmusik.de/iwalewa/artists/ article on Setona in English at the bottom of the webpage] by German cultural centre ''[[Iwalewahaus|Iwalewa Haus]]'': Salah M. Hassan, ''Setona: The native henna artist in a global'', in [[Prince Claus Fund]] et al. (ed.) The art of African fashion. Africa World Press 1998. {{ISBN|0865437262}}</ref> Another singer and composer of popular songs, who appeared on Sudan's musical scene in the 1990s, is Nada Al-Qalaa. Through her songs, video clips and media interviews, Al-Qalaa has presented conservative views on social life and gender roles. This and the support by wealthy patrons in Sudan and Nigeria has caused criticism, accusing her of being close to the military government. On the other hand, her music and public appearance has earned her a wide following for more than twenty years.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Nov 22, 2020|title=The ongoing debate about the biography, career and femininity of singer Nada Al-Qalaa|url=https://fanack.com/sudan/faces-of-sudan/nada-al-qalaa/|access-date=2021-05-11|website=Fanack.com|language=en-US|archive-date=11 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511115720/https://fanack.com/sudan/faces-of-sudan/nada-al-qalaa/|url-status=dead}}</ref>  [[File:Omer Ihsas & Peace Messengers.JPG|thumb|Singer-songwriter [[Omer Ihsas]] & his Peace Messengers from Darfur]]The popular singer Abu Araki al-Bakheit was banned from performing his political songs, but eventually managed to continue performing in defiance of the authorities<ref>{{Cite web|last=Romero|first=Angel|date=16 April 2018|title=Artist profiles: Abu Araki al-Bakheit|url=https://worldmusiccentral.org/2016/04/18/artist-profiles-abu-araki-al-bakheit/|access-date=12 November 2019|website=World Music Central|language=en-US}}</ref> and had a comeback in 2019 during the [[Sudanese Revolution|Sudanese revolution]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-22|title=Sudan: Abu-Araki Al-Bakheet celebrates with sit-inners|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201904230268.html|access-date=2021-11-17|website=allafrica.com}}</ref> Others, like the southern Sudanese singer Yousif Fataki had all their tapes erased by Radio Omdurman. Other performers that continued to be popular during this time include [[Abdel Karim al Kabli]] or [[Mahmoud Abdulaziz]], both with a notably long and diverse history of performance and recordings, as well as Mohammed al Amin and Mohammed Wardi.<ref>Verney, 2006, p.400</ref> Occasionally accompanying Wardi and poetry recitals, blind oud player Awad Ahmoudi has been known for his distinct style of playing the oud in his typical style and pentatonic scales.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shammat|first=Lemya|date=2020-12-29|title=Awad Ahmoudi, Oud Virtuoso|url=https://arablit.org/2020/12/29/awad-ahmoudi-oud-virtuoso/|access-date=2021-10-19|website=ArabLit & ArabLit Quarterly|language=en-US}}</ref>

Another musician, who started his career in the late 1980s and also suffered from harassment by the military government, is [[Omer Ihsas]]. A native of southern Darfur, he and his band have played and spread their message of peace and reconciliation both in camps for [[Internally displaced person|internally displaced people]] in Darfur, as well as in Khartoum and on international stages.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Romero|first=Angel|date=2017-10-17|title=Artist profiles: Omer Ihsas|url=https://worldmusiccentral.org/2017/10/17/artist-profiles-omer-ihsas/|access-date=2021-04-11|website=worldmusiccentral.org|language=en-US}}</ref>

Foreign musicians, who became popular in Sudan, included [[reggae]] superstar [[Bob Marley]] and American pop singer [[Michael Jackson]], while the [[funk]] of [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] inspired Sudanese performers such as Kamal Keila.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://habibifunkrecords.bandcamp.com/album/habibi-funk-008-muslims-and-christians|title=Habibi Funk 008: Muslims and Christians, by Kamal Keila|website=Habibi Funk Records|access-date=23 December 2019}}</ref> The spread of international [[pop music]] through radio, TV, cassette tapes and digital recordings also prompted a growing number of Sudanese musicians to sing in English, connecting their music with the outside world. – Even though the government of the time discouraged music, dance and theatre, the College of Music and Drama of [[Sudan University of Science and Technology]] in Khartoum, in existence since 1969, continued to offer courses and degrees, thus giving young people a chance to study music or theatre.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sudan University of Science and Technology|title=College of Music and Drama|url=https://drama.sustech.edu/|access-date=23 December 2019|website=drama.sustech.edu}}</ref>

=== 2000s – present ===

====Protest songs, reggae, hip hop and rap====
Songs with political messages have been popular in Sudan since at least the 1960s. Political lyrics by poets and musicians such as Mohammed Wardi's "''Green October''" or Mohammed Al-Amin's song ''"October 21st"''  became famous in the context of the [[Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)#October 1964 Revolution|October 1964 Revolution]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Elzahra Awad |first=Fatima |date=2019-04-03 |title=Sudanese Music Testifies to a long Revolutionary History |url=https://andariya.com/post/Sudanese-Music-Testifies-to-a-long-Revolutionary-History |access-date=2023-02-27 |website=Andariya}}</ref> Ever since the third [[Sudanese Revolution]] started in December 2018, musicians, poets and visual artists have been playing an important part in the mainly [[youth]] driven movement.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Elbagir|first=Yousra|date=22 March 2017|title=Letter from Africa: How poetry is taking on state censorship in Sudan|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39327885|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Lyrical Revolution - Sudan Memory |url=https://www.sudanmemory.org/cms/100/ |access-date=2023-02-25 |website=www.sudanmemory.org}}</ref> Referring to its impact at the sit-in outside the Sudanese army headquarters on April 25, 2019, "Dum" (trans. blood), a song by Sudanese-American rap musician Ayman Mao was called the "Anthem of Sudan's Revolution".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kushkush|first=Isma’il|date=2019-06-04|title='Blood,' the anthem of Sudan's revolution, takes on new meaning amid violent repression|language=en-US|work=The Nation|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/sudan-revolution-music-protest-repression/|access-date=2021-04-25|issn=0027-8378}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Lyrical Revolution - Sudan Memory |url=https://www.sudanmemory.org/cms/100/ |access-date=2023-02-27 |website=www.sudanmemory.org}}</ref> According to Sudanese blogger Ola Diab, "young urban musicians have used their musical talents and creativity to express the revolt of protesters against President Al Bashir and his regime."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Diab |first=Ola |date=30 December 2018 |title=New 'Sudan Uprising' Tracks You Should Listen To |url=http://500wordsmag.com/art-and-culture/music/new-sudan-uprising-tracks-you-should-listen-to/ |access-date=1 April 2021 |website=[[500 Words Magazine]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Adel|first=Fady|date=18 May 2019|title=10 Hip Hop tracks from the Sudanese Revolution|url=https://www.scenenoise.com/New-Music/10-hip-hop-tracks-from-the-sudanese-revolution|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525200302/https://scenenoise.com/New-Music/10-hip-hop-tracks-from-the-sudanese-revolution|archive-date=25 May 2019|access-date=12 November 2019|website=www.scenenoise.com}}</ref>

As in other countries, reggae, [[Rapping|rap]] or [[hip hop music]] combines local talents and international, young audiences, both in live performances as well as on the internet. In 2018, Sudanese journalist Ola Diab published a list of contemporary music videos by upcoming artists, both from Sudan and the Sudanese diaspora in the US, Europe or the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Diab |first=Ola |date=15 October 2018 |title=10 Urban Contemporary Songs by Sudanese Artists You Should Listen To |url=http://500wordsmag.com/art-and-culture/10-urban-contemporary-songs-by-sudanese-artists-you-should-listen-to/ |access-date=1 April 2021 |website=500 Words Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> One of them is the Sudanese–American rapper [[Ramey Dawoud]] and another the Sudanese–Italian singer and songwriter Amira Kheir.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=28 July 2011 |title=Amira Kheir Releases View From Somewhere |url=https://worldmusiccentral.org/2011/07/28/amira-kheir-releases-view-from-somewhere/ |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=World Music Central |language=en-US}}</ref>

International artists, such as the popular Australian hip hop musician [[Bangs (hip hop artist)|Bangs]], who was born in [[Juba]], South Sudan, see these genres as an avenue for peace, tolerance, and community for millions of African youth, who are powerful in numbers but politically marginalised. As the example of South Sudanese singer [[Emmanuel Jal]] shows, the lyrics have the ability to reach even child soldiers to imagine a different lifestyle.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ireland|first=Corydon|date=20 March 2008|title=Conference brings out pacific potential of African hip-hop|url=https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2008/03/conference-brings-out-pacific-potential-of-african-hip-hop/|access-date=23 March 2021|website=Harvard Gazette|language=en-US}}</ref> Jimmie Briggs, the author of the book ''Innocence Lost: When Child Soldiers Go to War'' (2005) concurred: "A music group is not an army, but it can get powerful social messages out before trouble starts."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Briggs|first=Jimmie|url=http://archive.org/details/innocentslostwhe0000brig|title=Innocents lost: when child soldiers go to war|date=2005|publisher=New York : Basic Books|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-465-00798-1}}</ref> US-based Sudanese rapper [[Nadine El Roubi]] has gained popularity online, while also raising funds for Sudan during the [[Sudanese civil war (2023–present)]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Chokrane |first=Boutayna |date=2023-07-12 |title=Nadine El Roubi Defies Afro-Arab Taboos, One Freestyle At A Time |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/nadine-el-roubi-sudan-freestyles-sza-1234786605/ |access-date=2024-09-17 |magazine=Rolling Stone |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Urban contemporary music of the 21st century ====
Since producing music in recording studios, using modern instruments and digital media, has become available in Sudan, growing numbers of people are listening to private (online) radio stations like Capital Radio 91.6 FM or are watching music videos.<ref>{{Cite web|last=[[Omnia Shawkat]]|date=8 November 2016|title=Afrodiziac & impact interview with Ahmad Hikmat|url=https://www.andariya.com/post/Afrodiziac-and-Impact-Interview-with-Ahmad-Hikmat|access-date=15 November 2019|website=Andariya Magazine}}</ref> As in other countries with restrictions of freedom of expression, the use of [[smartphone]]s offers especially young, urban and educated people, and most importantly, Sudanese women, a relatively safe space for exchange with their friends or distant relatives, as well as access to many sources of entertainment, learning or general information.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gaafar|first=Reem|date=13 February 2019|title=Sudanese women at the heart of the revolution|url=https://www.andariya.com/post/Sudanese-Women-at-the-Heart-of-the-Revolution|access-date=15 November 2019|website=Andariya magazine}}</ref>

Until the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19, permission for public concerts had to be obtained by the Ministry of Culture as well as by the police, and after 11&nbsp;pm, all public events had to end. As the mostly young audiences did not have enough money to pay for tickets, most concerts, for example in the National Theatre in Omdurman, the garden of the [[National Museum of Sudan]] or the Green Yard sports arena in Khartoum, were offered free of charge. Musical performances were also organized in the premises of the French, German or British Cultural centres, giving young artists a chance to perform in a sheltered environment. Workshops with visiting artists and festivals like the Karmakol International Festival or the Sama Music Festival have given opportunities to young Sudanese musicians to improve their skills and experience.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karmakol Festival Returns in December 2021 |url=http://500wordsmag.com/art-and-culture/karmakol-festival-returns-in-december-2021/ |access-date=2023-02-25 |website=500 Words Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sama Music Campus Sudan 2018 – 2020|url=https://global-music-international.net/sama-music-campus/|access-date=2021-04-07|website=Global Music International|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2022-05-10 |title=Amplifying women's voices in Sudanese hip hop |url=https://www.nadja.co/2022/05/10/amplifying-womens-voices-in-sudanese-hip-hop/ |access-date=2023-03-22 |website=NADJA |language=en-GB}}</ref>
[[File:Aswat_Al_Madina.jpg|thumb|Aswat Al Madina at Rateena Café, Khartoum, 2021]]
Famous local artists of this era are the musicians of [[Igd al-Jalad (music group)|Igd al-Jalad]], a group known for its critical expression for many years,<ref name="Verney2006">Verney, 2006, p. 401</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Beatles of Sudan: 200 songs banished from Khartoum to Norway · ArtsEverywhere|url=https://artseverywhere.ca/2017/09/21/beatles-sudan/|date=21 September 2017|website=ArtsEverywhere|language=en-US|access-date=5 May 2020|archive-date=12 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812062850/https://artseverywhere.ca/2017/09/21/beatles-sudan/|url-status=dead}}</ref> the popular singer [[Nancy Agag|Nancy Ajaj]] and the pop group [[Aswat Almadina]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aswat Almadina|title=Home|url=https://www.aswatalmadina.com/|access-date=12 November 2019|website=aswatalmadina.com|archive-date=12 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112121729/https://www.aswatalmadina.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> all of them singing more or less obvious lyrics about their love of the country, which they claim as their heritage and future, despite the ruling government of the time. Another popular musician is [[Mazin Hamid]], who became known as producer of [[music videos]] and through his live performances as singer, guitarist and composer.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Salih |first=Atif Ali |date=2016-09-15 |title=كافيه شو - مازن حامد: حكاية موسيقية جديدة |trans-title=Café show - Mazin Hamid: A new musical story |url=https://www.mc-doualiya.com/programs/hot-coffe-mcd/20160915-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%86-%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%81%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%89-%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B9 |access-date=2023-06-03 |website=مونت كارلو الدولية / MCD |language=ar}}</ref> [[Islam Elbeiti]] is  a young Sudanese female bass player, [[Radio personality|radio presenter]], and social change activist.<ref>{{Cite web|last=British Council Sudan|title=Artist of the month: Islam Elbeiti|url=https://sudan.britishcouncil.org/en/artist-month-islam-elbeiti|access-date=2021-04-15|website=sudan.britishcouncil.org|language=en|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418073110/https://sudan.britishcouncil.org/en/artist-month-islam-elbeiti|url-status=dead}}</ref> As members of the important group of the [[:Category:Sudanese expatriates|Sudanese diaspora]], [[Alsarah]] & The Nubatones, [[Sinkane]] or the rapper [[Oddisee]] are examples for musicians with a Sudanese background living in the US.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Saed|first=Omnia|date=2016-09-26|title=4 artists from the new school of Sudanese music speak on their search for home & identity|url=https://www.okayafrica.com/sudanese-music-new-school-artists/|access-date=2021-04-05|website=OkayAfrica|language=en}}</ref>

Following their musical studies at [[Ahfad University for Women]] in Omdurman, as well as by participating in workshops and concerts at the German cultural institute in Khartoum, a band of young women called Salute yal Bannot ('''Respect for the girls''') became well known in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wagenknecht|first=Laura|date=8 September 2016|title='Respect to the girls'- meet Sudan's all-female band|url=https://www.dw.com/en/respect-to-the-girls-meet-sudans-all-female-band/a-19537368|access-date=12 November 2019|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB}}</ref> Their song ''African Girl''<ref>Music video by Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/Aa-zXLUVRg8 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20170329212442/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aa-zXLUVRg8 Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Citation|last=Goethe-Institut|title=Salute yal bannot "African girl"|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aa-zXLUVRg8|language=en|access-date=12 November 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> has scored more than 130,000 views on YouTube alone and earned them an invitation to the popular music show [[Arabs Got Talent]] in [[Beirut]]. After leaving this band, one of their lead singers, composer and keyboard player Hiba Elgizouli has been pursuing her own career as a singer-songwriter and produced her own music videos.<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 June 2018|title=Hiba Elgizouli|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/directory/hiba-elgizouli|access-date=12 November 2019|website=Music in Africa|language=en}}</ref>

A new trend in Sudanese urban music since the 2010s is called ''Zanig'' and has become popular as a form of [[underground music]], spread through [[Bootleg recording|bootleg]] recordings, live shows and sound systems on public transport. It was described in the following way by cultural journalist and fellow of the [[Rift Valley Institute]], Magdi el Gizouli:<blockquote>This bootleg musical genre, pioneered by the King [[Ayman al-Rubo]], is a fusion of West African beats and Egyptian [[Mahraganat|mahrajanat]] style, with frequent accelerations and deceleration and [[techno]]-style repetition. Zanig queens sing about "[[Combined oral contraceptive pill|antibaby pills]]" and the agency of "[[MILF]]s" and introduce themselves with maxims like: "If you follow the sugar mummies you'll end up driving six cars, and if you follow the little buds you'll waste your money in restaurants".<ref>{{Cite web|last=El Gizouli|first=Magdi|date=January 2020|title=Mobilization and resistance in Sudan's uprising – From neighbourhood committees to zanig queens|url=http://riftvalley.net/sites/default/files/publication-documents/Mobilization%20and%20resistance%20in%20Sudan%27s%20uprising%20by%20Magdi%20el%20Gizouli%20-%20RVI%20X-Border%20Briefing%20%282020%29.pdf|access-date=9 September 2020|website=Rift Valley Institute (RVI)|page=4|archive-date=7 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407184029/http://riftvalley.net/sites/default/files/publication-documents/Mobilization%20and%20resistance%20in%20Sudan%27s%20uprising%20by%20Magdi%20el%20Gizouli%20-%20RVI%20X-Border%20Briefing%20%282020%29.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref></blockquote>In 2020, a local branch of the [[Arabic Oud House]] (''Bayt al-Ud al-Arabi'') was opened in Khartoum, dedicated to teaching the Arabic musical instruments [[oud]] and [[Qanun (instrument)|qanun]] as well as classical [[Arabic music]]<nowiki/>al tradition, and as a centre for events and exchange.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bait Aloud - Khartoum|url=https://www.schoolandcollegelistings.com/SD/Khartoum/105023097708743/Bait-Aloud---Khartoum-%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF---%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%85|access-date=2021-10-18|website=www.schoolandcollegelistings.com|language=ar}}</ref> The Arabic Oud House is a network of musical centres, started by renowned Iraqi oud player and composer [[Nasseer Shamma|Naseer Shamma]], with headquarters in Cairo and branches in Alexandria, Egypt, as well as in Constantine, Algeria and Abu Dhabi, UAE.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Abu Dhabi Fest Celebrates The Oud!|url=https://www.albawaba.com/editors-choice/abu-dhabi-fest-celebrates-oud-1429289|access-date=2021-10-18|website=Al Bawaba|language=en}}</ref>

In 2022, a new band from [[Port Sudan]] called [[Noori & his Dorpa Band]] published music videos and an album for Ostinato records.<ref>{{Citation |title=Noori & His Dorpa Band — Saagama (Beja Power! Electric Soul & Brass from Sudan's Red Sea Coast) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0YKkQPgEYM |language=en |access-date=2022-08-06}}</ref> Their music is inspired by traditional and modern music of the [[Beja people]], using a traditional [[Tanbūra (lyre)|tanbura]] (lyre) combined with an electric guitar as well as saxophone, electric guitars and a rhythm section.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Noori & His Dorpa Band's "Beja Power": Defiant in the face of repression - Qantara.de |url=https://en.qantara.de/content/noori-his-dorpa-bands-beja-power-defiant-in-the-face-of-repression |access-date=2022-08-06 |website=Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Sudanese singers]]
*[[Arabic music]] 
*[[Sudanese literature]]
* [[Jantra (musician)]]

==References==
=== Notes ===
{{Notelist}}

===Reference notes===
{{Reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
* {{Citation| last =Sikainga| first =Ahmad| contribution =A short history of Sudanese popular music | year =2012 | title =The Sudan Handbook |url=https://riftvalley.net/index.php/publication/sudan-handbook| editor1-last =Ryle | editor1-first =John| editor2-last =Willis | editor2-first =Justin| editor3-last =Baldo | editor3-first =Suliman| editor4-last =Madut Jok| editor4-first =Jok | pages =243–253 |edition=digital| place =London | publisher =Rift Valley Institute |isbn=9781847010308|jstor= | contribution-url = }}
*{{cite book |last1=Verney |first1=Peter |first2=Helen |last2=Jerome |first3=Moawia |last3=Yassin |year=2006 |chapter=Sudan. Still yearning to dance |pages=397–407 |editor1-last=Broughton |editor1-first=Simon |editor2-first=Mark |editor2-last=Ellingham |editor3-first=Jon |editor3-last=Lusket |title=The Rough Guide to World Music: Africa & Middle East |publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=978-1-84353-551-5|publication-place=London, New York |oclc=76761811|ref=Verney, 2006}}

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.andariya.com/post/Dr-Ali-Al-Daw-Music-as-Heritage Ahmed, Alrumaisa. ''(2017) Dr. Ali Al Daw: Music as heritage.'' Andariya Cultural Magazine]
*{{Cite book|last1=al-Daw|first1=Ali |title=Traditional musical instruments in Sudan.|last2=Muhammad|first2=Abd-Alla|date=1985|publisher=Inst. of African and Asian Studies|location=Khartoum|language=ar, en|oclc=631658755}}
* al-Fātiḥ, Ṭāhir. ''Anā Ummdurmān: tārīkh al-mūsīqá fī al-Sūdān'' {{Cite book|last=الفاتح|first=طاهر|title=أنا امدرمان: تاريخ الموسيقى في السودان (I am Omdurman: musical history in the Sudan )|publisher=|year=1993|location=Khartoum|language=ar|oclc=38217171}}
* [http://500wordsmag.com/interviews/behind-the-sounds-of-sudan-preserving-and-celebrating-our-musical-history/ Badri, Leena. (2020) ''Behind the sounds of Sudan: Preserving and celebrating our musical history.'']
*Banning, Eyre. [https://afropop.org/articles/new-releases-of-sudanese-music (2018). ''New releases of Sudanese music.'' Afropop Worldwide]
*Ille Enrico (2019). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TuKDwAAQBAJ&dq=Sage+international+Encyclopedia+Music+Sudan&pg=PA2094 Sudan: Modern and contemporary performance practice],'' In Sturman, Janet (ed.) The SAGE international encyclopedia of music and culture. p.&nbsp;2094ff. {{ISBN|1483317749|9781483317748}}
*Locale.sd. ''[http://localesd.com/project/berif-introduction-haqeeba A brief introduction to hageeba]'', illustrated document and audio files on the role of hageeba music in Sudan
* {{Cite thesis |title=Exploring Aghani al-banat: A postcolonial ethnographic approach to Sudanese women's songs, culture, and performance |url=https://core.ac.uk/display/47014376 |publisher=Ohio University |date=2003 |language=en |first=Saadia I. |last=Malik |degree=PhD}}
*[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39327885 Elbagir, Yousra. ''Letter from Africa: How poetry is taking on state censorship in Sudan''. BBC Africa]
*{{Cite book|last=Simon|first=Artur|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000027077|chapter=Sudan, Republic of|publisher=Grove Music Online|year=2001|doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.27077|isbn=978-1-56159-263-0}}
*Yāsīn, Muʻāwiyah Ḥasan. 2005. ''Min tārīkh al-ghināʼ wa-al-mūsīqá fī al-Sūdān''. Omdurman: Markaz ʻAbd al-Karīm Mīrghanī al-Thaqāfī. {{ISBN|9994256750}} {{OCLC|537408538}} Three volumes in Arabic on the history of singing and music in Sudan.

== External links==
=== Selected discography ===
* [https://worldmusiccentral.org/2005/05/14/the-rough-guide-to-the-music-of-sudan/ The Rough Guide to the music of Sudan (2005)]
* [https://www.discogs.com/de/search/?type=all&country=Sudan 330 records from Sudanese and South Sudanese musicians on discogs]
* [https://www.discogs.com/de/Various-Two-Niles-To-Sing-A-Melody-The-Violins-Synths-Of-Sudan/release/12463465 Two Niles to sing a melody: The violins & synths of Sudan]
* [https://www.discogs.com/de/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%83-%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF-%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9-Abdel-Gadir-Sali/master/904264 Sounds of Sudan – Abdel Gadir Salim, Abdel Aziz El Mubarak, Mohamed Gubara]

===To audio files or music videos===
{{Commons category|Music of Sudan}}

*[https://ostinatorecords.bandcamp.com/album/beja-power-electric-soul-brass-from-sudans-red-sea-coast Audio files of 2022 album ''Beja power! Electric soul & brass from Sudan's Red Sea coast'']
*[https://www.anya.africa/post/afri-cask-soudan-dans-le-casque-de-randa-hamid Selected music videos by Sudanese festival producer Randa Hamid]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BnMjFDUTdBE&t=118s Zikr at the Hamid El-Nil Mosque in Omdurman] on YouTube
*[https://afropop.org/audio-programs/music-and-history-in-the-two-sudans Music and history in the two Sudans, podcast by Afropop Worldwide]
*[https://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/sudan-songs-golden-era-music-heritage Five songs that defined Sudan's golden era], with links to music videos with English translation 
*[https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1310528z.r=soudan?rk=236052;4 Audio files of a historical hageeba song by] Abdel Karim Karouma, French National Library.
*[https://ostinatorecords.bandcamp.com/album/abu-obaida-hassan-his-tambour-the-shaigiya-sound-of-sudan Abu Obaida Hassan & his tambour: The Shaigiya sound of Sudan]
*[https://habibifunkrecords.bandcamp.com/album/habibi-funk-009-jazz-jazz-jazz Jazz, Jazz, Jazz, The Scorpions & Saif Abu Bakr] 
*[https://habibifunkrecords.bandcamp.com/album/habibi-funk-008-muslims-and-christians Muslims and Christians, Kamal Keila]
*[https://habibifunkrecords.bandcamp.com/album/original-sudanese-tapes-nagat-abdallah Original Sudanese tapes, Nagat Abdallah] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223182301/https://habibifunkrecords.bandcamp.com/album/original-sudanese-tapes-nagat-abdallah |date=23 December 2019 }}
*[https://habibifunkrecords.bandcamp.com/album/sudan-tapes-al-balbil-solo Sudan tapes – Al Balbil Solo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223182302/https://habibifunkrecords.bandcamp.com/album/sudan-tapes-al-balbil-solo |date=23 December 2019 }}
* [[The Rough Guide to the Music of North Africa]], CD 1997
* Sudanese recording label [https://www.discogs.com/label/749019-Munsphone Munsphone] on [[discogs]]
*[http://www.sudanupdate.org/REPORTS/MUSIC/MUS18.HTM Annotated discography by sudanupdate.org]
*[https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCFN92BiTH14qJ7BUsFET4gQ Selected music videos with English translation and notes by ''The Sounds of Sudan''] on YouTube
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b09v3fdk BBC Radio 4 on Sudan's newest generation of musicians] (audio programme)
*[https://folkways.si.edu/sudan-music-of-the-blue-nile-province-the-gumuz-tribe/world/music/album/smithsonian Field recordings from 1980 of traditional music] of the [[Gumuz people|Gumuz ethnic group]] in Sudan's [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile State]]
*[https://folkways.si.edu/sudan-music-of-the-blue-nile-province-the-ingessana-and-berta-tribes/world/music/album/smithsonian Field recordings from 1980 of traditional music] of the [[Ingessana people|Ingessana]] and [[Berta people]]s in Sudan's Blue Nile State

{{Sudan topics}}
{{Music of Africa}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Music of Sudan]]
[[Category:Society of Sudan]]
[[Category:Culture of Sudan]]