View source for Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab

{{Short description|Islamic scholar, jurist, and eponym of Wahhabi movement (1703–1792) from Saudi Arabia}}
{{similar names|Muhammad 'Abd al-Wahhab (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| name               = Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
| religion           = [[Islam]]
| birth_date         = {{Birth date text|1703}} (1115 A.H)
| birth_place        = [['Uyayna]], [[Najd]]<ref name="Encyclopedia.com 2021">{{cite web | title=?Abd Al-Wahhab, Muhammad Ibn (1703-1792) | website=Encyclopedia.com | date=2021-12-29 | url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/abd-al-wahhab-muhammad-ibn-1703-1792 | access-date=2021-12-30}}</ref>
| death_date         = {{death date and age|1792|1703}} (1206 AH)
| death_place        = [[Diriyah]], [[Emirate of Diriyah]]<ref name="Britannica.com 2021">{{cite web | title=Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb Muslim theologian | website=Britannica.com | date=2021-12-29 | url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad-ibn-Abd-al-Wahhab | access-date=2021-12-30}}</ref>
| denomination       = [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] ([[Wahhabism]])
| nocat_wdimage      = yes
| jurisprudence      = [[Hanbali]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916|title=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad - Oxford Islamic Studies Online |year=2020 |website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com |location=New York|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715173529/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |archive-date=15 July 2020 }}</ref> [[Ahl al-Hadith|Ahl al-Ḥadīth/Independent]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Glasse |first=Cyril |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |year=2001 |location=[[Lanham, Maryland]] |publisher=[[AltaMira Press]] |pages=469–70 |quote=The Wahhabis are often said to 'belong' to the Hanbali School of Law (''madhhab''), but strictly speaking, like the Ahl al-Hadith{{spaces}}... they are ghayr muqallidun ('non-adherents'), and do not see themselves as belonging to any school, any more than the first Muslim generations did.}}</ref>
| creed              = [[Traditionalist theology (Islam)|Atharī]]{{sfn|Halverson|2010|page=48}}
| main_interests     = [[Aqidah]] (Islamic theology)
| notable_ideas      = 
| notable_works      = ''[[The Book of Tawhid: The Right of Allah Upon His Servants|Kitab al-Tawhid]]'' ({{langx|ar|كتاب التوحيد}}; "The Book of Monotheism")<ref name="Britannica.com 2021"/>
| influences         = {{plainlist|
*[[Ahmad Ibn Hanbal]]
*[[Ibn Taymiyyah]]{{sfn|Brown|2009|page=245}}{{sfn|Wagemakers|2021|page=341}}
*[[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya]]{{sfn|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}}
*[[Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi]]
*[[Ibn Rajab| Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bradford |first=Joe|url= |title=Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World: Digital Collection |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-19-766941-9 |editor-last=L. Esposito |editor-first=John |chapter=IbnʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Muḥammad |doi=10.1093/acref/9780197669419.001.0001 }}</ref>
}}
| influenced         = {{plainlist|
*[[Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin|Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin]]
*[[House of Saud]]
*[[House of Thani]]
*[[Rashid Rida]]
* [[Ibn Baz]]
* [[Muhammad ibn al-Uthaymeen]]
* [[Abdul-Rahman Al-Sudais]]
* [[Saud Al-Shuraim]]
}}
| children           = {{Collapsible list|titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=|'Alī (first)|Ḥasan|Ḥusain|Ibrāhīm|[[Abdullah ibn Muhammad Abd al Wahhab|Abdullāh]]|'Alī|Fāṭimah|'Abdulazīz}}
| module             = {{Infobox Arabic name|embed=yes
| ism = Muḥammad
| nasab = ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān ibn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rāshid
| kunya = Abū al-Ḥasan
| laqab = an-Najdī
| nisba = at-Tamīmī}}
| title              = [[Imam]], [[Shaykh]]
| movement           = [[Wahhabi]]{{sfn|Brown|2009|pp=245–47}}
[[Salafi]]
| native_name        = {{Nobold|{{Lang|ar|محمد بن عبد الوهاب}}}}
| relatives          = [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab|Sulayman]] (brother)
| image              = 
}}

'''Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab ibn Sulayman al-Tamimi Al Najdi'''{{efn|{{langx|ar|  الوهيب ‎مُحَمَّد بْن عَبْد ٱلْوَهَّاب بْن سُلَيْمَان ٱلتَّمِيمِيّ|Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān at-Tamīmī}} {{IPA|ar|mʊħamːad bɪn ʕabd‿alˈwah(h)aːb||Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab.ogg}}.|group=Note}} (1703–1792) was an Arab Muslim [[Aalim|scholar]], [[Islamic theology|theologian]], [[Dawah|preacher]], [[Islamic activism|activist]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mouline |first=Nabil |title=The Clerics of Islam: Religious Authority and Political Power in Saudi Arabia |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-300-17890-6 |location=London |page=62 |quote="He was not a great intellectual like Ibn Qudama, Ibn Taymiyya, or Ibn al-Qayyim but rather an activist."}}</ref> religious leader,{{sfn|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}} [[Faqīh|jurist]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=N. Stearns |first=Peter |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-517632-2 |location=New York, NY |chapter=Wahhabism |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195176322.001.0001 |quote=Muhammad ibn ῾Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), was a scholar and Hanbali jurist who called for a return to the fundamental sources of Islamic revelation, the Qur᾽an and sunna (example of Muhammad) for direct interpretation, resulting in decreased attention to and reliance upon medieval interpretations of these sources |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195176322.001.0001/acref-9780195176322-e-1677?rskey=RtFC0x&result=2}}</ref> and reformer,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 ) |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712051853/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |archive-date=12 July 2016 |website=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> who was from [[Najd]] in [[Arabian Peninsula]] and is considered as the eponymous founder of the [[Wahhabi movement]].<ref>Sources:

* {{Cite book |last=L. Esposito |first=John |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-19-512558-4 |location=New York |page=123 |quote="lbn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d.1791) Saudi fuabian conservative theologian, Hanbali jurist, reformer, and ideologue of the so-called Wahhabi movement. Prodaimed the necessity of returning directly to the Quran and hadith, rather than relying on medieval interpretations."}}
* {{Cite book |last=Richard Netton |first=Ian |title=Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7007-1588-6 |location=New York |page=246 |chapter=IBN 'ABD AL-WAHHAB, MUHAMMAD (1703–92)}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |encyclopedia=The Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |date=1986 |editor=Schacht, J |volume=III |pages=677–679 |isbn=90-04-08118-6 |editor2=Lewis, B |editor3=Pellat, C |editor4=Ménage, V.L.}}
* {{Cite book |last=E. Campo |first=Juan |title=Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=Facts on File Inc. |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |location=New York |pages=324–325 |quote="Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703–1791) conservative religious reformer who launched the so-called Wahhabi movement."}}</ref>

The label "Wahhabi" is not claimed by his followers but rather employed by Western scholars as well as his critics.<ref>Sources:

* {{harvnb|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}}
* {{harvnb|Commins|2015|page=151}}
* {{harvnb|Silverstein|2010|pages=112–13}}
* {{harvnb|Bokhari|Senzai|2013|pages=82–3}}</ref> Born to a family of [[Faqīh|jurists]],<ref name="ReferenceB2">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#2nd edition, EI2|Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=[[Leiden]] |last=Laoust |first=H. |orig-date=1993 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. J. |volume=11 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3033 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs}}</ref> Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's early education consisted of learning a fairly standard curriculum of [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]] according to the [[Hanbali]] [[Maddhab|school]], which was most prevalent in his area of birth.<ref name="ReferenceB2" /> He promoted strict adherence to traditional Islamic law, proclaiming the necessity of returning directly to the [[Quran]] and [[Hadith|Hadith literature]] rather than relying on medieval interpretations, and insisted that every Muslim{{snd}} male and female{{snd}} personally read and study the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Delong-Bas |first=Natana |title=Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-19-516991-3 |location=New York |pages=29,30,117,28,37}}</ref> He opposed ''[[taqlid]]'' (blind following) and called for the use of ''[[ijtihad]]'' (independent legal reasoning through research of scripture).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 ) |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712051853/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |archive-date=12 July 2016 |website=Oxford Islamic Studies}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Delong-Bas |first=Natana |title=Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-19-516991-3 |location=New York |pages=14, 21, 29}}</ref>

Being given religious training under various [[Sunni Muslim]] scholars during his travels to [[Hejaz]] and [[Basra]], Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab gradually became opposed to certain rituals and practices such as the [[Ziyarat|visitation to]] and [[Veneration#Islam|veneration]] of the [[Wali|shrines and tombs of Muslim saints]],{{sfn|Esposito|2004|page=123}}<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#2nd edition, EI2|Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=[[Leiden]] |last=Laoust |first=H. |orig-date=1993 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. J. |volume=11 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3033 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs}}</ref>{{sfn|Ágoston|Masters|2009|page=260}} which he condemned as [[Bid'ah|heretical religious innovation]] or even [[Shirk (Islam)|idolatry]].<ref name="ReferenceB" />{{sfn|Ágoston|Masters|2009|page=260}}<ref name="Crooke 2014">{{cite news |last=Crooke |first=Alastair |author-link=Alastair Crooke |orig-date=First published 27 August 2014 |date=30 March 2017 |title=You Can't Understand ISIS If You Don't Know the History of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/alastair-crooke/isis-wahhabism-saudi-arabia_b_5717157.html |location=New York |work=[[The Huffington Post]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828141900/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/alastair-crooke/isis-wahhabism-saudi-arabia_b_5717157.html |archive-date=28 August 2014 |url-status=live |access-date=10 September 2020}}</ref>{{sfn|Khatab|2011|pages=56–76}} While claiming to be a Hanbali, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab minimized reliance on medieval legal manuals, instead engaging in direct interpretation of scriptures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=N. Stearns |first=Peter |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-517632-2 |location=New York, NY |chapter=Wahhabism |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195176322.001.0001 |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195176322.001.0001/acref-9780195176322-e-1677?rskey=RtFC0x&result=2}}</ref> His views were also rejected by nearly all of mainstream Hanbali scholars of his time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fata |first=Badrus Samsul |last2=Ismail |first2=Idznursham |date=2022-06-03 |title=Brother against Brother: Early Refutation of Wahhabism by the 18th-century Hanbali Scholars |url=https://ejournal.uin-suka.ac.id/ushuluddin/esensia/article/view/3243 |journal=ESENSIA: Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Ushuluddin |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=17–36 |doi=10.14421/esensia.v23i1.3243 |issn=2548-4729}}</ref> His call for [[social reform]]s was based on the key doctrine of ''[[tawhid]]'' (oneness of God), and was greatly inspired by the treatises of classical scholars [[Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyya]] (d. 728 A.H/ 1328 C.E) and [[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya|Ibn Qayyim]] (d. 751 A.H/ 1350 C.E).<ref>Sources:
* {{harvnb|Bokhari|Senzai|2013|pages=82–3}}
* {{Cite web|title=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712051853/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916|archive-date=12 July 2016|website=Oxford Islamic Studies Online|quote="Plans for socioreligious reform in society were based on the key doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God)"}}
* {{Cite book|last=J. Delong-Bass|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|page=13}}</ref><ref name="Weismann 2001 268">{{Cite book |last=Weismann |first=Itzchak |title=Taste of Modernity: Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus |publisher=Brill |year=2001 |isbn=90-04-11908-6 |location=Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands |page=268 |chapter=7: Local Renaissance under the Centralizing Regimes (1883-1918)}}</ref>

Despite being opposed or rejected by some of his contemporary critics amongst the religious clergy,{{sfn|Brown|2009|page=245}}<ref name="ReferenceB"/>{{sfn|Khatab|2011|pages=56–76}}<ref name="Traboulsi 2002">{{cite journal |last=Traboulsi |first=Samer |date=January 2002 |title=An Early Refutation of Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's Reformist Views |editor-last=Brunner |editor-first=Rainer |journal=[[Die Welt des Islams]] |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=42 |issue=3: ''Arabic Literature and Islamic Scholarship in the 17th/18th Century: Topics and Biographies'' |pages=373–415 |doi=10.1163/15700600260435038 |eissn=1570-0607 |issn=0043-2539 |jstor=1571420}}</ref> Ibn Abd al-Wahhab charted a religio-political pact with [[Muhammad bin Saud]] to help him to establish the [[Emirate of Diriyah]], the first Saudi state,{{sfn|Esposito|2004|page=123}}<ref>[[#Hou92|Hourani 1992]]: 257–58.</ref> and began a dynastic alliance and power-sharing arrangement between their families which continues to the present day in the [[Saudi Arabia|Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]].{{sfn|Esposito|2004|page=123}}{{sfn|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}}<ref name="meforum.org">{{cite journal|author=Nawaf E. Obaid|date=September 1999|title=The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders|journal=Middle East Quarterly|publisher=Middle East Forum|volume=6|issue=3|pages=51–58|url=http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders|access-date=8 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806023223/http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders |archive-date=6 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Al ash-Sheikh]], Saudi Arabia's leading religious family, are the descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab,{{sfn|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}}{{sfn|Bokhari|Senzai|2013|pages=82-3}}<ref name="meforum.org"/> and have historically led the ''[[ulama]]'' in the Saudi state,<ref name="meforum.org"/><ref name="Abir 1987: 4, 5, 7">[[#Abi87|Abir 1987]]: 4, 5, 7.</ref> dominating the state's clerical institutions.<ref name="meforum.org"/><ref name="Met92">[[#Met92|Metz 1992]]</ref>

== Ancestry and early life ==
{{See also|Najd|Banu Tamim|label 2=Banī Tamim Tribe}}[[File:A_collection_of_voyages_and_travels-_consisting_of_authentic_writers_in_our_own_tongue,_which_have_not_before_been_collected_in_English,_or_have_only_been_abridged_in_other_collections._And_continued_(14586390739).jpg|right|thumb|200px|An 18th century map of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] (circa 1740s)]]

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab is generally acknowledged to have been born in 1703<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="Philby 1930: 8">[[#Phi30|Philby 1930]]: 8.</ref> into the sedentary and impoverished [[Tribes of Arabia|Arab clan]] of [[Banu Tamim]]<ref>[[#Gla03|Glassé 2003]]: 470.</ref><ref name=Saudi46>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D9pJAgAAQBAJ&q=ibn+%27Abd+al-Wahhab+born+najd&pg=PA46|title=The Politics of Truth Management in Saudi Arabia|last=Shahi|first=Afshin|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-65319-5|page=46}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mouline |first=Nabil |title=The Clerics of Islam: Religious Authority and Political Power in Saudi Arabia |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-300-17890-6 |location=London |page=62 |quote="He was not a great intellectual like Ibn Qudama, Ibn Taymiyya, or Ibn al-Qayyim but rather an activist."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 ) |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712051853/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |archive-date=12 July 2016 |website=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=N. Stearns |first=Peter |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-517632-2 |location=New York, NY |chapter=Wahhabism |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195176322.001.0001 |quote=Muhammad ibn ῾Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), was a scholar and Hanbali jurist who called for a return to the fundamental sources of Islamic revelation, the Qur᾽an and sunna (example of Muhammad) for direct interpretation, resulting in decreased attention to and reliance upon medieval interpretations of these sources |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195176322.001.0001/acref-9780195176322-e-1677?rskey=RtFC0x&result=2}}</ref>{{sfn|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}}  in [['Uyayna]], a village in the [[Najd]] region of central Arabia.<ref name="Philby 1930: 8"/><ref>[[#EI1Hou|EI1]]: 1086.</ref> Before the emergence of the movement, there was a very limited history of [[Education in Islam|Islamic education]] in the area.<ref name=Saudi46/><ref>[http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a509109.pdf Navalk Post Graduate School Thesis, September 2009, Michael R. Dillon: ''Wahhabism: Is it a factor in the spread of global terrorism?'', p. 13] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407090159/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a509109.pdf |date=7 April 2014}} Linked 3 March 2015.</ref> For this reason, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had modest access to Islamic education during his youth.<ref name=Saudi46/> Despite this,<ref name=Saudi46/><ref name="Gha">[[#Gha|ibn Ghannam]]: 75–76.</ref><ref>[[#Hop72|Hopwood 1972]]: 55.</ref><ref name="EI2: 677-678">[[#EI2Lao|EI2]]: 677–78.</ref> the area had nevertheless produced several notable [[Faqīh|jurists]] of the [[Hanbali]] [[Maddhab#Sunni|school of orthodox Sunni jurisprudence]], which was the school of law most prominently practiced in the area.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> In fact, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's own family "had produced several doctors of the school,"<ref name="ReferenceB"/> with his father, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, having been the Hanbali [[Mufti|jurisconsult]] of the Najd and his grandfather, Sulaymān, having been a [[Qadi|judge]] of Hanbali law.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

== Early studies ==
Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's early education was taught by his father,<ref name="ReferenceB"/> and consisted of learning the [[Quran]] by heart and studying a rudimentary level of [[Hanbali]] [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]] and [[Aqidah|Islamic theology]] as outlined in the works of [[Ibn Qudamah]] (d. 1223), one of the most influential medieval representatives of the Hanbali school, whose works were regarded "as having great authority" in the Najd.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The affirmation of [[Wali|Islamic sainthood]] and the ability of saints to perform miracles (''[[karamat]]'') by the grace of God had become a major aspect of [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslim]] belief throughout the [[Islamic world]], being agreed-upon by majority of the classical Islamic scholars.<ref>Al-Ashʿarī, ''al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl al-diyāna'', ed. Fawqiyya Ḥusayn Maḥmūd (Cairo: Dār al-Anṣār, 1397/1977), 31, 33: "It is possible for God to single out the righteous (''ṣāliḥīn'') by making signs (''āyāt'') appear at their hands".</ref><ref>Al-Ṭaḥāwī, ''Matn al-ʿaqīda al-ṭaḥāwiyya'', ed. Muḥammad Nāṣir al-Dīn al-Albānī (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islāmī, 1398/1978), 59: "[W]e believe in what has come via sound transmission through trustworthy narrators (''ṣaḥḥa ʿan al-thiqāt min ruwātihim'') from among their [the saints'] miracles".</ref><ref>Ibn Qudamah, cited in Ahmet T. Karamustafa, ''Sufism: The Formative Period'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007, p. 132).</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Radtke|first1=B.|last2=Lory |first2=P.|last3=Zarcone |first3=Th. |last4=DeWeese |first4=D. |last5=Gaborieau |first5=M. |last6=Denny |first6=F. M. |last7=Aubin |first7=Françoise |last8=Hunwick |first8=J. O.|last9=Mchugh |first9=N. |title=Walī |orig-date=1993 |year=2012 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. J. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W. P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#2nd edition, EI2|Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition]] |volume=11 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref> Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab had encountered various excessive beliefs and practices associated with saint-veneration and saint-cults which were prevalent in his area. During that era, various supernatural rituals and beliefs associated with [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]], [[superstition]]s, [[occultism]], [[numerology]], etc. had become predominant across numerous towns and villages of [[Arabian Peninsula]]. He probably chose to leave Najd and look elsewhere for studies to see if such beliefs and rituals were as popular in the neighboring places of the Muslim world or the possibility that his home town offered inadequate educational resources. Even today, the reasoning for why he left Najd is unclear.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="Samin 1–26">{{Cite journal |last=Samin |first=Nadav |date=18 February 2022 |title=Poetry, Magic, and the Formation of Wahhabism |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/65/1-2/article-p1_1.xml |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=65 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1163/15685209-12341561 |s2cid=247162037 |via=Brill|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Travels ==

=== Pilgrimage to Mecca ===
{{See also|Hajj}}

After leaving 'Uyayna around the age of twenty, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab performed the [[Hajj|Greater Pilgrimage]] in [[Mecca]], where the scholars appear to have held opinions and espoused teachings that were unpalatable to him.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> After this, he went to [[Medina]], the stay at which seems to have been "decisive in shaping the later direction of his thought."<ref name="ReferenceB"/> In Medina, he met a Hanbali theologian from Najd named ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ibrāhīm al-Najdī, who had been a supporter of the works of [[Ibn Taymiyyah]] (d. 1328), who holds an exceptionally high position in Islamic history.<ref>Ajhar A. Hakim: "In Islamic history, Ibn Taymiyya holds an exceptionally high position as an intellect in regard to his theories" ''The Forgotten Rational Thinking in the Ḥanbalite Thought With Special Reference to Ibn Taymiyya'' Khalifa University of Science, Technology and Research, Sharjah, U.A.E p.152</ref> Some Sunni Muslim scholars who adhere to a scripture-focused methodology praise Ibn Taymiyyah to be a [[Mujaddid|mujadid]] of the authentic [[Sunnah]],<ref> Rebecca Skreslet Hernandez, ''The Legal Thought of Jalāl Al-Din Al-Suyūṭī: Authority and Legacy'', p.133</ref> taking pride in the proliferation of his strict adherence to the Qur'an, Sunnah<ref>Muhammad (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) said "Every innovation is going astray, and every going astray will be in the Fire." ''Narrated by Muslim (867) an-Nasaa'i (1578)''</ref> and way of the companions of Muhammad,<ref>[[Jalal Abualrub]]: "Ibn Taymiyya only followed Prophetic statements and statements of the Prophet's companions and Muslim imams that prohibit innovating in the religion." (September 2013). ''Biography and Mission of Muhammad Ibn AbdulWahhab'' p.31</ref><ref>Ibn Mas'ood said: "Follow (the Sunnah) and do not innovate, because you have been sufficed." ''Ad-Darimi'' and he also said: "Practicing a little of the Sunnah is far better than practicing many innovations." ''Al-Hakim''</ref> though his teachings had been considered heterodox and misguided by many Sunni Muslim scholars who ascribed to the [[Sufism|Sufis]] of their time.<ref>Taqi al-Din al-Hisni referred to Ibn Taymiyyah as a "heretic from Harran"; see Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). ''Ibn Taymiyya and His Times''. Oxford University Press. p. 271.</ref><ref>Bori, Caterina. "Ibn Taymiyya (14th to 17th century): Transregional spaces of reading and reception." ''The Muslim World'' 108, no. 1 (2018): 87-123.</ref><ref>Kaya, Hasan. "The Factors Influencing the Criticism Directed toward Ibn Taymiyyah." Cumhuriyet Ilahiyat Dergisi/Cumhuriyet Theology Journal 29.1 (2025).</ref>

=== Tutelage under Al-Sindhi ===
{{Further|Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi|label1=Muhammād Hayyat ibn Ibrāhim al-Sindhi}}

Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teacher, 'Abdallah ibn Ibrahim ibn Sayf, introduced the relatively young man to [[Mohammad Hayya Al-Sindhi]] in [[Medina]], who belonged to the [[Naqshbandi]] order (''[[tariqa]]'') of [[Sufism]],<ref>John L. Esposito (ed.), ''The Oxford Dictionary of Islam'', Oxford University Press (2004), p. 296.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nE1DAQAAIAAJ|title=Islamic Law and Society|year= 2006|publisher=E.J. Brill|page=216|language=en}}</ref> and recommended him as a student.<ref name="Voll" /><ref>[[#Haj|ibn 'Hajar]]: 17–19.</ref><ref>Official sources on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life put his visits to these cities in different chronological orders, and the full extent of such travels remains disputed among historians. As well, dates are missing in a great many cases, making it difficult to reconstruct a chronology of his life up until his return to 'Uyayna in 1740.</ref> Muhammad Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab and al-Sindhi became very close, and Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab stayed with him for some time.<ref name="Voll">[[#Vol75|Voll 1975]]: 32–39 "Scholars have described Muhammad Hayya as having an important influence on Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, encouraging him in his developing determination to denounce rigid imitation of medieval commentaries and to utilize informed individual analysis (ijtihad). Muhammad Hayya also taught Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab a rejection of popular religious practices associated with 'saints' and their tombs that is similar to later Wahhdbi teachings".</ref> Muhammad Hayya taught Muhammad Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab to reject popular religious practices associated with [[wali]]s and their tombs. He also encouraged him to reject rigid imitation (''[[Taqlid]]'') of medieval legal commentaries and develop individual research of scriptures (''[[Ijtihad]]'').<ref name="Voll" /> Influenced by Al-Sindi's teachings, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab became critical of the established ''[[Madhhab|Madh'hab]]'' system, prompting him to disregard the instruments of ''[[Principles of Islamic jurisprudence|Usul al-Fiqh]]'' in his intellectual approach. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab rarely made use of ''[[Fiqh]]'' (Islamic jurisprudence) and various legal opinions in his writings, by and large forming views based on his direct understanding of Scriptures.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=M. Naf'i|first=Basheer|date=2006|title=A Teacher of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb: Muḥammad Ḥayāt al-Sindī and the Revival of Asḥāb al-Ḥadīth's Methodology|journal=Islamic Law and Society|publisher=Brill Publishers|volume=13|issue=2|pages=208, 240|doi=10.1163/156851906776917552|jstor=40377907|quote=}}</ref>

Apart from his emphasis on [[hadith studies]], aversion for the ''madhhab'' system and disregard for technical juristic discussions involving legal principles, Ibn Abd al-Wahhāb's views on ''[[Ziyarat|ziyārah]]'' (visitations to the shrines of ''[[Wali|Awliyaa]]'') were also shaped by Al-Sindhi. Sindi encouraged his student to reject folk practices associated with graves and saints.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cameron|first=Zargar|date=2017|title=Origins of Wahhabism from Hanbali Fiqh|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6rp796h4|journal=UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law|publisher=University of California|volume=16|issue=1|pages=96–97|doi=10.5070/N4161038736|doi-access=free}}</ref> Various themes in Al-Sindi's writings, such as his opposition to erecting tombs and [[Aniconism in Islam|drawing human images]], would be revived later by the [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] movement.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=M. Naf'i|first=Basheer|date=2006|title=A Teacher of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb: Muḥammad Ḥayāt al-Sindī and the Revival of Asḥāb al-Ḥadīth's Methodology|journal=Islamic Law and Society|publisher=Brill Publishers|volume=13|issue=2|page=217|jstor=40377907|quote="Certain themes that Hayat al-Sindl discussed in his writings, such as his opposition to erecting tombs and drawing human images, would soon resurface in the teachings of Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Wahhab."}}</ref> Sindi instilled in Ibn Abd al-Wahhab the belief that practices like beseeching the dead saints constituted [[Apostasy in Islam|apostasy]] and resembled the customs of the people of ''[[Jahiliyyah|Jahiliyya]]'' (pre-Islamic era).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cameron|first=Zargar|date=2017|title=Origins of Wahhabism from Hanbali Fiqh|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6rp796h4|journal=UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law|publisher=University of California|volume=16|issue=1|page=97}}</ref> In a significant encounter between a young Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Al-Sindhi reported by the Najdi historian 'Uthman Ibn Bishr (d. 1288 A.H./ 1871/2 C.E.):<blockquote>"... one day Shaykh Muḥammad [Ibn 'Abdi'l-Wahhāb] stood by the chamber of the Prophet where people were calling [upon him or supplicating] and seeking help by the Prophet's chamber, blessings and peace be upon him. He then saw Muḥammad Ḥayāt [al Sindī] and came to him. The shaykh [Ibn 'Abdi'l-Wahhāb] asked, "What do you say about them?" He [al-Sindī] said, "Verily that in which they are engaged shall be destroyed and their acts are invalid.""<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cameron|first=Zargar|date=2017|title=Origins of Wahhabism from Hanbali Fiqh|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6rp796h4|journal=UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law|publisher=University of California|volume=16|issue=1|page=96}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Journey to Basra ===
Following his early education in Medina, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab traveled outside of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], venturing first to [[Basra]]<ref name="Gha" /><ref>[[#Bis|ibn Bishr]]: 7–8.</ref> which was still an active center of Islamic culture.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> During his stay in Basra, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab studied Hadith and Fiqh under the Islamic scholar Muhammad al-Majmu'i. In Basra, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab came into contact with [[Shi'is]] and would write a treatise repudiating the theological doctrines of ''[[Rafidah]]'', an extreme sect of Shiism. He also became influenced by the writings of Hanbali theologian [[Ibn Rajab]] (d. 1393 C.E/ 795 A.H) such as "''Kalimat al-Ikhlas''" which inspired Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's seminal treatise "''Kitab al-Tawhid''".<ref>{{Cite book|last=J. Delong-Bas|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|page=22|quote="Ibn Abd al-Wahhab set out for Basra (located in modern Iraq), where he pursued additional studies in hadith and fiqh with an important scholar and madrasa (Islamic school) teacher, Muhammad al-Majmu'i... It is believed that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab came into contact with Shiis during this stay in Basra,... he specifically targeted only one particular extremist sect, the Rafidah, in only one treatise."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bradford |first=Joe |url= |title=Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World: Digital Collection |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-19-766941-9 |editor-last=L. Esposito |editor-first=John |chapter=IbnʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Muḥammad |doi=10.1093/acref/9780197669419.001.0001 }}</ref>

== Return to 'Uyaynah ==
===Early preaching===
His leave from [[Basra]] marked the end of his education and by the time of his return to [['Uyayna]], Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had mastered various religious disciplines such as Islamic ''[[Fiqh]]'' (jurisprudence), [[Aqidah|theology]], [[Hadith studies|hadith sciences]] and ''[[Sufism|Tasawwuf]]''. His exposure to various practices centered around the cult of saints and grave veneration would eventually propel Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab to grow critical of Sufi superstitious accretions and practices.<ref name="Haj 338">{{Cite journal|last=Haj|first=Samira|date=April 1997|title=Reordering Islamic Orthodoxy: Muhammad ibn 'Abdul Wahhab|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1478-1913.2002.tb03747.x|journal=The Muslim World|volume=92|issue=3–4|page=338|doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2002.tb03747.x |via=Wiley Online Library|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor=Schacht, J |editor2=Lewis, B |editor3=Pellat, C |editor4=Ménage, V.L. |encyclopedia=The Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition |volume=III |year=1986|isbn=90-04-08118-6 |publisher=E. J. Brill |location=Leiden, Netherlands|page=678|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam }}</ref> Rather than targeting "Sufism" as a phenomenon or a group, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced particular practices which he considered sinful.<ref>{{Cite book|last=J. Delong-Bas|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|page=84}}</ref> He fashioned his reformist campaign in a manner that appealed to the socio-cultural dynamics of 18th century Arabia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nakissa |first=Aria |date=29 June 2022 |title=Reconceptualizing the Global Transformation of Islam in the Colonial Period: Early Islamic Reform in British-Ruled India and Egypt |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/arab/69/1-2/article-p146_9.xml |journal=Arabica |publisher=Brill |volume=69 |issue=1–2 |page=216 |doi=10.1163/15700585-12341630 |s2cid=251145936 |via=Brill.com|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Many of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's scholarly treatises, pamphlets and speeches appropriated idioms of local Arab dialects, monologues of vernacular poetry and catchphrases of folk culture into his religious discourse.<ref name="Samin 1–26"/>

[[File:Al-Usul al-Thalatha.jpg|thumb|right| ''Usul al-Thalatha'' (Three Fundamental Principles), a pamphlet by Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab]]
As a gifted communicator with a talent for breaking down his ideas into shorter units, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab entitled his treatises with terms such as ''qawāʿid'' ("principles"), ''masāʾil'' ("matters"), ''kalimāt'' ("phrases"), or ''uṣūl'' ("foundations"), simplifying his texts point by point for mass reading.<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|page=177}}</ref> Calling upon the people to follow his call for religious revival (''[[tajdid]]'' ) based on following the founding texts and the authoritative practices of the first generations of [[Muslims]], Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared: <blockquote>"I do not - God be blessed - conform to any particular sufi [[Tariqa|order]] or ''[[Faqīh|faqih]]'', nor follow the course of any speculative theologian (''mutakalim'') or any other Imam for that matter, not even such dignitaries as [[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya|ibn al-Qayyim]], [[al-Dhahabi]], or [[ibn Kathir]], I summon you only to God, and Only Him as well as observe the path laid by His [[Muhammad in Islam|Prophet]], God's messenger."<ref name="Haj 338"/><ref>{{Cite book|editor-last1=De Jong |editor-last2=Radtke|editor-first1=Frederick |editor-first2=Bernd|title=Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversied and Polemics |last=Peskes |first=Esther |publisher=Brill |year=1999 |isbn=90-04-11300-2 |location=The Netherlands |page=147 |chapter=The Wahhabiyya and Sufism in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref></blockquote>

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's call gradually began to attract followers, including the ruler of 'Uyayna, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar. Upon returning to [[Huraymila]], where his father had settled, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab wrote his first work on the Unity of God.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> With Ibn Mu'ammar, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab agreed to support Ibn Mu'ammar's political ambitions to expand his rule "over Najd and possibly beyond", in exchange for the ruler's support for Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's religious teachings. During the early years of preaching, he criticised various folk practices and [[Superstitions in Muslim societies|superstitions]] peacefully through sermons. Starting from 1742, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would shift towards an activist stance; and began to implement his reformist ideas.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mouline|first=Nabil|title=The Clerics of Islam: Religious Authority and Political Power in Saudi Arabia|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-300-17890-6|location=London|page=57}}</ref> First, he persuaded Ibn Mu'ammar to help him level the tomb of [[Zayd ibn al-Khattab]], a [[Sahabah|companion of Muhammad]], whose shrine was revered by locals. Secondly, he ordered the cutting down of trees considered sacred by locals, cutting down "the most glorified of all of the trees" himself. Third, he organized the [[Rajm|stoning]] of a woman who confessed to having committed adultery.<ref name="Lacey 1983: 56">[[#Lac83|Lacey 1983]]: 56.</ref>{{sfn|Delong-Bas|2004|page=24}}

These actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of [[Bani Khalid]], the chief of [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Hasa]] and [[Qatif]], who held substantial influence in [[Najd]]. Ibn Ghurayr threatened Ibn Mu'ammar by denying him the ability to collect a land tax for some properties that Ibn Mu'ammar owned in Al-Hasa if he did not kill or drive away from Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Consequently, Ibn Mu'ammar forced Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to leave.{{sfn|Delong-Bas|2004|page=24}}<ref>[[#Haj|ibn 'Hajar]]: 28.</ref>

The early Wahhabis had been protected by Ibn Mu'ammar in 'Uyayna, despite being persecuted in other settlements. As soon as Ibn Mu'ammar disowned them, Wahhabis were subject to excommunication (''[[Takfir]]''); exposing themselves to loss of lives and property. This experience of suffering reminded them of the ''[[Mihna]]'' against [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal|Ahmad Ibn Hanbal]] and his followers, and shaped the collective Wahhabi memory. As late as 1749, the [[sharif of Mecca]] imprisoned those Wahhabis who went to Mecca to perform the ''[[Hajj]]'' (annual pilgrimage).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Michael|title=Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=One World Publications|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78074-589-3|location=London|page=43|chapter=3: Guide of the Community}}</ref>

=== Pact with Muhammad bin Saud ===
{{Further|Diriyah Pact|label1=Diriyah Pact}}[[File:Diriyah agreement 1744.png|thumb|right|260px|A 20th century illustration of the [[Diriyah Pact]]]]
Upon his expulsion from '[[Uyayna]], Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring [[Diriyah]] by its ruler [[Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin|Muhammad ibn Saud Al Muqrin]]. After some time in Diriyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded his second and more successful agreement with a ruler.{{sfn|Delong-Bas|2004|page=34}} Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud agreed that, together, they would bring the [[Arabs]] of the [[Arabian Peninsula|peninsula]] back to the "true" principles of [[Islam]] as they saw it. According to the anonymous author of ''Lam al-Shihab'' (Brilliance of the Meteor), when they first met, Ibn Saud declared:<blockquote>"This oasis is yours, do not fear your enemies. By the name of God, if all Nejd was summoned to throw you out, we will never agree to expel you."<ref name="Al-Rasheed 2010 16">{{Cite book|last=Al-Rasheed |first=Madawi |title=A History of Saudi Arabia: Second Edition |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010 |isbn= 978-0-521-76128-4 | location=Cambridge, UK |page=16|chapter= 1: Society and politics, 1744-1818 and 1824–1891}}</ref></blockquote>

Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab replied:<blockquote>"You are the settlement's chief and wise man. I want you to grant me an oath that you will perform jihad against the unbelievers. In return, you will be imam, leader of the Muslim community and I will be leader in religious matters."<ref name="Al-Rasheed 2010 16"/></blockquote>
[[File:صورة_لمدخل_الدرعية_كما_تخيله_انكيري_في_كتابه_إبراهيم_باشا.jpg|right|thumb|A portrait of the entrance to the city of [[Diriyah]]]]
The agreement was confirmed with a mutual oath of loyalty (''[[bay'ah]]'') in 1744.<ref>[[#Kin08|Ibnsaud.info 2008]]</ref> Once Al-Sa'ud made Dir'iyya a safe haven, Wahhabis from other towns took refuge. These included dissenters from Ibn Mu'ammar clan who had sworn allegiance to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. The nucleus of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's supporters all across [[Najd]] retreated to Dir'iyyah and formed the vanguard of the insurgency launched by Al-Saud against other towns.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Michael|title=Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=One World Publications|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78074-589-3|location=London|pages=43–44|chapter=3: Guide of the community}}</ref>

From a person who started his career as a lone activist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would become the spiritual guide of the [[Emirate of Diriyah|nascent Emirate]] of [[Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin|Muhammad ibn Saud Al-Muqrin]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Michael|title=Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=One World Publications|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78074-589-3|location=London|page=27|chapter=Chapter 2: Agitator for God|quote="Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's formal output was limited. He was above all a preacher, teacher and activist."}}</ref> Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would be responsible for religious matters and Ibn Saud in charge of political and military issues.{{sfn|Delong-Bas|2004|page=34}} This agreement became a "mutual support pact"<ref>{{cite book|author=Parker T. Hart|title=Saudi Arabia and the United States: Birth of a Security Partnership|url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaunite00hart|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-33460-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaunite00hart/page/7 7]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Sebastian Maisel|author2=John A. Shoup|title=Saudi Arabia and the Gulf Arab States Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Arab States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uhJu2_8vMkMC&pg=PA228|date= 2009|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-34442-8|page=228|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504150551/https://books.google.com/books?id=uhJu2_8vMkMC&pg=PA228|archive-date=4 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and power-sharing arrangement<ref>{{cite book|author1=Hunt Janin|author2=André Kahlmeyer|title=Islamic Law: The Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtEdBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|year= 2007|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-1-4766-0881-5|page=92|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528225920/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtEdBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|archive-date=28 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> between the [[House of Saud|Aal Saud family]], and the ''[[Al ash-Sheikh|Aal ash-Sheikh]]'' and followers of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, which had remained in place for nearly 300 years,<ref>[[#Oba99|Obaid 1999]]: 51–58.</ref> providing the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.<ref>[[#Fak97|Faksh 1997]]: 89–90.</ref> Reviving the teachings of [[Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyya]], the ''Muwaḥḥidūn'' (Unitarian) movement emphasized strict adherence to ''[[Quran|Qur'an]]'' and ''[[Sunnah]]''; while simultaneously championing the conception of an [[Islamic state]] based on the model of early Muslim community in [[Medina]]. Meanwhile, it's Muslim and Western opponents derogatorily labelled the movement as the "''Wahhābiyyah''" (anglicised as "Wahhabism").<ref>{{Cite book|author=Naghma|url=https://archive.org/details/ImpactOfTheAhlAlHadithMovementOnContemporaryMuslimSocietyInIndia/page/n103/mode/2up?view=theater|title=Impact of the Ahl-e-Hadith Movement on Contemporary Muslim Society in India|publisher=Aligarh Muslim University|year=2015|location=Aligarh, India|pages=58, 71}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Esposito|first=John L. |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-19-512558-4|location=New York|page=333}}</ref><ref name="C. Martin 2004 727">{{Cite book|last=Martin |first=Richard C.|title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|year=2004|isbn=0-02-865603-2|location=New York |page=727}}</ref>

== Rise of Emirate of Dir'iyyah ==
{{Main|Emirate of Diriyah}}
{{Further|Demolition of al-Baqi|Wahhabi sack of Karbala|Wahhabi War}}
[[File:First Saudi State Big.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Emirate of Diriyah]], the first Saudi state (1727–1818)]]

The 1745 pact between Muhammad ibn Saud and Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab marked the rise of the [[First Saudi State|First Saudi state]], the Emirate of Diriyah, which was established in 1727. By offering the [[House of Saud|Al-Saud]] a clearly defined religious mission, the alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.<ref name="Met92"/> Deducing from his bitter experiences in 'Uyaynah, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had understood the necessity of political backing from a strong [[Islamic state|Islamic political entity]] to transform the local socio-religious status quo and also safeguard Wahhabism's territorial base from external pressure. After consolidating his position in Diriyah, he wrote to the rulers and clerics of other towns; appealing them to embrace his doctrines. While some heeded his calls, others rejected it; accusing him of ignorance or sorcery.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Michael|title=Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=One World Publications|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78074-589-3|location=London|page=44}}</ref>

=== War with Riyadh (1746–1773) ===
{{See also|Riyadh}}
Realising the significance of efficient religious preaching (''[[Dawah|da'wa]]''), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab called upon his students to master the path of reasoning and proselytising over warfare to convince other Muslims of their [[Islah|reformist]] endeavour.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Romero|first=Juan|title=Terrorism: The Power and Weakness of Fear|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=978-1-032-19806-4|location=Abingdon, Oxon |pages=243, 251|chapter=|doi=10.4324/9781003260943}}</ref> Between 1744 and 1746, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's preaching continued in the same non-violent manner as before and spread widely across the people of [[Najd]]. Rulers of various towns across Najd pledged their allegiance to Ibn Suʿūd. This situation changed drastically around 1158/1746; when the powerful anti-Wahhabi chieftain of [[Riyadh]], Dahhām ibn Dawwās (fl. 1187/1773), attacked the town of [[Manfuhah|Manfuha]] which had pledged allegiance to [[Emirate of Diriyah|Diriyah]]. This would spark a nearly 30-year long war between [[Diriyah]] and Riyadh, which lasted until 1187/1773, barring some interruptions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|pages=243–244}}</ref> First conquering Najd, Muhammad ibn Saud's forces expanded the Wahhabi influence to most of the present-day territory of [[Saudi Arabia]],<ref name="Met92" /> eradicating various popular practices they viewed as akin to polytheism and propagating the doctrines of ʿAbd al-Wahhab.<ref name="Met92" /><ref>[[#EBOHis|EBO ''History of Arabia'' 2011]]</ref>

Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb maintained that the military campaigns of the [[Emirate of Diriyah|Emirate of Dirʿiyya]] were strictly defensive and rebuked his opponents as being the first to initiate ''[[Takfir]]'' (excommunication).<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|page=244}}</ref> Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had defined [[jihad]] as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an ''[[Imam]]'' whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature.<ref>{{Cite book|last=J. Delong-Bas|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|pages=202–203|quote="Ibn Abd al-Wahhab described jihad as an activity that must always have a religious justification and can only be declared by the religious leader (imam) and whose intent and purpose must be strictly defensive in nature."}}</ref> Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as defensive operations against their enemies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts:<blockquote>"As for warfare, until today, we did not fight anyone, except in defense of our lives and honor. They came to us in our area and did not spare any effort in fighting us. We only initiated fighting against some of them in retaliation for their continued aggression, [The recompense for an evil is an evil like thereof] (42:40)... they are the ones who started declaring us to be unbelievers and fighting us"<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|page=244}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Abu alrub|first=Jalal|title=Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition|publisher=Madinah Punlishers and Distributors|year=2013|isbn=978-0-9856326-9-4|editor-last=Mencke|editor-first=Alaa|pages=267, 276}}</ref></blockquote>

==== Rebellion in Huraymila (1752–1755) ====
In 1753–4, the Wahhabis were confronted by an alarming number of towns renouncing allegiance and aligning with their opponents. Most prominent amongst these was the town of [[Huraymila]], which had pledged allegiance to Dir'iyah in 1747. However, by 1752, a group of rebels encouraged by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's brother, [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab|Sulaymān]], had initiated a coup in Huraymila and installed a new ruler that threatened to topple the Wahhābī order. A fierce war between Diriyah and Huraymila began in a magnitude that was unprecedented. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab held a convocation of Wahhabis from all the settlements across Najd. Reviewing the recent desertions and defeats, he encouraged them to hold fast to their faith and recommit to the struggle.<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|page=247}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Michael|title=Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=One World Publications|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78074-589-3|location=London|page=47}}</ref>

The ensuing battles and the re-capture of Huraymila in 1168/1755, constituted a significant development in Wahhabi expansionist stage. [[Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud|Abd al-Azeez]], the son of [[Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin|Muhammad ibn Saud]], had emerged as the principal leader of the Wahhabi military operations. Alongside a force of 800 men, accompanied by an additional 200 under the command of the deposed ruler of Huraymila, Abd al Azeez was able to subdue the rebels. More significantly, the rationale behind the campaign was based on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's newly written epistle ''Mufīd al-mustafīd'', which marked a shift from the earlier posture of defensive [[Jihad]] to justify a more aggressive one. In the treatise, compiled to justify Jihad pursued by [[Emirate of Diriyah|Dir'iyyah]] and its allies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab excommunicated the inhabitants of Huraymila and declared it as a duty of Wahhabi soldiers to fight them as apostates. He also quoted several ''[[Quran|Qur'anic]]'' verses indicative of offensive forms of jihād.<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|pages=247–249}}</ref>

=== Capture of Riyadh and Retirement (1773) ===
The last point of serious threat to the Saudi state was in 1764-1765. During this period, the [[Isma'ilism|Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa]] of [[Najran|Najrān]] alongside their allied tribe of [[Ajman (tribe)|'Ujman]], combined forces to inflict a major defeat on the Saudis at the Battle of Hair in October 1764, killing around 500 men. The anti-Wahhabi forces allied with the invaders and participated in the combined siege of Dirʿiyya. However, the defenders were able to hold onto their town due to the unexpected departure of the Najranis after a truce concluded with the Saudis. A decade later in 1773-'4, 'Abd al-Azeez had conquered [[Riyadh]] and secured the entirety of al-ʿĀriḍ, after its chieftain Dahham ibn Dawwas fled. By 1776/7, [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab]] had surrendered. The capture of Riyadh marked the point at which Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab delegated all affairs of governing to [[Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud|'Abd al-Azeez]], withdrew from public life and devoted himself to teaching, preaching and worshipping. Meanwhile, 'Abd al-Azeez would proceed with his military campaigns,  conquering towns like [[Sudair|Sudayr]] (1196/1781), [[al-Kharj]] (1199/1784), etc. Opposition in towns to the North like [[Al-Qassim Province|al-Qaṣīm]] was stamped out by 1196/1781, and the rebels in [[Unaizah|ʿUnayza]] were subdued by 1202/1787. Further north, the town of [[Ḥaʼil|Ḥāʾil]], was captured in 1201/1786 and by the 1780s; Wahhābīs were able to establish their jurisdiction over most of [[Najd]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|pages=249–250}}</ref><ref name="Crawford 2014 47–48">{{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Michael|title=Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=One World Publications|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78074-589-3|location=London|pages=47–48}}</ref><ref name="Abu alrub 2013 92">{{Cite book|last=Abu alrub|first=Jalal|title=Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition|publisher=Madinah Punlishers and Distributors|year=2013|isbn=978-0-9856326-9-4|editor-last=Mencke|editor-first=Alaa|page=92}}</ref>

== Death ==
After his departure from public affairs, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would remain a consultant to [[Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud|'Abd al-Azeez]], who followed his recommendations. However, he withdrew from any active military and political activities of the Emirate of Diriyah and devoted himself to educational endeavours, preaching, and worship. His last major activity in state affairs was in 1202/1787; when he called on the people to give ''[[bay'ah]]'' (allegiance) to [[Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (1748–1814)|Suʿūd]], ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz's son, as heir apparent.

Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fell ill and died in June 1792 C.E or 1206 A.H in the lunar month of [[Dhu al-Qadah|Dhul-Qa'dah]], at the age of eighty-nine. He was buried in an unmarked grave at [[Al-Turaif District|al-Turayf]] in al-[[Diriyah|Dir'iyya]].<ref name="Crawford 2014 47–48"/><ref name="Abu alrub 2013 92"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=J. Delong-Bas|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|pages=39–40}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|page=254}}</ref> He left behind four daughters and six sons. Many of his sons became clerics of greater or lesser distinction. The descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab are known as the [[Al ash-Sheikh|Aal Ash-Shaykhs]] and they continued to hold a special position in the Saudi state throughout its history, which still continues.

A clear separation of roles between the [[House of Saud|Saudi family]] and the Wahhabi clerics had begun to emerge during the interval between Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's retirement from front-line politics in 1773 and his death in 1792. Although the [[Al ash-Sheikh|Aal Ash-Shaykhs]] did not engage in politics, they comprised a significant part of the [[Ahl al-hall wal-aqd|designating group of notables]] who gave allegiance (''bay'ah'') to a new ruler and acclaimed his accession. After Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, his son [[Abdullah bin Muhammad Al Sheikh|'Abd Allah]], recognised by his critics as moderate and fair-minded, would succeed him as the dominant Wahhabi cleric. The Wahhabi cause would flourish for more than two decades after Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's death; until the defeat of the First Saudi State in the [[Ottoman-Saudi war]]. 'Abd Allah would spend his last days as an exile in [[Cairo]], having witnessed the [[Siege of Diriyah|destruction of Dirʿiyya]] and the execution of his talented son [[Suleiman bin Abdullah Al Sheikh|Sulayman ibn 'Abd Allah]] in 1818.<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|pages=254–255}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Michael|title=Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=One World Publications|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78074-589-3|location=London|pages=48, 99, 104–105}}</ref>

==Family==
{{Main|Al ash-Sheikh}}

According to academic publications such as the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab married an [[affluent]] woman during his studies in [[Baghdad]]. When she died, he inherited her property and wealth.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[#EBOMuh|EBO ''Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb'' 2011]]</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad-ibn-Abd-al-Wahhab|title=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab| encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|access-date=12 December 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608071938/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad-ibn-Abd-al-Wahhab| archive-date=8 June 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had six sons; Hussain (died 1809), [[Abdullah bin Muhammad Al Sheikh|'Abdallah]] (1751–1829), Hassan, Ali (died 1829), Ibrahim and 'Abdulazeez<ref name=tar>{{cite journal|author=Tarik K. Firro|title=The Political Context of Early Wahhabi Discourse of Takfir|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|date=2013 |volume=49|issue=5|page=770|doi=10.1080/00263206.2013.811648|s2cid=144357200|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00263206.2013.811648|url-access=subscription}}</ref> who died in his youth. Four of his sons, Hussain, Abdullah, Ali and Ibrahim, established religious schools close to their home in [[Diriyah|Dir'iyah]] and taught the young students from [[Yemen]], [[Oman]], Najd and other parts of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] at their ''[[majlis]]'' (study circle).<ref name=tar/> One of their pupils was Husayn Ibn Abu Bakr Ibn Ghannam, a well-known [[Hanbali]] scholar and chronicler.<ref name=tar/> (Although Islamic scholar [[Muhammad ibn al-Uthaymeen|ibn 'Uthaymin]] writes about Ibn Ghannam that he was a [[Maliki]] scholar from [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|al-Ahsa]].){{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also had a daughter named Fatimah, who was a revered [[Ulama|Islamic scholar]] known for her piety, valour and beauty. She was a committed adherent to her father's [[Islah|reformist]] ideals and taught numerous men and women. Fatimah travelled a lot and remained unmarried throughout her life in order to research [[hadith science]]s and concentrate on her scholarly endeavours. She witnessed the [[Siege of Diriyah|Fall of Dir'iyah]], and in 1818 fled to [[Ras Al Khaimah|Ras al-Khaimah]], which was captured by the [[British Empire|British]] the following year. As a result, she was again forced to emigrate along with her nephew; this time to [[Oman]], wherein she became a major proponent of reformist teachings of the ''Muwahhidun'' and campaigned against various [[Superstitions in Muslim societies|superstitions]]. Fatimah returned to [[Riyadh]] after the establishment of [[Emirate of Nejd]] in 1824. Due to her travels, she was often referred to by her appellation "Lady of the Two Migrations". As the daughter of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Fatimah became a role model for Arabian women active in educational efforts and various social undertakings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mukhlid al-Harbi |first=Dalal |title=Prominent Women from Central Arabia |publisher=Ithaca Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-86372-327-8 |editor-last=Ann Roberg-Abahsain |editor-first=Jill |edition=First |location=Reading, UK |pages=32–34 |language=Arabic |translator-last=M. Abahsain |translator-last2=A. al-Furaih |translator-first=Muhammad |translator-first2=Mohammad}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=J. DeLong-Bas |first=Natana |title=Islam, Revival, and Reform: Redefining Tradition for the Twenty-First Century - Essays Inspired by John O. Voll |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-8156-3753-0 |edition=1st |location=Syracuse, New York |pages=9, 16 |chapter=1: The Role of Women in Solidifying Eighteenth-Century Revival and Reform Initiatives into Ongoing Mass Movements}}</ref>

The descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, the [[Al ash-Sheikh]], have historically led the ''[[ulama]]'' (clerical establishment) of the Saudi state,<ref name="Abir 1987: 4, 5, 7"/> dominating the state's religious institutions.<ref name="Met92"/> Within [[Saudi Arabia]], the family is held in prestige similar to the [[House of Saud|Saudi royal family]], with whom they share power, and has included several religious scholars and officials.<ref name="Ott08">[[#Ott08|Ottaway 2008]]: 176.</ref> The arrangement between the two families is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating the [[Salafism|Salafi doctrine]]. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority<ref>[[#Nyr08|Nyrop 2008]]: 50.</ref> thereby using its religious-[[moral authority]] to legitimize the royal family's rule.<ref>[[#Bli85|Bligh 1985]]: 37–50.</ref>

==Views==
{{Islamism sidebar |expanded=Key ideologues}}

=== On ''Tawhid'' ===
{{Main|Tawhid}}
[[File:Kitabut_Tauhid_Imam_Khairul_Annas.JPG|left|thumb|200px|''Kitab al-Tawhid'' (Book on Monotheism), the most popular treatise of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab]]

Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab sought to [[Islamic revival|revive]] and purify [[Islam]] from what he perceived as non-Islamic popular religious beliefs and practices by returning to what, he believed, were the [[Islamic fundamentalism|fundamental principles of the Islamic religion]]. His works were generally short, full of quotations from the ''[[Quran|Qur'an]]'' and ''[[Hadith]]'', such as his main and foremost theological treatise, ''Kitāb at-Tawḥīd'' ({{langx|ar|كتاب التوحيد}}; "The Book of Oneness").<ref name="ReferenceB" />{{sfn|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}}{{sfn|Khatab|2011|pages=65–67}}{{sfn|Saeed|2013|pages=29–30}} He taught that the primary doctrine of Islam was the uniqueness and oneness of God (''[[tawhid]]''),<ref>{{harvnb|Esposito|2003|p=333}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Allah|encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica Online|access-date=28 May 2008|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005770/Allah|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513004801/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005770/Allah|archive-date=13 May 2008|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and denounced those religious beliefs and practices widespread amongst the people of [[Najd]]. Following Ibn Taymiyya's teachings on ''[[Tawhid]]'', Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab believed that much of Najd had descended into superstitious folk religion akin to the period of ''[[Jahiliyyah|Jahiliyya]]'' (pre-Islamic era) and denounced much of their beliefs as [[Shirk (Islam)|polytheism]] (''shirk'').{{sfn|Saeed|2013|page=29}}<ref name="Weismann 2001 268"/> He associated such practices with the culture of ''[[Taqlid]]'' (imitation to established customs) adored by pagan-cults of ''Jahiliyya'' era.<ref name="Riexinger 2022 p55">{{cite book |editor=Chih, Rachida |editor2=Jordan, David |editor3=Reichmuth, Stefan |editor3-link=Stefan Reichmuth (academic) |title=The Presence of the Prophet in Early Modern and Contemporary Islam |volume=2. Heirs of the Prophet: Authority and Power|last=Riexinger |first=Martin |publisher=Brill|year=2022|isbn=978-90-04-46674-6|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|page=55|chapter=2: Model, Not Idol The Recasting of the Image of Muḥammad in Mukhtaṣar sīrat al-rasūl by Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1792)}}</ref> Based on the doctrine of ''[[Tawhid]]'' espoused in ''Kitab al-Tawhid'', the followers of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred themselves by the designation "''Al-Muwahhidun''" (Unitarians).<ref name="C. Martin 2004 727" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Martin |first=Richard C. |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |edition=2nd |publisher=Gale|year=2016|isbn=978-0-02-866269-5|location=Farmington Hills, MI |page=1236}}</ref>

The "core" of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching is found in ''Kitāb at-Tawḥīd'', a theological treatise which draws from material in the ''Qur'an'' and the recorded doings and sayings of the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] in the Hadith literature.<ref>{{cite book|last=Commins|first=David|title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2009|page=12|quote=This brief essay is of tremendous significance for the Wahhabi mission and the subject of enduring controversy between supporters and detractors. It represents the core of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching and the foundation of the Wahhabi canon.}}</ref> It preaches that worship in Islam includes conventional acts of worship such as the five daily prayers (''[[Salat]]''); fasting (''[[Sawm]]''); supplication (''[[Dua]]''); seeking protection or refuge (''Istia'dha''); seeking help (''Ist'ana'' and ''Istigatha'') of Allah.<ref name="Kitab al-Tawhid">Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, ''Kitab al-Tawhid''</ref>{{Page needed|date=March 2013}}{{primary source inline|date=December 2016}}

According to [[David Commins]], various [[Muslims]] throughout history had held the view that [[Shahada|declaring the testimony of faith]] is sufficient in becoming a Muslim.<ref name=Comminsvii>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wahhabimissionsa0000comm|url-access=registration|title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia|last=Commins|first=David|year= 2006|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-080-2|page=vii|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105225615/https://archive.org/details/wahhabimissionsa0000comm|archive-date=5 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab did not agree with this. He asserted that an individual who believed in the existence of intercessors or intermediaries alongside God was guilty of ''[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]'' (polytheism or idolatry). This was the major difference between him and his opponents,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wahhabimissionsa0000comm|url-access=registration|title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia|last=Commins|first=David|year= 2006|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-080-2|page=vii|language=en|quote=Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab included in the category of such acts popular religious practices that made holy men into intercessors with God. That was the core of the controversy between him and his adversaries, including his brother.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105225615/https://archive.org/details/wahhabimissionsa0000comm|archive-date=5 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> and led him to label his adversaries who engaged in folk rituals associated with such beliefs to be [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates]] (a practice known in Islamic jurisprudence as ''[[takfir]]'') and idolaters (''mushrikin'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Commins |first=David |year=2006 |url=https://archive.org/details/wahhabimissionsa0000comm |url-access=registration |title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia |location=New York |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |isbn=978-1-84511-080-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/wahhabimissionsa0000comm/page/23 23] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105225615/https://archive.org/details/wahhabimissionsa0000comm |archive-date=5 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Another major doctrine of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was the concept known as ''Al-'Udhr bil Jahl'' (excuse of ignorance), wherein any ignorant person unaware of core Islamic teachings is excused by default until clarification. As per this doctrine, those who fell into beliefs of ''shirk'' (polytheism) or ''[[kufr]]'' (disbelief) cannot be excommunicated until they have direct access to Scriptural evidences and get the opportunity to understand their mistakes and retract. If not, their affairs are to be delegated only to God. Hence, he believed that education and dialogue was the only effective path for the successful implementation of reforms.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Romero|first=Juan|title=Terrorism: The Power and Weakness of Fear|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=978-1-032-19806-4|location=Abingdon, Oxon |pages=19–21|chapter=1: Ancient, medieval and early modern extremist movements|doi=10.4324/9781003260943}}</ref> Explaining this concept in various pamphlets addressed to the masses and other scholars, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared:<blockquote>"What has been mentioned to you about me, that I make generalised ''[[Takfir|takfīr]]'', this is from the slanders of the enemies.. [Rather] we make ''takfīr'' of the one who affirms the religion of [[Allah|Allāh]] and His [[Muhammad in Islam|Messenger]] but then showed enmity towards it and hindered people from it; as well as the one who worshipped idols after he came to know that this is the religion of the polytheists and beautified it for the people [inviting them to it].. [In fact] every [[scholar]] on the face of the Earth makes ''takfīr'' of them, save an obstinate or ignorant... But we [only] make ''takfīr'' of the one who associates partners with Allāh in His sole right of worship (ilāhiyyah), after we have made clear to him the proof for the futility of ''[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]''."<ref>{{Cite book |last=ibn Abd al-Wahhab, 'Abd al-Aziz |first=Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/0250042/07_50047/page/n57/mode/2up |script-title=ar:مؤلفات الشيخ الإمام محمد بن عبد الوهاب |publisher=[[Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University]] |year=1976 |editor=Bin Zaid Al-Roumi |editor2=Beltaji, Muhammad |editor3=Hijab, Sayyed |volume=7: Book of Personal Messages |pages=58–60 |language=ar |trans-title=Works of Shaykh and Imam Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab |script-chapter=ar:الرسالة التاسعة: رسالته إلى عامة المسلمين |trans-chapter=Ninth Message: his Message to the Common Muslims}}</ref></blockquote>
Rejecting the allegations of his detractors who accused him of ex-communicating whoever didn't follow his doctrines, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab maintained that he only advocated orthodox Sunni doctrines.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abu alrub|first=Jalal|title=Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition|publisher=Madinah Punlishers and Distributors|year=2013|isbn=978-0-9856326-9-4|editor-last=Mencke|editor-first=Alaa|pages=462–463}}</ref> In a letter addressed to the [[Iraq]]i scholar Abdul Rahman Al-Suwaidi who had sought clarification over the rumours spread against his mission, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab explains:<blockquote>"I am a man of social standing in my village and the people respect my word. This led some chieftains to reject my call, because I called them to what contradicts the traditions they were raised to uphold.... the chieftains directed their criticism and enmity towards our enjoining ''Tawheed'' and forbidding ''Shirk''... Among the false accusations they propagated, ... is the claim that I accuse all Muslims, except my followers, of being Kuffar (Unbelievers)... This is truly incredible. How can any sane person accept such accusations? Would a Muslim say these things? I declare that I renounce, before Allah, these statements that only a mad person would utter. In short, what I was accused of calling to, other than enjoining Tawheed and forbidding Shirk, is all false."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abu alrub|first=Jalal|title=Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition|publisher=Madinah Punlishers and Distributors|year=2013|isbn=978-0-9856326-9-4|editor-last=Mencke|editor-first=Alaa|pages=462–465}}</ref></blockquote>

=== On ''Taqlid'' ===
{{Main|Taqlid|Ijtihad}}
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was highly critical of the practice of ''[[Taqlid]]'' ( blind-following), which in his view, deviated people away from ''Qur'an'' and ''[[Sunnah]]''. He also advocated for ''[[Ijtihad]]'' of qualified [[Ulama|scholars]] in accordance with the teachings of ''Qur'an'' and ''Hadith''. In his legal writings, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred to a number of sources- ''[[Quran|Qur'an]]'', ''[[hadith]]'', opinions of [[Companions of the Prophet|companions]], ''[[Salaf]]'' as well as the treatises of the 4 schools of thought. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab argued that Qur'an condemned blind emulation of forefathers and nowhere did it stipulate scholarly credentials for a person to refer to it directly. His advocacy of ''Ijtihad'' and harsh denunciation of ''Taqlid'' arose widespread condemnation from Sufi orthodoxy in [[Najd]] and beyond, compelling him to express many of his legal verdicts (''[[fatwa]]s'') discreetly, using convincing juristic terms. He differed from [[Hanbali]] school in various points of law and in some cases, also departed from the positions of the 4 schools. In his treatise ''Usul al-Sittah'' (Six Foundations), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab vehemently rebuked his detractors for raising the description of ''[[Mujtahid]]s'' to what he viewed as humanely unattainable levels. He condemned the establishment clergy as a class of oppressors who ran a "tyranny of wordly possessions" by exploiting the masses to make money out of their religious activities. The teachings of [[Medina]]n [[hadith scholar]] [[Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi|Muhammad Hayat as Sindi]] highly influenced the anti-taqlid views of Ibn 'Abd al Wahhab.<ref>{{Cite book|last=J DeLong-Bas|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|pages=8, 12, 20–21, 94–95, 100, 109–110}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haj|first=Samira|date=April 1997|title=Reordering Islamic Orthodoxy: Muhammad ibn 'Abdul Wahhab| url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1478-1913.2002.tb03747.x |journal=The Muslim World |volume=92|issue=3–4|pages=340, 343|doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2002.tb03747.x| quote="(his criticism)... was also directed against the blind acceptance of religious authority (taqlid ) and by implication the 'ulama for confining independent reasoning (ijtihad ) and for their uncritical acceptance of medieval Islamic sources as the final authority on these questions. Instead, he maintained that final authoritative sources are those of the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet along with the precedents of the early Companions, who considered ijtihad as necessary for the continuous interpretation of Islamic law" ... "By upholding the absolute supremacy of the Qur'an and the early Sunnah, his intention was to undercut the authority of ijma, the consensus arrived at by the established 'ulama and extend the practice of independent reasoning [as against taqlid (traditionalism) ]." | via=Wiley Online Library|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Farquhar |first=Michael |title=Expanding the Wahhabi Mission: Saudi Arabia, the Islamic University of Medina and the Transnational Religious Economy| publisher=The London School of Economics and Political Science| year=2013|location=London | quote= "..Muhammad Hayya al-Sindi in Medina influenced a shift on the part of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab towards criticism of taqlīd and many popular religious practices" |page=64}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=ibn Abd al-Wahhab|first=Muhammad|title=The Six Foundations|url=http://salafipublications.com/sps/downloads/pdf/SCL070001.pdf | url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220172400/http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/downloads/pdf/SCL070001.pdf |archive-date=20 December 2020|website=Salafi Publications}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Michael|title=Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=One World Publishers|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78074-589-3|location=Oneworld Publications, London|page=88|chapter=Chapter 7: The Regime of Godliness and The Political Order}}</ref>

Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab opposed partisanship to ''[[Madhhab|madhabs]]'' (legal schools) and didn't consider it obligatory to follow a particular madhab. Rather, in his view, the obligation is to follow ''Qur'an'' and the ''Sunnah''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Guidelines for following Madhabs|url=http://www.spubs.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=MNJ06&articleID=MNJ060006&articlePages=1 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124020708/http://www.spubs.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=MNJ06&articleID=MNJ060006&articlePages=1 |archive-date=24 January 2021|website=Salafi Publications}}</ref> Referring to the classical scholars [[Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyya]] and [[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya|Ibn Qayyim]], ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab condemned the popular practice prevalent amongst his contemporary scholars to blindfollow latter-day legal works and urged Muslims to take directly from Qur'an and Sunnah. He viewed it as a duty upon every Muslim, laymen and scholar, male & female, to seek knowledge directly from the sources. Radically departing from both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab viewed the entirety of the prevalent ''mad'hab'' system of jurisprudence (''[[Fiqh]]'') as a fundamentally corrupt institution, seeking a radical reform of scholarly institutions and preached the obligation of all [[Muslims]] to directly refer to the foundational texts of revelation. He advocated a form of scholarly authority based upon the revival of the practice of ''ittiba'', i.e., laymen following the scholars only after seeking evidences.  The prevalent legal system was, in his view, a "factory for the production of slavish emulators" symbolic of Muslim decline.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=MANIFEST ENMITY: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, NJ | journal= Near Eastern Studies| quote= "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb employs this proof in pursuit of a more radical conclusion than the one reached by Ibn Taymiyya. He uses it to inveigh against the entire educational institution surrounding Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), which he takes as emblematic of the sad state of learning in Islam"... "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb considered the institution of fiqh as a kind of factory for the production of slavish emulators. The real task of a scholar, he argued, is to return to the texts of revelation, not to the opinions of men" ... "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb drew on both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim... Yet neither of them wrote off the entire field of jurisprudence as irredeemable, as Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb did"... "he describes his position with respect to scholarly authority as... ittibāʿ (following)" | pages=153–161 }}</ref>

=== On the nature of ''Nubuwwah'' (Prophethood) ===
{{See also|Prophets and messengers in Islam|Ismah|Satanic Verses|label 1=Prophethood in Islam|Islamic view of miracles|Miracles of Muhammad|label4=Miracles in Islam}}

Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab elucidated his concept on the nature of [[Prophethood in Islam|Prophethood]] in his book ''Mukhtaṣar sīrat al-Rasūl'' ("Abridgement of the life of the Prophet"), an extensive biographical work on the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]]. ''Mukhtaṣar'' was written with the purpose of explaining Muhammad's role in universal history by undermining certain prophetologic conceptions that had come to prominence among [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī]] religious circles during the twelfth Islamic century. These included negating those concepts and beliefs that bestowed the Prophet with mystical attributes that elevated Muhammad beyond the status of ordinary humans. In his introduction to ''Mukhtasar'', Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts that every Prophet came with the mission of upholding ''[[Tawhid]]'' and prohibiting ''[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]''. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab further tries to undermine the belief in the pre-existence of Muḥammad as a divine light preceding all other creation, a salient concept that served as an aspect of Prophetic devotion during the eleventh Islamic century. Additionally, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb omitted mentioning other episodes narrated in various ''[[Prophetic biography|sirah]]'' (Prophetic biography) works such as trees and stones allegedly expressing veneration for Muḥammad, purification of Muhammad's heart by angels, etc. which suggested that Muḥammad possessed characteristics that transcend those of ordinary humans.<ref name="Riexinger 2022 pp44–73">{{cite book |editor=Chih, Rachida |editor2=Jordan, David |editor3=Reichmuth, Stefan |title=The Presence of the Prophet in Early Modern and Contemporary Islam |volume=2. Heirs of the Prophet: Authority and Power|last=Riexinger |first=Martin |publisher=Brill|year=2022|isbn=978-90-04-46674-6|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|pages=44–73|chapter=2: Model, Not Idol The Recasting of the Image of Muḥammad in Mukhtaṣar sīrat al-rasūl by Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1792)}}</ref>

Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab adhered to [[Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyya]]'s understanding of the concept of ''[[Ismah|Isma]]'' (infallibility) which insisted that ''ʿiṣma'' does not prevent prophets from committing minor sins or speaking false things. This differed from the alternative understanding of Sunni theologians like [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi|Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzi]], [[Qadi Ayyad|Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ]], etc. who had emphasised the complete independence of the Prophet from any form of error or sin.<ref name="Riexinger 2022 pp44–73" />

Furthermore, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had given little importance to [[Islamic view of miracles|Prophetic miracles]] in his ''Mukhtaṣar''. Although he hadn't denied miracles as an expression of Divine Omnipotence so long as they are attested by ''Qur'an'' or authentic ''[[hadith]]'', ''Al-Mukhtasar'' represented an open protest against the exuberance of miracles that characterised later biographies of [[Muhammad in Islam|Muḥammad]]. In Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's view,  miracles are of little significance in the life of Muḥammad in comparison to that of the previous prophets, since central to his prophethood were the institutionalisation of ''[[Jihad|Jihād]]'' and the ''[[Hudud|ḥudud]]'' punishments. Contrary to prevalent religious beliefs, Muḥammad was not portrayed as the central purpose of creation in the historical conception of ''Mukhtaṣar''. Instead, he has a function within creation and for the created beings. Rather than being viewed as an extraordinary performer of miracles, Muhammad should instead be upheld as a model of emulation. By depriving the person of Muḥammad of all supernatural aspects not related to ''[[Waḥy|Wahy]]'' (revelation) and Divine intervention, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also re-inforced his rejection of beliefs and practices related to [[cult of saints]] and veneration of graves. Thus, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's conception of history emphasised the necessity to follow the role-model of Muḥammad and re-establish the [[Islamic state|Islamic order]].<ref name="Riexinger 2022 pp44–73" />

=== Influence on Salafism ===
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement is known today as [[Wahhabism]] ({{langx|ar|الوهابية|translit=Wahhābiyyah}}).{{sfn|Brown|2009|page=245}}{{sfn|Esposito|2004|page=123}}<ref name="ReferenceB"/>{{sfn|Ágoston|Masters|2009|page=260}}{{sfn|Moosa|2015|page=97}}<ref name="Asad 2003">{{cite book |last=Asad |first=Talal |author-link=Talal Asad |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CeJ85XwCPxQC&pg=PA222 |title=Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity |location=[[Stanford, California]] |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8047-4768-4 |page=222 |access-date=8 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611095843/https://books.google.com/books?id=CeJ85XwCPxQC&pg=PA222 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The designation of his doctrine as ''Wahhābiyyah'' actually derives from his father's name, ʿAbd al-Wahhab.<ref name="Wahhābiyya">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Ende |first1=W. |last2=Peskes |first2=Esther |title=Wahhābiyya |orig-date=1993 |year=2012 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. J. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#2nd edition, EI2|Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition]] |volume=11 |location=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1329 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref> Many adherents consider the label "Wahhabism" as a derogatory term coined by his opponents,{{sfn|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}}{{sfn|Commins|2015|page=151}}{{sfn|Silverstein|2010|pages=112–13}} and prefer it to be known as the [[Salafi movement]].<ref>[http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/there-is-no-such-thing-as-wahabism-saudi-prince-says The National, March 18, 2010: ''There is no such thing as Wahhabism, Saudi prince says''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427025500/http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/there-is-no-such-thing-as-wahabism-saudi-prince-says |date=27 April 2014}} Linked 3 March 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Commins |first=David |year=2009 |title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia |location=New York |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |page=ix |quote=Thus, the mission's devotees contend that 'Wahhabism' is a misnomer for their efforts to revive correct Islamic belief and practice. Instead of the Wahhabi label, they prefer either ''salafi'', one who follows the ways of the first Muslim ancestors (''salaf''), or ''muwahhid'', one who professes God's unity.}}</ref>{{sfn|Delong-Bas|2004|page=4}} Modern scholars of [[Islamic studies]] point out that "Salafism" is a term applied to [[Islamic puritanism|several forms of puritanical Islam]] in various parts of the world, while Wahhabism refers to the specific Saudi school, which is seen as a more strict form of Salafism. However, modern scholars remark that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's followers adopted the term "Salafi" as a self-designation much later.{{sfn|Commins|2015|page=151}} His early followers denominated themselves as ''Ahl al-Tawhid''{{sfn|Commins|2015|page=151}} and ''al-Muwahhidun''{{sfn|Brown|2009|page=245}}{{sfn|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}}{{sfn|Commins|2015|page=151}}{{sfn|Silverstein|2010|pages=112–13}}{{sfn|Ágoston|Masters|2009|page=260}} ("Unitarians" or "those who affirm/defend the unity of God"),{{sfn|Brown|2009|page=245}}{{sfn|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}}{{sfn|Commins|2015|page=151}}{{sfn|Silverstein|2010|pages=112–13}}{{sfn|Ágoston|Masters|2009|page=260}} and were labeled "Wahhabis" by their opponents.{{sfn|Haykel|2013|pages=231–32}}{{sfn|Commins|2015|page=151}}{{sfn|Silverstein|2010|pages=112–13}}

The ''[[Salafi movement|Salafiyya]]'' movement was not directly connected to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement in [[Najd]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=S. Moussalli|first=Ahmad|title=Historical Dictionary of Islamic Fundamentalist Movements in the Arab World, Iran and Turkey|publisher=The Scarecrow Press|year=1999|isbn=0-8108-3609-2|location=Folkestone, Kent |page=258|quote="AL-SALAFIYYA. .. It was not directly connected to the movement of Shaykh Muhammad Bin 'Abd al-Wahhab in Najd."}}</ref> According to professor [[Abdullah Saeed (professor)|Abdullah Saeed]], Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab should rather be considered as one of the "precursors" of the modern ''Salafiyya'' movement since he called for a return to the pristine purity of the early eras of Islam by adhering to the ''[[Quran|Qur'an]]'' and the ''[[Sunnah]]'', rejection of the blind following (''[[Taqlid]]'') of earlier scholars and advocating for ''[[Ijtihad]]''.{{sfn|Saeed|2013|pages=29-30}}  Scholars like Adam J. Silverstein consider Wahhabi movement as "the most influential expression of Salafism of the [[Islamism|Islamist]] sort, both for its role in shaping (some might say: 'creating') modern Islamism, and for disseminating ''salafi'' ideas widely across the Muslim world."{{sfn|Silverstein|2010|pages=112–13}}

=== On ''Fiqh'' ===
{{Main|Islamic jurisprudence}}

Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's approach to ''[[Fiqh]]'' (Islamic jurisprudence) was based on four major principles:<ref>{{Cite book |last=M. Bunzel |first=Cole |title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932) |publisher=Princeton University |year=2018 |location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA |page=40}}</ref><ref name="Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab 3–14">{{Cite book |last=Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab |first=Muhammad |url=https://al-maktaba.org/book/7499 |title=‫أربع قواعد تدور الأحكام عليها |publisher=[[Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University]] |year= |isbn= |location=Riyadh, Saudi Arabia |pages=3–14 |language=Arabic |trans-title=Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā (Four rules on which rulings revolve)}}</ref>

* Prohibition on speaking about God without ''[[Ilm (Arabic)|<nowiki/>'Ilm]]'' (knowledge)
* Ambiguous issues in Scriptures are a mercy to the community and is neither forbidden nor obligatory
* Obligation to abide by the clear evidences from Scriptures
* Rulings of ''[[halal]]'' (allowance) and ''[[haram]]'' (prohibition) are clear in the Scriptures and those issues which are unclear should be left as ambiguous

According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, the clear meaning of authentic ''[[hadith]]s'' takes precedence over the opinions of any other scholar, even if it went against the agreement of the eponyms of the four ''[[Madhhab|madhabs]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=E. Vogel |first=Frank |title=Islamic Law and Legal System: Studies of Saudi Arabia |publisher=Brill |year=2000 |isbn=90-04-110623 |location=Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands |page=72 |chapter=Two- Ijtihad as Law: Doctrines for Theory and Practice}}</ref>  In line with these principles, he encouraged all believers to engage directly with the Scriptures while respecting ''[[Disagreement in Islamic law|Ikhtilaf]]'' (scholarly differences), writing:<blockquote>"The [[Companions of the Prophet|companions]] of the Messenger of God, may God bless him and grant him peace, differed on various issues without denunciation, so long as the text was not clear. It is upon the believer to place his concern and intent to know the command of God and His Messenger in those matters of disagreement, and to act accordingly whilst respecting the people of knowledge, and respect them, even if they erred, but he does not take them as lords besides God; This is the way of those who are blessed. As for those who throw away their speech and do not respect, then this is the path of those who have incurred God's wrath."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Asimi |first='Abdur-Rahman |url=https://al-maktaba.org/book/3055/1376#p1 |title=الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية |publisher= |year=1996 |isbn= |volume=4 |location= |page=10 |language=Arabic |translator-last= |translator-first= |trans-title=Al Durar al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwab al-Nakdiyya (Sunni Pearls in Najd Answers) |chapter=في أصول مأخذهم |trans-chapter=Fi Usul Ma'khadahum (On the origins of their take)}}</ref></blockquote>
Throughout his epistles like ''Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā'' (Four rules on which rulings revolve), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fiercely attacked the prevalent Hanbali Fiqh opinions; with a broader view of re-orienting the Fiqh tradition. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab challenged the ''[[madhhab]]'' system, by advocating for a direct understanding of the Scriptures. Rather than rejecting ''madhabs'' outright, he sought a reformation of the system by condemning prevalent trends within the ''madhabs''. He criticised the ''madhhab'' partisans for adhering solely to medieval ''Fiqh'' manuals of later scholars and ignoring ''[[Quran|Qur'an]]'', ''[[Hadith]]'' and opinions of early Imams. He rebuked the contemporary [[Shafiʽi school|Shafi'i]] scholars for being partisans of [[Ibn Hajar al-Haytami|Ibn Hajar al Haytami]] (d. 1566) and relying solely on his 16th-century manual ''Tuhfat al Muhtaj''. Similarly, he critiqued the [[Maliki]]s for being dependent on the ''[[Mukhtasar]]'' of the Egyptian jurist [[Khalil ibn Ishaq al-Jundi|Khalil ibn Ishaq]] (d. 1365) rather than acting upon authentic traditions (''[[hadith]]''). In addition to criticising the Madhab partisans, he berated the advocates of ''Taqlid'' for discouraging the practice of ''[[Ijtihad]]'' and called on the laity to follow scholars only after asking for Scriptural evidences.<ref>{{Cite book |last=M. Bunzel |first=Cole |title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932) |publisher=Princeton University |year=2018 |location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref name="Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab 3–14"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Asimi |first='Abdur-Rahman |url=https://al-maktaba.org/book/3055/1376#p1 |title=الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية |publisher= |year=1996 |isbn= |volume=4 |location= |pages=57–60 |language=Arabic |translator-last= |translator-first= |trans-title=Al Durar al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwab al-Nakdiyya (Sunni Pearls in Najd Answers) |chapter=في أصول مأخذهم |trans-chapter=Fi Usul Ma'khadahum (On the origins of their take)}}</ref> Most noticeably, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rejected the authority of ''Al-Iqna'' and ''Al-Muntaha'' - two of the most important medieval Hanbali works for the regional clerics of Arabia - asserting:<blockquote>"The Hanbalis are the least prone of all people to innovation. [Yet] most of the ''Iqna'' and the ''Muntahā'' [two late Hanbali authoritative works] conflicts with the view of [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal|Ahmad]] and his explicit statements, not to mention the [[hadith]] of the Messenger of God"<ref>{{Cite book |last=E. Vogel |first=Frank |title=Islamic Law and Legal System: Studies of Saudi Arabia |publisher=Brill |year=2000 |isbn=90-04-110623 |location=Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands |pages=72–73 |chapter=Two- Ijtihad as Law: Doctrines for Theory and Practice}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Asimi |first='Abdur-Rahman |url=https://al-maktaba.org/book/3055/1376#p1 |title=الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية |publisher= |year=1996 |isbn= |volume=4 |location= |page=11 |language=Arabic |translator-last= |translator-first= |trans-title=Al Durar al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwab al-Nakdiyya ( Sunni Pearls in Najd Answers) |chapter=في أصول مأخذهم |trans-chapter=Fi Usul Ma'khadahum (On the origins of their take)}}</ref></blockquote>
In calling for a direct return to the Scriptures, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was not a [[Literalistic interpretation of Islam|literalist]] and often strongly objected to literalist approaches and ritualism of religion that came with it. He believed that pure intentions (''[[Niyyah]]'') constituted the essence of all virtous actions and upheld its superiority over dull ritualism. As a deferential and accomplished jurist with the experience of religious training under numerous masters in his travels, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab opposed the rigid, hardline views of the tradition-bound ''[[Ulama|ulema]]'' who had excommunicated sinful, unrepenting [[Muslims]]; thereby making their blood forfeit based on their reading of the reports of Muhammad and Companions. On the other hand, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab contextualised those reports; arguing that they must be understood in recognition of historical circumstances. According to his view, sincerity and purity of intent (''Ikhlas'') could expiate the evil of sins committed in mistakes. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's legal approach began with ''hadith'' authentication, followed by contextualised intrapolation in consideration of [[Hanbali]] legal principles such as ''[[Maslaha]]'' (common good). Other legal criteria involved upholding the spirit of the law, ''[[Maqasid al-sharia|Maqasid al-Sharia]]'', and intent behind pronouncing legal verdicts which addressed various themes such as societal justice and safeguarding women. He also believed in a holistic legal understanding of ''Qur'anic'' verses and ''hadith'', distinguishing between general rules applicable for all Muslims and rulings unique to various life-time situations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Delong-Bas |first=Natana |title=Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-19-516991-3 |location=New York |pages=32, 50–51, 84, 94–95, 115–118, 158, 160, 240, 283–285}}</ref>

=== On Islamic revival ===
{{See also|Tajdid}}

As a young scholar in [[Medina]], Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was profoundly influenced by the revivalist doctrines taught by his teachers [[Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi]] and Abdullah Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Sayf. Much of the Wahhabi teachings such as opposition to saint-cults, radical denunciation of blind-following medieval commentaries, adherence to Scriptures and other revivalist thoughts came from Muhammad Hayyat. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist efforts were based on a strong belief in ''[[Tawhid]]'' (Oneness of Allah) and a firm adherence to the [[Sunnah]]. His reformative efforts left exemplary marks on contemporary Islamic scholarship. Viewing Blind adherence ( ''Taqlid'' ) as an obstacle to the progress of Muslims, he dedicated himself to educating the masses for them to be vanguards of Islam. According to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the degradation and lagging behind of [[Muslims]] was due to their neglect of the teachings of [[Islam]], emphasizing that progress could be achieved only by firmly adhering to Islam. He also campaigned against popular Sufi practices associated with ''istigatha'', myths and superstitions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Voll|first=John|date=1975|title=Muḥammad Ḥayyā al-Sindī and Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab: An Analysis of an Intellectual Group in Eighteenth-Century Madīna |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London|volume=38|issue=1|pages=32–39|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00047017|jstor=614196|s2cid=162450741 |quote= "Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb came to Madina as a relatively young scholar and studied under Muhammad Hayyā al-Sindi.... Scholars have described Muhammad Hayyā as having an impor- tant influence on Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb, encouraging him in his developing determination to denounce rigid imitation of medieval commentaries and to utilize informed individual analysis (ijtihād). Muhammad Hayyà also taught Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb a rejection of popular religious practices associated with saints and their tombs that is similar to later Wahhābi teachings." }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=bin Ridha Murad|first=Mahmoud|title=The Life & the Aqeedah of Muhammad Bin Abdul-Wahhab|year=2000|pages=17–20}}</ref>

===On Sufism===
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab praised [[Sufism|Tasawwuf]]. He stated the popular saying: "From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a ''[[Faqīh|faqih]]'' and a scholar who is an [[Asceticism#Islam|ascetic]] (''zahid'')".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hafiz Al-Makki|first=Mawlana Abd-Al|date=1 January 2011|title=Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd Al-Wahhab and Sufism|url=http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-'abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111012457/http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|archive-date=11 January 2015|website=Deoband Org|quote="From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid)."}}</ref> He described Tasawwuf as "the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of ''Suluk''", and considered it as an important branch of Islamic religious sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|last='Abd al-Hafiz al-Makki|first=Mawlana|date=1 January 2011|title=Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism|url=https://www.deoband.org/2011/01/sufism/shaykh-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111012457/http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|archive-date=11 January 2015|website=Deoband org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Mu'allafat al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=|year=|isbn=|volume=2|page=4|chapter=Kitab al Fiqh}}</ref>

At the end of his treatise, ''Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah'', Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son [[Abd Allah ibn Muhammad Abd al-Wahhab|'Abd Allah]] speaks positively on the practice of ''[[tazkiah]]'' (purification of the inner self).<ref>{{cite web|last1=al-Makki|first1='Abd al-Hafiz|title=Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism|url=http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|website=Deoband.org|date=January 2011 |access-date=3 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111012457/http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|archive-date=11 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rida|first1=Rashid|title=Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah|date=1925|publisher=Al Manar Publishers|location=Egypt|page=50}}</ref> 'Abd Allah Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab ends his treatise saying:

<blockquote>We do not negate the way of the Sufis and the purification of the inner self from the vices of those sins connected to the heart and the limbs as long as the individual firmly adheres to the rules of Shari'ah and the correct and observed way. However, we will not take it on ourselves to allegorically interpret (''ta'wil'') his speech and his actions. We only place our reliance on, seek help from, beseech aid from and place our confidence in all our dealings in Allah Most High. He is enough for us, the best trustee, the best ''mawla'' and the best helper. May Allah send peace on our master Muhammad, his family and companions.<ref>{{Cite web|last=al-Makki|first=Mawlana 'Abd Al-Hafiz|date=1 January 2011|title=Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism|url=https://www.deoband.org/2011/01/sufism/shaykh-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111012457/http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|archive-date=11 January 2015|website=Deoband org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rida|first=Rashid|title=Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah|publisher=Al-Manar Publishers|year=1925|isbn=|location=Egypt|page=50}}</ref></blockquote>

=== On social reforms ===
{{See also|Islah}}

Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab concerned himself with the social reformation of his people. As an 18th-century reformer, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al Wahhab called for the re-opening of ''[[Ijtihad]]'' by qualified persons through strict adherence to Scriptures in reforming society. His thoughts reflected the major trends apparent in the 18th-century Islamic reform movements. Unlike other reform movements which were restricted to ''da'wa'', Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was also able to transform his movement into a successful [[Islamic state]]. Thus, his teachings had a profound influence on majority of Islamic [[Islah|reform]]-[[Islamic revival|revivalist]] movements since the 18th century. Numerous significant socio-economic reforms would be advocated by the ''Imam'' during his lifetime. His reforms touched over various fields such as ''[[Aqidah|aqeeda]]'', ''[[Ibadah|ibaadat]]'' (ritual acts of worship), ''[[Muamalat|muamalaat]]'' (social interactions), etc. In the affairs of ''mu'amalat'', he harshly rebuked the practice of leaving endowments to prevent the rightful heirs (particularly the females) from receiving their deserved inheritance. He also objected to various forms of ''[[riba]]'' (usury) as well as the practice of presenting judges with gifts, which according to him, was nothing more than bribing. He also opposed and brought an end to numerous un-Islamic taxes that were forced upon the people.<ref>{{Cite book|last=al-Din M. Zarabozo|first=Jamaal|title=The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab|publisher=The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|year=2003|isbn=9960-29-500-1|location=Riyadh|pages=20–22, 44, 134–139, 164–165}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=bin Ridha Murad|first=Mahmoud|title=The Life & the Aqeedah of Muhammad Bin Abdul-Wahhab|year=2000|page=17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Martin |first=Richard C. |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World|year=2004| publisher=Macmillan Reference USA| isbn=0-02-865603-2 |page=6|quote= "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab called for the reopening of ijtihad (independent legal judgment) by qualified persons to reform Islam.."}}</ref>

==== On women ====
{{See also|Women in Islam}}
The legal writings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab reflected a general concern of female welfare and justice. In line with this approach, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced the practice of instant ''[[Divorce in Islam|triple talaq]]'', counting it as only a single ''talaq'' (regardless of the number of pronouncements). The outlawing of ''triple talaq'' is considered to be one of the most significant reforms across the [[Muslim world|Islamic World]] in the 20th and 21st centuries. Following a balanced approach in issues of gender, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab advocated moderation between men and women in social interactions as well as spirituality. According to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, women has a place in society with both rights and responsibility, with the society being obliged to respect her status and protect her. He also condemned forced marriages and declared any marriage contracted without the consent of a woman (be it minor, virgin or non-virgin) to be "invalid". This too was a significant reform as well as a break from the four Sunni schools which allowed the ''[[wali]]'' (ward/guardian) to compel minor daughters into marriage without consent. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab also stipulated the permission of the guardian as a condition in marriage (in line with traditional Hanbali, [[Shafiʽi school|Shafi'i]] and [[Maliki]] schools). Nevertheless, as a practical jurist, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab allowed guardians to delegate the right to contract marriages to women herself, after which his permission cannot be denied. He also allowed women the right to stipulate favourable conditions for her in the marriage contract. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab also defended the woman's right to divorce through ''[[Khul']]'' for various reasons, including in cases wherein she despised her husband. He also prohibited the killing of women, children and various non-combatants such as monks, elderly, blind, ''shaykhs'', slaves and peasants in warfare.<ref>{{Cite book|last=J. DeLong-Bas|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|pages=8, 109–110, 124, 135–136, 173, 183, 204–205}}</ref>

In addition to these, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab also defended married women's right to maintenance from her husband; as well as bride's right to receive ''[[mahr]]'' from her groom. He also strongly campaigned against domestic abuses against women, enjoining men to treat their wives with kindness.<ref>{{Cite book |last=N. Stearns |first=Peter |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-517632-2 |location= New York, NY|chapter=Wahhabism |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195176322.001.0001 |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195176322.001.0001/acref-9780195176322-e-1677?rskey=RtFC0x&result=2}}</ref>

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab believed in social participation of women for communal solidarity; as per Islamic codes of modesty (''[[Haya (Islam)|Haya]]'') that was inclusive to all sections of society, especially the poor. He also campaigned for improving female literacy and asserted women's education as part of their religious rights and duties. Educated elite women played an important role in the Wahhabi movement through social activism and in various instances also weld significant political influence. Many women were trained in various religious disciplines, memorising ''[[Quran|Qur'an]]'' and being proficient in [[hadith science]]s; which gained them civic respect as well as a source of income by teaching. As a result, the townsfolk of 19th-century Central Arabia had noticeably higher rates of literacy as observed by foreign travellers. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab also encouraged educated women to be active in various communal activities so as to bolster the [[Islah|reformist]] campaigns of the ''Muwahhidun'', educating other women, generating awareness of [[Superstitions in Muslim societies|superstitions]] as well as other cultural activities such as reciting [[Islamic poetry|poetry]], playing [[tambourine]] during feasts, weddings and various social gatherings. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's own daughter, Fatima was an influential [[Ulama|Islamic scholar]] active in social and communal affairs and would influence subsequent generations of Arabian women.<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=Islam, Revival, and Reform: Redefining Tradition for the Twenty-First Century - Essays Inspired by John O. Voll |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-8156-3753-0 |edition=1st |location=Syracuse, New York |pages=3–29 |chapter=1: The Role of Women in Solidifying Eighteenth-Century Revival and Reform Initiatives into Ongoing Mass Movements}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mukhlid al-Harbi |first=Dalal |title=Prominent Women from Central Arabia |publisher=Ithaca Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-86372-327-8 |editor-last=Ann Roberg-Abahsain |editor-first=Jill |edition=First |location=Reading, UK |pages= |language=Arabic |translator-last=M. Abahsain |translator-last2=A. al-Furaih |translator-first=Muhammad |translator-first2=Mohammad}}</ref>

=== On Jihad ===
{{Main|Jihad|Islamic military jurisprudence}}
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb defined [[jihad]] as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an ''[[Imam]]'' whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature.{{sfn|Delong-Bas|2004|pp=202–203, 241–242}}  He viewed the military campaigns of the [[Emirate of Diriyah|Emirate of Dirʿiyya]] as strictly defensive operations against aggressive opponents who initiated ''[[Takfir]]'' against his followers.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book |last=M. Bunzel |first=Cole |title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153–1351/1741–1932) |publisher=Princeton University |year=2018 |location=Princeton, New Jersey |page=244}}</ref> Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as primarily defensive operations, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab asserts:<blockquote>"As for warfare, until today, we did not fight anyone, except in defense of our lives and honor. They came to us in our area and did not spare any effort in fighting us. We only initiated fighting against some of them in retaliation for their continued aggression, [''The recompense for an evil is an evil like thereof''] (42:40)... they are the ones who started declaring us to be unbelievers and fighting us"<ref name="auto2" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Abu alrub |first=Jalal |title=Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition |publisher=Madinah Publishers and Distributors |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-9856326-9-4 |editor-last=Mencke |editor-first=Alaa |pages=267, 276}}</ref></blockquote>

===On Muslim saints===
{{See also|Wali}}
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab strongly condemned the veneration of [[Wali|Muslim saints]] (Which he described as worship) or associating divinity to beings other than God, labeling it as ''[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]''.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Despite his great aversion to venerating the saints after their earthly passing and seeking their intercession, it should nevertheless be noted that Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab did not deny the existence of saints as such; on the contrary, he acknowledged that "the miracles of saints (''karāmāt al-awliyāʾ'') are not to be denied, and their right guidance by God is acknowledged" when they acted properly during their life.<ref name="Wahhābiyya"/> Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab opposed the practice of pilgrimage of saints' tombs as it is considered as [[Bidʻah]] (heresy), such as the practice of the pilgrimage towards a tomb believed belong to a companion of the Prophet named [[Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar]] in the valley of Ghobaira.<ref name="Mohammad Bin Abdul Wahhab, a Slandered Reformer">{{cite book |author1=Masʻūd ʻĀlam Nadvī |translator= M. Rafiq Khan |title=Mohammad Bin Abdul Wahhab, a Slandered Reformer |date=1983|type=Muslims -- Biography -- Saudi Arabia, Wahhābīyah -- Biography -- Saudi Arabia |publisher=Idaratul Buhoosil Islamia |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rnQ6AAAAMAAJ |access-date=27 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

===On non-Muslims===
According to the [[Political science|political scientist]] [[Dore Gold]],<ref name="Gold-25">{{cite book|last=Gold |first=Dore|author-link=Dore Gold|year=2003|title=Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jT1xbK2EGRcC&pg=PT41|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=Regnery Publishing|page=25|isbn=0-89526-135-9}}</ref> Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab presented a strong [[Anti-Christianity|anti-Christian]] and [[Anti-Judaism|anti-Judaic]] stance in his main theological treatise ''Kitāb at-Tawḥīd'',<ref name="Gold-25"/> describing the followers of both [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] faiths as [[Magic (supernatural)|sorcerers]]<ref name="Gold-25"/> who believe in [[Devil-Worship|devil-worship]],<ref name="Gold-25"/> and by citing a hadith attributed to the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]]{{efn|The attribution of this [[hadith]] is disputed; according to other sources it should be attributed to [[Umar|'Umar ibn al-Khattab]], [[Companions of the Prophet|companion]] of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and second [[caliph]] of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]].|group=Note}} he stated that [[Capital punishment in Islam|capital punishment]] for the sorcerer is "that he be struck with the sword".<ref name="Gold-25"/><ref>Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, ''Kitab al-Tawhid'' (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996) Chapter 24, particularly p. 97.</ref> Ibn Abd al-Wahhab asserted that both the Christian and Jewish religions had improperly made the graves of their prophet into places of worship and warned Muslims not to imitate this practice.<ref name="Gold-25"/><ref>Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, ''Kitab al-Tawhid'' (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, p. 83)</ref> Ibn Abd al-Wahhab concluded that "The ways of the [[People of the Book]] are condemned as those of polytheists."<ref name="Gold-25"/><ref>Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, ''Kitab al-Tawhid'' (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, Chapter 9, p. 51)</ref>

However, Western scholar [[Natana J. DeLong-Bas]] defended the position of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, stating that:
<blockquote>despite his at times vehement denunciations of other religious groups for their supposedly heretical beliefs, Ibn Abd al Wahhab never called for their destruction or death ... he assumed that these people would be punished in the Afterlife ..."{{sfn|Delong-Bas|2004|page=61}}
</blockquote>

==Reception==
<!-- IMPORTANT: This section is not for the sole discussion of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's views; discuss his character and legacy as well. Also, please note that this article is about Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab; if you want to describe Salafi views, go to their respective articles. Most importantly, though, this is NOT a criticism section. Some people supported al-Wahhab, some people didn't; explain their views but not at the expense of either side. Lastly, this section need not be restricted to the opinions of Muslims. -->

===By contemporaries===
The doctrines of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab were criticized by a number of [[Ulama|Islamic scholars]] during his lifetime, accusing him of disregarding Islamic history, monuments, traditions and the sanctity of Muslim life.<ref name="ElFadl 2007">{{cite book |last=El Fadl |first=Khaled A. |author-link=Khaled Abou El Fadl |year=2007 |orig-date=2005 |title=The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists |chapter=The Rise of the Early Puritans |location=[[San Francisco]] |publisher=[[HarperOne]] |pages=56–57 |isbn=978-0-06-118903-6}}</ref> His critics were mainly ''[[ulama]]'' from his homeland, the [[Najd]] region of central Arabia, which was directly affected by the growth of the [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi movement]],<ref name="Traboulsi 2002"/> based in the cities of [[Basra]], [[Mecca]], and [[Medina]].<ref name="Traboulsi 2002"/> Some of the early opponents of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab classified his doctrine as a "[[Kharijites|Kharijite]] [[Sectarianism|sectarian]] [[Heresy in Islam|heresy]]".{{sfn|Commins|2015|page=151}}

On the other hand, Ibn Abd al-Wahhāb and his supporters held that they were the victims of aggressive warfare; accusing their opponents of starting the pronouncements of ''[[Takfir]]'' (excommunication) and maintained that the military operations of [[Emirate of Diriyah|Emirate of Dirʿiyya]] were strictly defensive. The memory of the unprovoked military offensive launched by Dahhām ibn Dawwās (fl. 1187/1773), the powerful chieftain of [[Riyadh]], on Diriyya in 1746 was deeply engrained in the Wahhabi tradition.<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|page=244}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Michael|title=Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=One World Publications|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78074-589-3|location=London|page=72}}</ref> Early Wahhabi chronicler Ibn Ghannām states in his book ''Tarikh an-Najd'' (History of Najd) that Ibn Abd al-Wahhāb did not order the use of violence until his enemies excommunicated him and deemed his blood licit:<blockquote>"He gave no order to spill blood or to fight against the majority of the heretics and the misguided until they started ruling that he and his followers were to be killed and excommunicated."<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. Bunzel|first=Cole|title=Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)|publisher=Princeton University|year=2018|location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA|page=244}}</ref></blockquote>

By 1802, the [[Ottoman Empire]] had officially begun to wage religious campaigns against the Wahhabis, issuing tracts condemning them as ''Kharijites''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Commins|first=David|title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2006|isbn=1-84511-080-3|location=London |page=30|quote="By 1802, the Ottomans were mounting a doctrinal campaign, sending official tracts refuting Wahhabi positions and likening them to the Kharijites of early Islamic times."}}</ref> In contrast, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab profoundly despised the "decorous, arty tobacco-smoking, music happy, drum pounding, [[Egypt Eyalet|Egyptian]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[nobility]] who traveled across Arabia to pray at Mecca each year",<ref name="Aydinli 2018">{{cite book|last=Aydınlı|first=Ersel|title=Violent Non-State Actors: From Anarchists to Jihadists|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2018|isbn=978-1-315-56139-4|edition=1st|series=Routledge Studies on Challenges, Crises, and Dissent in World Politics|location=[[London]] and New York|page=66|chapter=The Jihadists pre-9/11|lccn=2015050373|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hq1TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66|orig-date=2016}}</ref> and intended to either subjugate them to his doctrine or overthrow them.<ref name="Aydinli 2018" /> A handful of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian]] [[Hanbali]]s participated on the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman side]] of the controversy. Muhammad ibn 'Abdullah ibn Humayd's 19th century biographical dictionary sheds light on those Hanbali scholars.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Weismann |last2=Zachs|first1=Itzchak |first2=Fruma|url=|title=Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration|publisher=I.B Taurus|year=2005|isbn=1-85043-757-2|location=New York|page=81}}</ref> However, the reliability of his biography itself is disputed for its inherent biases, which portrays Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his followers as [[Heresy in Islam|heretics]]. It also misrepresents many [[Emirate of Nejd|Najdi]] Hanbali scholars as on the side of Ottoman Hanbalis.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Weismann |last2=Zachs|first1=Itzchak |first2=Fruma |title=Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration|publisher=I.B Tauris|year=2005|isbn=1-85043-757-2|location=New York|pages=84–86}}</ref>

Ibn Humayd's maternal lineage, Al-Turki, was of some local renown for its religious scholars, including two men who opposed the Wahhabi movement. One of them, named Ibn Muhammad, compared Ibn Abd al-Wahhab with [[Musaylimah]].<ref name="Ottoman83">{{Cite book|last1=Mannah|first1=Buṭrus Abū|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7loMhnI5S8C&q=Zayni+Dahlan+ibn+Abdul+Wahhab&pg=PA91|title=Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration|last2=Weismann|first2=Itzchak|last3=Zachs|first3=Fruma|year=2005|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-757-4|location=|page=83|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701045121/https://books.google.com/books?id=U7loMhnI5S8C&pg=PA91&dq=Zayni+Dahlan+ibn+Abdul+Wahhab&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK4e36re_QAhXML8AKHURQC2oQ6AEINjAF#v=onepage&q=Zayni%20Dahlan%20ibn%20Abdul%20Wahhab&f=false|archive-date=1 July 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> He also accused Ibn Abd al-Wahhab of wrongly [[Takfir|declaring fellow Muslims to be infidels]] based on a misguided reading of [[Quran|Quranic passages]] and prophetic traditions (''[[Hadith]]''),<ref name="Ottoman83" /> and of wrongly declaring all scholars as infidels who did not agree with his "deviant innovation".<ref name="Ottoman83" /> In contrast to this anti-Wahhabi family tradition, Ibn Humayd's early education included extensive studies under two Wahhabi Shaykhs, both praised in his biographical dictionary. He then travelled to [[Damascus]] and [[Mecca]], wherein he attended lessons of men known for strong anti-Wahhabi convictions. Ibn Humayd's compatibility with Ottoman religious outlook made him eligible for the post of Ottoman [[Mufti]] in Mecca.<ref name="Ottoman83" />

Another Hanbali scholar whom Ibn Humayd portrays as a central figure in rejecting Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's doctrine was Ibn Fayruz Al-Tamimi al-Ahsai (1729/30 – 1801/02). Ibn Fayruz publicly repudiated Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teachings when he sent an envoy to him. Ibn Fayruz then wrote to [[Abdul Hamid I|Sultan Abdul Hamid I]] and requested Ottoman assistance to subjugate Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's followers, whom he referred to as the "seditious [[Kharijites]]" of [[Najd]]. The Wahhabis, in turn, came to view him as one of their worst enemies and an exemplar of idolatry.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mannah|first1=Buṭrus Abū|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7loMhnI5S8C&q=Zayni+Dahlan+ibn+Abdul+Wahhab&pg=PA91|title=Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration|last2=Weismann|first2=Itzchak|last3=Zachs|first3=Fruma|date= 2005|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-757-4|location=|pages=86–87|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701045121/https://books.google.com/books?id=U7loMhnI5S8C&pg=PA91&dq=Zayni+Dahlan+ibn+Abdul+Wahhab&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK4e36re_QAhXML8AKHURQC2oQ6AEINjAF#v=onepage&q=Zayni%20Dahlan%20ibn%20Abdul%20Wahhab&f=false|archive-date=1 July 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to Ibn Humayd, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's father criticized his son for his unwillingness to specialize in jurisprudence and disagreed with his doctrine and declared that he would be the cause of wickedness.<ref name=Ottoman89>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7loMhnI5S8C&q=Zayni+Dahlan+ibn+Abdul+Wahhab&pg=PA91|title=Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration|last1=Mannah|first1=Buṭrus Abū|last2=Weismann|first2=Itzchak|last3=Zachs|first3=Fruma|year= 2005|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-757-4|page=89|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701045121/https://books.google.com/books?id=U7loMhnI5S8C&pg=PA91&dq=Zayni+Dahlan+ibn+Abdul+Wahhab&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK4e36re_QAhXML8AKHURQC2oQ6AEINjAF#v=onepage&q=Zayni%20Dahlan%20ibn%20Abdul%20Wahhab&f=false|archive-date=1 July 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly his brother, [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab]], wrote one of the first treatises refuting the Wahhabi doctrine,{{sfn|Gaye|2021|page=212}}<ref name="Wahhābiyya"/><ref name=Ottoman89/> ''The Divine Thunderbolts in Refutation of Wahhabism'' (''Al-Šawā'iq Al-Ilāhiyya fī Al-radd 'alā Al-Wahhābiyya''),{{sfn|Gaye|2021|page=212}}<ref name="Wahhābiyya"/> alleging that Muhammad was ill-educated and intolerant, and classing his views as fringe and fanatical.<ref name="ElFadl 2007"/>{{sfn|Gaye|2021|page=212}} Sulayman's first anti-Wahhabi treatise was followed by a second book, ''The Unmistakable Judgment in the Refutation of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab'' (''Faṣl al-Ḫiṭāb fī Al-radd 'alā Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb'').{{sfn|Gaye|2021|page=212}} Later ''Muwahhidun'' scholarly figures like [[Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Latif Al ash-Sheikh|Abdullah ibn Abd al-Latif Aal al-Shaykh]] (d. 1921 C.E) would respond to these accusations by asserting that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab refrained from making ''Takfir'': <blockquote>" Shaykh Muhammad (May God have Mercy on him) never made takfeer of the people in the beginning; except via establishing the proofs and the da'wah, because at that time there was a dearth of knowledge of the message (of Islām) and for that reason he said 'due to their ignorance and the lack of anyone who makes them aware'. However, as for those on whom the proofs are established, then there is nothing to prevent ''takfeer'' being made on such people"<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/1_20191031/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_10/page/n433/mode/2up |title=الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية |publisher=[[Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University]] |year=1996 |editor-last=ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim Al-Najdi |editor-first='Abd al-Rahman |volume=10 |pages=434–435 |language=Arabic |trans-title=Al-Durar Al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwabatil Najdiyya (Sunni Pearls from Najdi Answers)}}</ref></blockquote>

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab was known to have had disagreements with both his father and his brother [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab|Sulayman]].{{sfn|Brown|2009|page=245}}<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
{{sfn|Khatab|2011|pages=56–76}}<ref name="Traboulsi 2002"/> 
{{sfn|Gaye|2021|page=212}} Sulayman, his brother, disputed many of his doctrinal statements and was one of his staunch opponents during a certain time-period. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's father disagreed with his son's metholodolgy in implementing reforms.{{sfn|Khatab|2011|pages=63–75}} According to historical records, Sulayman declared his repentance and started to support his brother during later life, after understanding the doctrines and objectives of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist movement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ص146 - أرشيف ملتقى أهل الحديث - سليمان بن عبد الوهاب تاب ورجع فهل راجعون - المكتبة الشاملة الحديثة |url=https://al-maktaba.org/book/31616/25648 |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=al-maktaba.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rattibha |url=https://en.rattibha.com/thread/1692585234599141848 |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=en.rattibha.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-10-28 |title=الشيخ سليمان بن عبدالوهاب تاب ورجع، فهل أنتم راجعون؟ (1 /2) |url=http://www.alukah.net/sharia/0/3891/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%B9%D8%8C-%D9%81%D9%87%D9%84-%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%85-%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B9%D9%88%D9%86%D8%9F-1-2/ |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=www.alukah.net |language=ar}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=الشيخ صالح الفوزان: توبة الشيخ سليمان بن عبد الوهاب من ذم دعوة أخيه الإمام المجدد محمد | date=15 July 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BcwobV-pfs0 |access-date=2023-10-04 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Commins |first=David |title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia |publisher=I.B Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=1-84511-080-3 |location=London |page=22 |language=English}}</ref>

The 19th century anti-Wahhabi critic and historian [[Ahmad Zayni Dahlan|Ahmad ibn al-Zayni Dahlan]], Ottoman empire's [[Grand Mufti]] of the [[Shafi'i]] [[madhab]] in Mecca,<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Eric Tagliacozzo]]|title=Southeast Asia and the Middle East: Islam, Movement, and the Longue Durée|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S3nlvRJyjUEC|date=2009|publisher=[[NUS Press]]|isbn=978-9971-69-424-1|page=125}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Countering Suicide Terrorism: An International Conference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zri2IRX9sIEC|date=2001|publisher=[[International Institute for Counter-Terrorism]] (ICT)|isbn=978-1-4128-4487-1|page=72}}</ref> recorded the account of the dispute between Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his brother Sulayman, reporting that:
{{blockquote |text=Sulayman [ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab] once asked his brother Muhammad [ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab], "How many are the [[pillars of Islam]]?" "Five," he answered. Sulayman replied, "No, you have added a sixth one: He who does not follow you is not a Muslim. This, to you, is the sixth pillar of Islam."{{sfn|Khatab|2011|page=71}}}}

According to various historical records, Sulayman repented and joined the religious mission of his brother.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Commins|first=David|title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia|publisher=I.B Tauris|year=2006|isbn=1-84511-080-3|location= London |page=22|quote="Later reports claim that Sulayman eventually repented his errors, but those may well represent efforts to smooth over the historical record"}}</ref> However, there is a disagreement regarding his repentance. While earlier Najdi chroniclers like Ibn Ghannam reported he repented and embraced Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's cause in [[Diriyah]], later historians like Ibn Bishr simply mentions his departure to Diriyah with his family and his last years under the protection of Diriyah, while being allowed by state-allotted stipend. A letter attributed to Sulayman also mentions his public repentance.<ref>{{Cite book|last=al-Din M. Zarabozo|first=Jamaal|title=The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab|publisher=The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|year=2005|isbn=9960-29-500-1|location=Riyadh|page=209|quote="There is a difference of opinion concerning whether Sulaimaan eventually gave up his opposition and joined the call of his brother Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Ibn Ghannaam, the earliest chronicler, specifically states that he repented from his previous position and joined his brother in al-Diriyyah. Ibn Bishr simply states that he moved to al-Diriyyah with his family and remained there while receiving a stipend, which may or may not be a sign that he had changed his views. There is actually a letter that was supposedly written by Sulaimaan in which he stated that he repented from his earlier views. Al-Bassaam in Ulamaa Najd presents logical evidence to show that that letter is false and Sulaimaan actually never changed his position"}}</ref>

The Ottoman [[Grand Mufti]] of Mecca, [[Ahmad Zayni Dahlan]] (d. 1886), wrote an anti-Wahhabi treatise, in which he listed the religious practices that the Najdi Hanbalis considered idolatrous: visiting the [[tomb of Muhammad]], seeking the intercession of saints, venerating Muhammad and obtaining the blessings of saints.<ref name=Ottoman91>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7loMhnI5S8C&q=Zayni+Dahlan+ibn+Abdul+Wahhab&pg=PA91|title=Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration|last1=Mannah|first1=Buṭrus Abū|last2=Weismann|first2=Itzchak|last3=Zachs|first3=Fruma|date=2005|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-757-4|page=91|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701045121/https://books.google.com/books?id=U7loMhnI5S8C&pg=PA91&dq=Zayni+Dahlan+ibn+Abdul+Wahhab&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK4e36re_QAhXML8AKHURQC2oQ6AEINjAF#v=onepage&q=Zayni%20Dahlan%20ibn%20Abdul%20Wahhab&f=false|archive-date=1 July 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> He also accused Ibn Abd al-Wahhab of not adhering to the Hanbali school and that he was deficient in learning.<ref name=Ottoman91/> However, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab had believed that visiting the tomb of Muhammad was a righteous deed, referring to it as "among the best of deeds" while condemning its excesses.<ref>{{Cite book|last=J. Delong-Bas|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|page=67|chapter=The Theology and Worldview of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab|quote="Consequently, 'Abd al-Wahhab noted that although visiting Muhammad's grave was a worthy act it must not be done in a spirit or intent that compromises monotheism. Finally, prayer should never be conducted in a cemetery"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=ibn Abdul Wahhab|first=Muhammad|url=https://www.missionislam.com/knowledge/books/tawheed.pdf|title=Kitab At-Tauhid|publisher=Dar us Salam Publications|chapter=Chapter 22 The protectiveness of Al-Mustafa (May Allah be pleased with him) of Tawhid and his blockading every path leading to Shirk|quote="4) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade visiting his grave in a certain manner, though visiting his grave is among the best of deeds. 5) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade us making excessive visits to his grave"}}</ref> The medieval theologians [[Ibn Taymiyyah]] and [[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya|Ibn Qayyim]], who inspired Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, had issued ''[[Fatwa]]s'' declaring the visitations to the tomb of Muhammad to be ''[[haram]]'' (forbidden); which would lead to their imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Beranek, Tupek|author2=Ondrej, Pavel|date=2009|title=From Visiting Graves to Their Destruction The Question of Ziyara through the Eyes of Salafis|url=https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/papers/pdfs/cp2.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjBwt2g5dzuAhVQbSsKHWcrDEQQFjADegQICBAB&usg=AOvVaw2lXzewNZVV3LJMgJ2J7SA6|journal=Brandeis University Crown Center for Middle East Studies|pages=2, 12, 15|quote="Ibn Taymiyya spent a large portion of his life in prison for his teachings; his last imprisonment was caused by his issuance of a legal opinion reportedly denouncing the visitation of the Prophet's grave... He was arrested, imprisoned without trial, and by a decree of the sultan, which was read out in the Umayyad Mosque, deprived of the right to issue legal opinions (ifta'). The reason for this was the discovery of Ibn Taymiyya's fatwa on grave visitation, authored by him seventeen years earlier and exploited by Ibn Taymiyya's adversaries. This event was connected with yet another incident. After Ibn al-Qayyim, in full accordance with his master's teaching, had preached in Jerusalem about the intercession of the prophets and denied that one could set out to visit the Prophet's grave without first going to the Prophet's mosque, a group of Ibn Taymiyya's sympathizers was arrested. Ibn al Qayyim, after he had been beaten and paraded on a donkey, was imprisoned along with Ibn Taymiyya.. Ibn Taymiyya prohibits traveling exclusively for the purpose of visiting the Prophet's grave, but it is customary (sunna) to visit it after praying in his mosque, because it was the way of the sahaba... Ibn Taymiyya criticizes hadiths encouraging visitation of the Prophet's grave, pronouncing them all forgeries (mawdu') and lies (kidhb)..."|via=Brandeis University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Travel Towards Prophet's Resting Place|url=https://www.islamieducation.com/travel-towards-prophets-resting-place/|website=Islami Education|date=17 October 2008}}</ref>

In response, the [[British Raj|British Indian]] ''[[Ahl-i Hadith]]'' scholar Muhammad Bashir Sahsawani (1834-1908 C.E) wrote the treatise ''Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswaswah al-Shaikh Dahlaan'' in order to refute Dahlan. Sahsawani asserted that after his correspondence with various scholars of the ''Muwahhidun'' movement and study of their creedal works; he came to the conclusion that the allegation that they excommunicated "non-Wahhabis" were false and slanderous.<ref>{{Cite book|last=al-Din M. Zarabozo|first=Jamaal|title=The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab|publisher=The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|year=2005|isbn=9960-29-500-1|location=Riyadh|pages=218, 234|quote="Muhammad Basheer ibn Muhammad al-Sahsawaani from India (1250–1326 A.H.). He was a scholar from India who went to Makkah and met with and debated Dahlaan. Later he wrote a large volume refuting the false claims and misinterpretations of Dahlaan, entitled Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswasah al-Shaikh Dahlaan.".. "Similarly, al-Sahsawaani stated that he met more than one scholar of the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab and he read many of their books and he did not find any evidence for the false claim that they declared "non-Wahhabis" disbelievers"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=[Biography] – Allamah Muhammad Bashir Sehsawani [1326H]|url=http://www.salafiri.com/biography-allamah-muhammad-bashir-sehsawani-1326h/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125065757/http://www.salafiri.com/biography-allamah-muhammad-bashir-sehsawani-1326h/|archive-date=25 January 2019|website=Salafi Research Institute|date=August 2015}}</ref>

The Islamic scholar [[Rashid Rida|Muhammad Rashid Rida]] (d. 1935 C.E/ 1354 A.H) in his introduction to al-Sahsawani's refutation of Dahlan, described Ibn Abd al-Wahhab as a ''[[mujaddid]]'' repelling the innovations and deviations in Muslim life. Through his ''[[Al-Manar (magazine)|Al-Manar]]'' magazine, Rashid Rida greatly contributed to the spread of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teachings in the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]]. He was a strong supporter of Ibn Taymiyyah and scholars of Najd, publishing works in his magazine entitled ''Majmooah al-Rasaail wa al-Masaail al-Najdiyyah'' and ''al-Wahhaabiyoon wa al-Hijaaz.''<ref>{{Cite book|last=al-Din M. Zarabozo|first=Jamaal|title=The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab|publisher=The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|year=2005|isbn=9960-29-500-1|location=Riyadh|pages=172–73|quote="He was a strong supporter of ibn Taimiyyah—publishing his works—as well as of the scholars of Najd—publishing their works in his magazine and in a separate anthology entitled Majmooah al-Rasaail wa al-Masaail al-Najdiyyah. In his introduction to al-Sahwasaani's refutation of Dahlaan, Ridha, in a lengthy passage, described ibn Abdul-Wahhaab as a mujaddid ("religious revivalist"), repelling the innovations and deviations in Muslim life. Through his magazine, al-Manaar, Muhammad Rasheed Ridha greatly contributed to the spread of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab's teachings in the whole Muslim world. In fact, he published some of his articles from that magazine in a work entitled al-Wahhaabiyoon wa al-Hijaaz ("The Wahhabis and the Hijaz"). His magazine was unique in its thought and popularity."}}</ref> Rida notes that given Dahlan's position in [[Mecca]], and availability there of the works of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, he must have simply chosen to write otherwise. Rida also argued that Dahlan simply wrote what he heard from people, and criticised him for not verifying reports and seeking out the writings of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab. He condemned Dahlan for his ignorance and his sanctioning of acts of ''kufr'' and ''shirk''; based on his reinterpretation of Islamic texts.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Al Din M.Zarabazo|first=Jamal|title=The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab|publisher=The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|year=2005|isbn=9960-29-500-1|location=Riyadh|pages=213, 242–43|quote="Muhammad Rasheed Ridha notes that given Dahlaan's position in Makkah and the availability there of works about the call, it is hard to believe that Dahlaan was not aware of the truth about the teachings of ibn Abdul Wahhab and his followers. He must have simply chosen to write otherwise. He further argues that even if he did not see such writings and he relied simply on what he heard from people, it would have been incumbent upon him to verify those reports and to seek out ibn Abdul Wahhab's writings to see if such reports could possibly have been true." ... "Muhammad Rasheed Ridha described the situation best when he wrote, "From the amazing aspects of the ignorance of Dahlaan and others similar to him is that they think that what Allah describes concerning the falsehood of the shirk of the polytheists applies only to them [that is, the polytheists at the time of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)]. They think that such are not proofs against anyone who does similar to what they did. It is as if it is permissible for a Muslim to commit shirk due to his Islamic citizenship, even if he commits every type of associating of partners with Allah enumerated in the Quran. Based on that, he cannot conceive of any kind of apostasy from Islam because anyone who is called a Muslim must also have his kufr and shirk called Islamic [kufr and shirk]. Or it is considered permissible for him or, at the very least, forbidden. Indeed, they considered it sanctioned based on a reinterpretation of the texts." Rasheed Ridha, footnotes to Siyaanah al-Insaan, pp. 479–80}}</ref>

Rashid Rida contended that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was a victim of persecution by the combined oppression of three forces: i) the power of state and its rulers ii) power of hypocritical scholars and iii) power of tyrannical commoners.<ref name="Abu alrub 2013 412">{{Cite book|last=Abu alrub|first=Jalal|title=Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition|publisher=Madinah Punlishers and Distributors|year=2013|isbn=978-0-9856326-9-4|editor-last=Mencke|editor-first=Alaa|page=412}}</ref> Fiercely rebuking his opponents, Rashid Rida declared:<blockquote> "The best weapon they brandished against him was that he contradicted the majority of Muslims. Who were the majority of Muslims Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab contradicted in his ''Da'wah''? They were Bedouins of the desert, worse than the people of ''[[Jahiliyyah]]'', intent on looting and theft. They allowed shedding the blood of Muslims and non-Muslims, just to earn a living. They took their tyrants as judges in every matter and denied many aspects of Islam on which there is [[Ijma|consensus]] [especially among scholars], matters in which no Muslim can claim ignorance."<ref name="Abu alrub 2013 412"/></blockquote>

[[Ali Bey el Abbassi]], a [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] explorer who was in Mecca in 1803, shortly after the Wahhabi conquest of Hejaz, presented a starkly different view of the Wahhabis. He was surprised to find that they were fairly "moderate, reasonable and civilized". He further observed that, rather than engaging in rampant violence and destruction, the Wahhabis were pleasant and well-organized. According to Ali Bey, there were major differences in the political approach of [[Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin|Muhammad ibn Saud Al Muqrin]], and that of his son, [[Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud]], during whose [[reign]] Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was retired from active public life. Ali Bey asserts that unlike the fair-minded Muhammad Ibn Saud; his son 'Abd Al-Azeez began employing a "convert or die" approach for the acquirment of wealth and stabilising the state.<ref>{{Cite book|last=J. Delong-Bas|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|pages=244–45}}</ref> Ali Bey writes in his ''Travels'': <blockquote>"I discovered much reason and moderation among the Wehhabites to whom I spoke, and from whom I obtained the greater part of the information which I have given concerning their nation..... The reformer Abdoulwehhab did not invest himself with any honour or public character: he was only the chief of the sect, and did not require any personal distinction. After his death, his son, who succeeded him, preserved the same simplicity."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bey |first=Ali |url=https://archive.org/details/travelsalibeyps01beygoog |title=Travels of Ali Bey, In Morocco, Tripoli, Cyprus, Egypt, Arabia, Syria and Turkey Vol.II |publisher=The New York Public Library |year=1816 |location=Philadelphia |pages=79, 157}}</ref></blockquote>[[British Empire|British]] diplomat [[Harford Jones-Brydges]], who was stationed in [[Basra Vilayet|Basra]] in 1784 attributed the popular hysteria about the Wahhabis to a different cause. Unlike Ottoman depictions, Brydges believed that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's doctrine was in keeping with the teachings of Quran, was "perfectly orthodox", "consonant to the purest and best interpretations of that volume", and that Ottomans feared its spread precisely on that basis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=J. Delong-Bas|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|pages=245–46}}</ref>

The [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] historian and [[Al-Azhar University|Azhari]] Islamic scholar [[Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti]] (1753–1825 C.E) was a great admirer of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his movement. He defended his doctrines in [[Egypt]] and held the movement in high regard, viewing its doctrines as having a great prospective to spearhead future [[Islamic revival]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=al-Din M. Zarabozo|first=Jamaal|title=The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab|publisher=The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|year=2003|isbn=9960-29-500-1|location=Riyadh|page=171|quote="The historian and Azhari scholar Abdul-Rahmaan al-Jabarti (1167–1237 A.H.) was very influenced and impressed by the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab and he spread their thoughts in Egypt. He saw in them the greatest potential to revive the Muslim world."}}</ref> Al-Jabarti had the chance to personally meet with various Wahhabi scholars in Egypt in 1814. Finding them to be friendly and knowledgeable, Al-Jabarti stated that the Wahhabis were "modest men of good morals, well trained in oratory, in the principles of religion, the branches of fiqh, and the disagreements of the Schools of Law. In all this they were extraordinary."<ref>{{Cite book|last=J. Delong-Bas|first=Natana|title=Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516991-3|location=New York|page=245|quote="The Egyptian historian Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, who encountered Wahhabis in Egypt ten years later, in 1814, was similarly impressed by the knowledge of the Wahhabi scholars he encountered, despite all of the negative things he had heard about them. The two Wahhabis with whom al-Jabarti met had come to Egypt in search of hadith collections and Hanbali exegetical discussions of the Quran (tafsir) and jurisprudence (fiqh): "I myself met with the two Wahhabis twice and found them to be friendly and articulate, knowledgeable and well versed in historical events and curiosities. They were modest men of good morals, well trained in oratory, in the principles of religion, the branches of fiqh, and the disagreements of the Schools of Law. In all this they were extraordinary."}}</ref> He described Ibn Abd al-Wahhab as a man who "summoned men to ''[[Quran|Qur'an]]'' and the Prophet's ''[[Sunni Islam|Sunna]]'', bidding them to abandon [[Bidʻah|innovations]] in worship". Through his writings, Al-Jabarti repeatedly stressed that the beliefs and doctrines championed by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab were nothing other than orthodox [[Sunni Islam]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Commins|first=David|title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia|publisher=I.B Tauris|year=2006|isbn=1-84511-080-3|location=London|page=31|quote="Whereas Ottoman writers disparaged Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the Egyptian author described him as a man who summoned men to God's book and the Prophet's Sunna, bidding them to abandon innovations in worship. To the Wahhabis' discredit, al-Jabarti reported the 1803 massacre at Ta'if, where Wahhabi forces slaughtered the men and enslaved the women and children. But when it came to doctrinal matters, he reproduced an epistle that the Wahhabis had sent to the religious leader of a Moroccan pilgrim caravan. The epistle set forth their views on idolatry, intercession, festooning the graves of holy men and adhering to the Sunni mainstream. It emphasized that the Wahhabis did not bring anything new but followed classical authorities"}}</ref>

[[Morocco|Moroccan]] military leader [[Abd el-Krim|'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi]] (1882-1963 C.E) praised Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's reform endeavour as a "promising voice" that sparked spiritual and intellectual Awakening across the [[Muslim world|Islamic World]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abu alrub|first=Jalal|title=Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition|publisher=Madinah Punlishers and Distributors|year=2013|isbn=978-0-9856326-9-4|editor-last=Mencke|editor-first=Alaa|page=419}}</ref>

Prominent [[Syrians|Syrian]] [[Hanbali]] scholar 'Abd al-Qadir ibn Badran (1864-1927 C.E/ 1280-1346 A.H) praised the efforts of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in his treatise ''Al-Madkhal ila Madhhab il-Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal'' (An Introduction to the Madhab of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal), writing: <blockquote>"When he [i.e, Ibn 'Abd al Wahhab] learned the narrations and the ''[[Sunnah]]'' and became expertised in the ''[[Madhhab|madhab]]'' of [[Ahmad]]; he began supporting the Truth, fighting ''[[Bidʻah|bid'ah]]'' and resisting what illiterates have made part of this monotheistic religion and ''[[Sharia]]'' of moderation''.'' Some people supported him and made their worship solely to The One God following his path, which was to establish pure ''Tawhid'', call sincerely to monotheism and direct worship in all of its forms solely to The Creator of creation alone. Some people resisted him; they were used to rigidity in following what their forefathers did and they armoured themselves with laziness instead of seeking the truth."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ibn Badran al-Dimashqi|first='Abd al-Qadir|url=https://archive.org/details/20210304_20210304_0304/page/n233/mode/2up|title=المدخل الى مذهب احمد بن حنبل|publisher=Columbia University in City of New York: Libraries|year=1920|isbn=|location=New York|pages=229–230|language=Arabic|trans-title=al-Madkhal ila Madhhab al-Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (An Introduction to the Madhab of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal) }}</ref> </blockquote>

===Modern reception===
Various academics have compared Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab to the 15th-century [[Germany|German]] [[Christians|Christian]] [[pastor]] [[Martin Luther]], for their efforts in launching socio-religious movements that challenged the authority of the dominant clerical and political hierarchy of their societies. Despite being adherents of different religions; both of them were inspired by their respective idealised visions of the past and shared similar themes such as the social and economic upliftment of their societies empowered through mass-education enabled by campaigns for open access to Scriptures.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Al Salem |first=Abdulaziz Abdullah |url=http://theses.gla.ac.uk/id/eprint/75078 |title=Authoring reform: A comparative study of Martin Luther and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab through cultural materialism |publisher=University of Glasgow |year=2019 |location=Glasgow, Scotland, UK |doi=10.5525/gla.thesis.75078|type=PhD }}</ref> He is honoured by many scholars of the [[Salafi movement|Salafi]] tradition as a [[Faqīh|juristic]] authority and source of reference. Salafi scholars [[Rashid Rida]] and I[[Ibn Baz|bn Baz]] considered him a ''[[mujaddid]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=al-Din M. Zarabozo|first=Jamal|title=The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhab|publisher=The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|year=2003|isbn=9960-29-500-1|location=Riyadh|page=369}}</ref> Salafi scholar Al-Albani (d. 1999) praised him for his [[dawah]] movement in the [[Najd]] while also criticizing him for having a "level of exaggeration and harshness", as well as being "weak in hadith and jurisprudence".<ref>{{citation |last=Al-Albani |title=Silsila Hudā wa al-Nūr |pages=297 |quotation=The truth regarding Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb is that he has done a great favour upon the Islamic nation, but he had some level of exaggeration and harshness... Contrary to Shaykh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb – who did not have this level of care in hadith nor in Salafi fiqh}}</ref> He asserted that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was not a [[mujtahid]] in [[fiqh]], accusing him of imitating the Hanbali school,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ismail |first=Raihan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vOFDEAAAQBAJ&dq=albani+criticized+ibn+abd+al-wahhab&pg=PA20 |title=Rethinking Salafism: The Transnational Networks of Salafi 'Ulama in Egypt, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-094895-5 |language=en}}</ref> and also challenged Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's credentials in the [[Hadith studies|knowledge of hadith]].{{Sfn|Gauvain|2013|p=9}}

According to the 20th-century [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] scholar [[Muhammad Asad]], all modern [[Islamic revival|Islamic Renaissance movements]] took inspiration from the spiritual impetus set in motion in the 18th century by Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Assad|first=Muhammad|title=The Road to Makkah|publisher=Islamic Book Service|year=2004|isbn=81-7231-160-5|location=Noida (Ghaziabad)|page=160}}</ref> Crediting Ibn Abd al-Wahhab for his contributions to [[Islamic Renaissance]] and spread of revolutionary ideals across the [[Muslim world]], [[Tunisian people|Tunisian]] [[Islamism|Islamist]] intellectual [[Rached Ghannouchi|Rached Gannouchi]] writes:<blockquote>"Just as in the [[Western world|West]] in the [[age of Renaissance]], the Muslim world was stirred by a great awakening. Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab's message of ''jihad'' and ''ijtihad'' inspired an unbroken movement... to push the [[Ummah|umma]] towards ''jihad'' against its enemies, to abandon the guise of tradition (''taqlid'') and to unite its divisions around the mystical origins of Islam and Islamic thought."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Greenberg |first=Nathaniel |title=How Information Warfare Shaped the Arab Spring: The Politics of Narrative in Tunisia and Egypt |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4744-5395-0 |location=Edinburgh, UK |page=128 |chapter=6: Philosophy and Revolution}}</ref></blockquote>Scholars of the Deobandi movement have held ambiguous views on [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]]. [[Rashid Ahmad Gangohi]], one of the founders of the [[Deobandi|Deobandi school]] praised Ibn Abd al-Wahhab as a virtuous scholar who upheld the Sunnah and campaigned against [[Shirk (Islam)|polytheistic]] and [[Superstitions in Muslim societies|superstitious]] beliefs and practices.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moj |first=Muhammad |title=The Deoband Madrassah Movement: Countercultural Trends and Tendencies |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-78308-388-6 |location=New York, NY |page=133 |chapter=5- Deobandi Islam: Countering Folk Islam and Popular Custom}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ibn Adam |first=Muhammad |date=1 July 2004 |title=Shaykh Rashid Ahmad Gangohi's Stance on the Najdis |url=https://daruliftaa.com/aqidah-belief/shaykh-rashid-ahmad-gangohis-stance-on-the-najdis/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920175817/https://daruliftaa.com/aqidah-belief/shaykh-rashid-ahmad-gangohis-stance-on-the-najdis/ |archive-date=20 September 2020 |website=Dar ul Iftaa |quote="Question: What kind of a person was (Muhammad ibn) Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi?" "Answer: People call Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab a Wahhabi. He was a good person, and I have heard that he was a follower of the Hanbali School of Islamic law and acted upon the Hadith. He used to prevent people from Shirk and innovation (bid'a), but he was harsh (shadid) in his attitude." Question: Who are the Wahhabis and what was the belief of Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi? What was his Madhhab and what type of person was he? What is the difference in belief between the people of Najd and Sunni Hanafis?"  "Answer: The followers of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab are called Wahhabis. They had good (umdah) beliefs and their school of thought was Hanbali. However, they were very stringent in their attitude but he and his followers were good people. But, yes, those who exceeded the limits were overcome by wrongness (fasad). And basic beliefs of everyone are united. The difference they have in actions is (like that) of Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali." (Fatawa Rashidiyya, pp. 241–42) ... "}}</ref> [[Muhammad Zakariyya al-Kandhlawi|Muhammad Zakariya]], [[Muhammad Ilyas Kandhlawi]], [[Yusuf Kandhlawi|Yusuf Kandhalawi]], etc. were supportive of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's ideals. Senior Deobandi scholar [[Manzoor Nomani|Manzur Numani]] penned the treatise "''Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab ke Khilaf Propaganda''" (The Propaganda against Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab) in defense of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab. As such, some activists of Deobandi persuasion viewed Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's movement as an example for establishing an [[Islamic state]] in contemporary [[Muslim world|Muslim societies]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Syed |first1=Jawad |title=Faith-Based Violence and Deobandi Militancy in Pakistan |last2=Sewag |first2=Zulqarnain |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-349-94965-6 |editor-last1=Syed |editor-first1=Jawad |location=London |pages=255, 324–325 |doi=10.1057/978-1-349-94966-3 |editor-last2=Pio |editor-first2=Edwina |editor-last3=Kamran |editor-first3=Tahir |editor-last4=Zaidi |editor-first4=Abbas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moj |first=Muhammad |title=The Deoband Madrassah Movement: Countercultural Trends and Tendencies |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-78308-388-6 |location=New York, NY |pages=133, 190}}</ref>

However, other Deobandi scholars harshly criticized Ibn Abd al-Wahhab. [[Anwar Shah Kashmiri]] considered him a "dull minded person with little knowledge".<ref>{{citation |last=Kashmīrī |first=Anwar Shāh |title=[[Fayd al-Bari]] |volume=1 |page=294 |author-link=Anwar Shah Kashmiri |quotation=As for Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb Najdī, indeed he was a dull minded person with little knowledge. He would be hasty in passing a ruling of disbelief on others. It is not appropriate that any one traverses this valley (passing a judgement of disbelief) except if he is diligent and has mastered the scenarios of disbelief and its causes}}</ref> In ''Al-Shihab al-Thaqib'', [[Hussain Ahmad Madani]] called Ibn Abd al-Wahhab a "tyrant, rebel and blood spilling transgressor".<ref>{{citation |last=Madani |first=Hussain Ahmad |title=Al-Shihab al-Thaqib |page=221 |author-link=Hussain Ahmad Madani |quotation=Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb appeared in Najd in the 13th century A.H. He harboured evil thoughts and held wrong beliefs, due to which he waged war on the Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jamā‘ah. He attempted to force his evil thoughts upon them and considered their properties as spoils of war and their killing as a source of blessing and mercy. He was harsh on the people of the Haramayn in particular and on the people of the Hijāz in general. He spoke ill of the pious people of the early generations. Because of the atrocities committed by him, countless people had to flee the holy cities of Makkah and Madīnah, and many of them were martyred by his troops. In short, he was a tyrant, rebel and blood spilling transgressor.}}</ref> [[Mahmood Hasan Gangohi|Mahmud Hasan Gangohi]] believed Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was initially a follower of the Sunnah, though later changed his objective to seize political power.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab in the Sight of Deobandi 'Ulama {{!}} Ahlus Sunnah Forum |url=https://ahlussunnah.boards.net/thread/17/muhammad-wahhab-sight-deobandi-ulama |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250619153612/https://ahlussunnah.boards.net/thread/17/muhammad-wahhab-sight-deobandi-ulama |archive-date=2025-06-19 |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=ahlussunnah.boards.net}}</ref> Mahmud Ganhohi also claimed that Rashid Ahmad Gangohi had recanted his previous positive statements about Ibn Abd al-Wahhab when he read Ibn Abidin's refutation ''[[Radd al-Muhtar]]'' against Ibn Abd al-Wahhab.<ref name=":0" />



Islamic scholar [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi|Yusuf Al-Qārādawī]] praised Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a ''[[Mujaddid]]'' (religious reviver) of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] who defended the purity of ''[[Tawhid]]'' from various superstitions and polytheistic beliefs.<ref name="Muhammad Jabir">{{Cite web|last=Muhammad Jabir|first=Sharif|date=2 October 2017|title=Hal Kaana Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab Da'ishiyya?|url=https://www.aljazeera.net/blogs/2017/10/2/%d9%87%d9%84-%d9%83%d8%a7%d9%86-%d9%85%d8%ad%d9%85%d8%af-%d8%a8%d9%86-%d8%b9%d8%a8%d8%af-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%88%d9%87%d8%a7%d8%a8-%d8%af%d8%a7%d8%b9%d8%b4%d9%8a%d8%a7|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105030309/https://www.aljazeera.net/amp/blogs/2017/10/2/%D9%87%D9%84-%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A7|archive-date=5 November 2021|website=Aljazeera.net}}</ref> Praising Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's efforts, Muhammad Rashīd Ridá wrote:<blockquote>"Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi was one of those ''Mujaddids'', [who] called for the upholding of ''Tawhid'' and the sincerity of worship to God alone with what He legislated in [[Quran|His Book]] and on the tongue of [[Muhammad in Islam|His Messenger]], the Seal of the Prophets; ... abandoning heresies and sins, establishing the abandoned rituals of Islam, and venerating its violated sanctities."<ref name="Muhammad Jabir"/></blockquote>

In his book "''Saviours of the Islamic Spirit''", Islamic scholar [[Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi|Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi]] (1913-1999 C.E) acclaimed Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a "great reformer" who called his people to ''Tawhid'', revived injunctions based on ''Qur'an'' and ''[[Sunnah]]'' and eradicated superstitious rites prevalent amongst the illiterate masses of Central Arabia. Nadwi compared his movement to that of the contemporary [[South Asia]]n [[Islamic revivalist]] [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]] (1703-1762 C.E/ 1114-1176 A.H) who had expounded similar ideas such as differentiating between ''Tawhid-i-Uluhiyyat'' (Oneness of Worship) and ''Tawhid-i-Rububiyat'' (Oneness of Lordship) and promotion of strict adherence to ''Qur'an'' and ''[[Hadith]]''. In Nadwi's opinion, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was able to make outstanding efforts with far-reaching impact compared to other contemporary reformers since he played the role of a revolutionary reformer whose initiatives were implemented through a newly established [[Islamic state]] and thus his movement was highly pertinent for the people of his time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ali Nadwi|first=Syed Abul Hasan|title=Saviours of Islamic Spirit: Volume IV|publisher=Academy of Islamic Research & Publications|year=2004|series=253|location=Lucknow |pages=282–283|chapter=XI: Sons, Disciples and Eminent Contemporaries of Shah Waliullah}}</ref>

[[Professor]] Satoru Nakamura of [[Kobe University]] believed that sectarian clerics were the first to initiate ''[[Takfir]]'' (excommunication) and sanction bloodshed against the followers of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, forcing Ibn Abd al-Wahhab to launch a defensive [[Jihad]], citing religious justifications in line with the principles of Islamic ''[[Moderation in Islam|Wasitiyya]]''.<ref>ref>{{Cite web |last=Nakamura |first=Dr. Satoru |title=The Perceptions of Muhammad bin ʿAbd al-Wahhāb on Takfīr and Jihād |url=https://my-mesa.org/program/abstracts/view/eyJpdiI6IkVobVFBYjRxTldSd0xzVktkWW45Mnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQUpwaHNqbnRTWHBEb3ZaclZQKzJSUT09IiwibWFjIjoiNTkyMDZhODIxZGFhMjhjNTBhMDg0OWY2NWEyNWViNGRkZGI5OGI1YzY4MDFmNjc4ZmI1YzU2NGJjMjY2MTI1MCIsInRhZyI6IiJ9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701064312/https://my-mesa.org/program/abstracts/view/eyJpdiI6IkVobVFBYjRxTldSd0xzVktkWW45Mnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQUpwaHNqbnRTWHBEb3ZaclZQKzJSUT09IiwibWFjIjoiNTkyMDZhODIxZGFhMjhjNTBhMDg0OWY2NWEyNWViNGRkZGI5OGI1YzY4MDFmNjc4ZmI1YzU2NGJjMjY2MTI1MCIsInRhZyI6IiJ9 |archive-date=1 July 2023 |website=Middle East Studies Associatiom}}</ref> In 2010, Prince [[Salman bin Abdulaziz]], at the time serving as the governor of [[Riyadh]], said that the doctrine of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was pure Islam, and said regarding his works:<blockquote>"I dare anyone to bring a single alphabetical letter from the Sheikh's books that goes against the book of Allah and the teachings of his prophet, Muhammad."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/there-is-no-such-thing-as-wahabism-saudi-prince-says-1.552348|title=There is no such thing as Wahabism, Saudi prince says|website=The National|date=18 March 2010|access-date=20 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820044304/https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/there-is-no-such-thing-as-wahabism-saudi-prince-says-1.552348|archive-date=20 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Western Reception ===
During the early 21st century Western security discourse, Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's movement, Wahhabism, was often associated with various [[Jihadism|Jihadi]] movements across the [[Islamic World]]. Various Western analysts claimed that the [[Pan-Islamism|pan-Islamist]] militant organization [[al-Qaeda]] were influenced by the Wahhabi doctrine.<ref name="commins172">{{cite book |last=Commins |first=David |title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia |location=London and New York |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |year=2009 |page=172}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Lawrence |author-link=Lawrence Wright |year=2006 |title=The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf|Knopf]] |page=79 |url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-375-41486-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad, and the Diffusion of Suicide Attacks |last=Moghadam |first=Assaf |location=[[Baltimore, Maryland]] |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8018-9055-0 |page=48}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/special/sala.html |title=Special Reports – The Salafist Movement: Al Qaeda's New Front |last=Livesey |first=Bruce |date=25 January 2005 |website=PBS Frontline |publisher=WGBH educational foundation |access-date=18 October 2011}}{{cite book |title=US Counter-Terrorism Strategy and al-Qaeda: Signalling and the Terrorist World-View |last1=Geltzer |first1=Joshua A. |year=2011 |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-66452-3 |edition=Reprint |page=83}}</ref> Other scholars note that the [[ideology of Al-Qaeda|ideology of al-Qaeda]] is [[Salafi jihadism]] that emerged as a synthesis of the [[Qutbism|Qutbist doctrine]] with Salafism. [[Western media]] often conflated [[Deobandi jihadism|Deobandi Jihadists]] of [[Taliban]] in [[Afghanistan]] with Wahhabis in the early 2000s; despite the fact that Taliban adhered to the doctrines of the [[Hanafi school|Hanafi]] [[Deobandi]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Maley|first=William|title=Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and the Taliban|year=2001|publisher=C Hurst & Co|isbn=978-1-85065-360-8|page=14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0895|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812202550/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0895|archive-date=12 August 2014|title=Taliban - Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=R. Dillon|first=Michael|date=September 2009|title=(Thesis) Wahhabism: Is it a Factor in the Spread of Global Terrorism?|url=https://www.nps.edu/documents/105988371/107571254/DillonWahhabismThesis.pdf/23fc46fb-17a6-41da-83b8-8e312191b5bb|website=Naval Postgraduate School|quote=the Taliban ... movement emerged more from the Deobandi School and not Wahhabism ... the Saudi government cooperated fully, ..., with U.S. operations in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom) by allowing U.S. forces to use Saudi air bases to control U.S. aircraft ... the ideology of Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda is not Wahhabi. ... The ideology of al-Qaeda is not a simple affair, and it is a serious mistake to reduce it to Wahhabism. To do so is to ignore the extent to which al-Qaeda broke with the traditional geo-political outlook of Wahhabism, which had never entered into politico-military opposition to the West and was indeed in alliance with the U.S. from 1945 onwards. ... }}</ref> According to other sources, Salafis are fundamentally opposed to the ideology of Al-Qaeda.<ref>{{Cite web|last=R. Dillon|first=Michael|date=September 2009|title=(Thesis) Wahhabism: Is it a Factor in the Spread of Global Terrorism?|url=https://www.nps.edu/documents/105988371/107571254/DillonWahhabismThesis.pdf/23fc46fb-17a6-41da-83b8-8e312191b5bb|website=Naval Postgraduate School|quote=".. Saudi Arabia is serious about fighting Al-Qaeda"}}</ref> According to various Western media outlets, the [[Ideology of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ideology]] of [[Islamic State]], a [[Salafi Jihadism|Salafi Jihadist]] militant organization, has also been inspired by Wahhabi doctrines,<ref name="Armstrong 2014">{{cite magazine |last=Armstrong |first=Karen |author-link=Karen Armstrong |date=27 November 2014 |title=Wahhabism to ISIS: how Saudi Arabia exported the main source of global terrorism |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/world-affairs/2014/11/wahhabism-isis-how-saudi-arabia-exported-main-source-global-terrorism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127132619/http://www.newstatesman.com/world-affairs/2014/11/wahhabism-isis-how-saudi-arabia-exported-main-source-global-terrorism |location=London |magazine=[[New Statesman]] |archive-date=27 November 2014 |access-date=8 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="Crooke 2014" /><ref name="Sells 2016">{{cite news |date=22 December 2016 |title=Wahhabist Ideology: What It Is And Why It's A Problem |work=[[The Huffington Post]] |location=New York |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/wahhabist-ideology-what-it-is-and-why-its-a-problem_b_585991fce4b014e7c72ed86e?guccounter=1 |url-status=live |access-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408032152/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/wahhabist-ideology-what-it-is-and-why-its-a-problem_b_585991fce4b014e7c72ed86e |archive-date=8 April 2020 |author-last=Sells |author-first=Michael}}</ref> alongside Salafism, [[Qutbism]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ahmad|first=Aftab|date=19 June 2014|title=Qutbism at the Root of Al Qaeda, ISIS and Taliban|url=https://www.newageislam.com/radical-islamism-jihad/aftab-ahmad-new-age-islam/qutbism-root-al-qaeda-isis-taliban/d/87636|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023171600/https://www.newageislam.com/radical-islamism-jihad/aftab-ahmad-new-age-islam/qutbism-root-al-qaeda-isis-taliban/d/87636|archive-date=23 October 2021|website=NewAgeIslam.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angìo|first=Francesco Saverio|date=January 2018|title=Islamic State's Qutbist Statehood|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322331205|journal=Paix et Securité Internationales|pages=181–198|doi=10.25267/Paix_secur_int.2017.i5.07 |via=ResearchGate|doi-access=free|hdl=10498/20001|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and [[Salafi jihadism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bunzel |first=Cole |date=March 2015 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Papers/2015/03/ideology-of-islamic-state-bunzel/The-ideology-of-the-Islamic-State.pdf?la=en |title=From Paper State to Caliphate: The Ideology of the Islamic State |journal=The Brookings Project on U.S. Relations with the Islamic World |volume=19 |pages=1–48 |publisher=[[Center for Middle East Policy]] ([[Brookings Institution]]) |location=Washington, D.C. |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321022758/http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Papers/2015/03/ideology-of-islamic-state-bunzel/The-ideology-of-the-Islamic-State.pdf?la=en |archive-date=21 March 2015 |url-status=live |access-date=10 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Wood |first=Graeme |author-link=Graeme Wood (journalist) |title=What ISIS Really Wants |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |location=Washington, D.C. |date=March 2015 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/features/archive/2015/02/what-isis-really-wants/384980/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216095910/https://www.theatlantic.com/features/archive/2015/02/what-isis-really-wants/384980/ |archive-date=16 February 2015 |url-status=live |access-date=10 September 2020}}</ref>

During the early years of [[Post-9/11|post-9/11 hysteria]], [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] had designated [[al-Qaeda]] as "the number one terrorist threat to the [[United States]]" and the [[Neoconservatism|neo-cons]] in the [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush Administration]] were able to incite hysterical narratives of "[[Wahhabi (epithet)|Wahhabism]]" through their expanded influence in politics and Western media. [[Neoconservatism|Neo-conservative]] journalist [[Lulu Schwartz]] and former [[U.S. senator|U.S. Senator]] and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] politician [[Jon Kyl]] claimed before a [[United States Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Terrorism and Homeland Security|U.S. Senate Judiciary Subcommittee]] in June 2003 that "Wahhabism is the source of the [[List of terrorist incidents|overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world]]". Their recommendations would become influential in [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush Administration]]'s agenda for its "[[War on terror|Global War on Terrorism]]".<ref name="govinfo.gov">{{cite web |title=Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in the United States |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-108shrg91326/html/CHRG-108shrg91326.htm |date=26 June 2003 |website=www.govinfo.gov |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215092631/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-108shrg91326/html/CHRG-108shrg91326.htm |archive-date=15 December 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=26 June 2021}} "Journalists and experts, as well as spokespeople of the world, have said that Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world, from [[Morocco]] to [[Indonesia]], via [[Israel]], Saudi Arabia, [[Chechnya]]. In addition, Saudi media sources have identified Wahhabi agents from Saudi Arabia as being responsible for terrorist attacks on [[U.S. Invasion of Iraq|U.S. troops in Iraq]]. ''The Washington Post'' has confirmed Wahhabi involvement in attacks against U.S. forces in [[Fallujah during the Iraq War|Fallujah]]." - Claims made by US [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] politician and vocal Iraq war advocate Jon Kyl in 2003 during a subcommittee hearing of [[US Senate Judiciary Committee]]</ref>

On the other hand, contemporary Western historians and researchers have taken a more nuanced approach on the history and evolution of the "[[Wahhabi]]" movement; pointing out the discrepancy between the Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's teachings, some of his later followers and the actions of contemporary militant [[Jihadism|Jihadist]] groups.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Romero|first=Juan|title=Terrorism: The Power and Weakness of Fear|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=978-1-032-19806-4|location=Abingdon, Oxon |pages=17, 21|chapter=1: Ancient, medieval and early modern extremist movements|doi=10.4324/9781003260943}}</ref> Various scholars assert that many writings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab were revised during the 19th century by authorities of the [[Second Saudi State]]; transforming them away from a poetic-vernacular style of communication with mass appeal to a more rigid and purist understanding that aligned with the interests of the ruling class and the clerical establishment.<ref name="Samin 1–26"/> David E. Long believes that modern Jihadist movements are more influenced by the ideological worldview of [[Islamic extremism in the 20th-century Egypt|Egyptian Islamist extremism]] of the 20th century, rather than Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's socio-religious reformism. Although many Salafi-Jihadists maybe inspired by Wahhabi ideals, it doesn't credibly explain their inclinations towards lethal violence.<ref>{{Cite web |last=E. Long |first=David |date=1 October 2009 |title=Tawhid or Jihad: What Wahhabism Is and Is Not |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/tawhid-or-jihad-what-wahhabism-and-not |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626163515/https://www.mei.edu/publications/tawhid-or-jihad-what-wahhabism-and-not |archive-date=26 June 2019 |website=Middle East Institute}}</ref>
{{quote box|the development of the [[hadith]], whose importance cannot be overemphasized, incorporated dynamism into the very heart of Islam. When Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab criticized local customs in Arabia on the basis of their incongruence with the past he was indeed trying to get back to a [[Islamic Golden Age|former golden age]], but that is a very modern thing to do... What the Wahhabis were doing was to criticize current society and seek to undermine the existing order, something that the earlier [[Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyya]] fell foul of when for having similar views he was tortured and threatened with death.
| source = — [[Oliver Leaman]], [[Professor]] of Philosophy at the [[University of Kentucky]]<ref name="Leaman 2013 24–25">{{Cite book |last=Leaman |first=Oliver |title=Controversies in Contemporary Islam |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-67612-0 |location= New York |pages=24–25 |chapter=2: Islam and the Qur'an}}</ref>
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Western scholars like Michael Ryan assert that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's [[Islah|reformist]] teachings were a rationalist enterprise that sought to eradicate superstitions widespread in the context of tribal rivalry within the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Moreover, the regional background of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's intellectual efforts in the chaotic context of the 18th-century Arabian Peninsula had been distinct from the 21st century [[Jihadism|global Jihad]] ideology of organisations like Al-Qaeda or [[Islamic State|IS]]. Consequently, his scholarly heirs, including the prestigious [[Al ash-Sheikh|Aal al-Shaykhs]] constitute the primary ideological nemesis of groups such as al-Qaeda. Since the Saudi population overwhelmingly prefers their traditional religious institutions and scholars to [[Osama bin Laden|Bin Laden]]'s claims to [[revolutionary]] [[Salafi jihadism|Jihadi-Salafism]]; Al-Qaeda harshly attacks these mainstream Saudi clerics with much rhetorical vitriol.<ref>{{Cite news|last=W.S Ryan|first=Michael|date=2 December 2010|title=The Salafist Challenge to al-Qaeda's Jihad|url=https://jamestown.org/program/the-salafist-challenge-to-al-qaedas-jihad/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923102904/https://jamestown.org/program/the-salafist-challenge-to-al-qaedas-jihad/|archive-date=23 September 2018|newspaper=Jamestown|quote="In the Arabian Peninsula and especially in Saudi Arabia, Salafism can be traced to the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792). This version of Salafism was and is primarily reformist. It is not revolutionary.  Usually, the term "Wahhabism" is used to characterize Salafism in Saudi Arabia. Saudis consider this term pejorative because it makes mainstream religion of Saudi Arabia sound like a cult centered on one man... His reformist approach, however, like Ibn Taymiyya's, was meant to be a rational enterprise that opposed superstition as well as innovation in religion.. his focus was the chaotic eighteenth century tribal rivalry within the Arabian Peninsula, not the world. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's theology thus does not support al-Qaeda's ideology of global jihad. His heirs today are the religious scholars who are the pillars of the modern Saudi state and al-Qaeda's enemies. The Saudi population overwhelmingly prefers its religious institutions and scholars to the revolutionary Salafism of Bin Laden.  Al-Qaeda attacks these mainstream Saudi clerics with the vitriol they usually reserve for the United States."}}</ref>

Various scholars have also contested [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] portrayals of Wahhabi movement as "ultra-conservative" or "stagnant", noting its dynamic nature and capability of multiple interpretations.<ref name="Leaman 2013 24–25">{{Cite book |last=Leaman |first=Oliver |title=Controversies in Contemporary Islam |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-67612-0 |location= New York |pages=24–25 |chapter=2: Islam and the Qur'an}}</ref> Professor Satoru Nakamura of [[Kobe University]] has criticized Orientalist scholars who depicted Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a slavish imitator of [[Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyya]], without studying the scholar's vast works and analysing historical nuances. Contemporary academic research in the [[Islamic studies]] field has found that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's scholarly methodology were based on the moderation of "Islamic Middle Way" ([[Wasatiyyah (Islamic term)|''Wasitiyya'']]).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nakamura |first=Dr. Satoru |title=The Perceptions of Muhammad bin ʿAbd al-Wahhāb on Takfīr and Jihād |url=https://my-mesa.org/program/abstracts/view/eyJpdiI6IkVobVFBYjRxTldSd0xzVktkWW45Mnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQUpwaHNqbnRTWHBEb3ZaclZQKzJSUT09IiwibWFjIjoiNTkyMDZhODIxZGFhMjhjNTBhMDg0OWY2NWEyNWViNGRkZGI5OGI1YzY4MDFmNjc4ZmI1YzU2NGJjMjY2MTI1MCIsInRhZyI6IiJ9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701064312/https://my-mesa.org/program/abstracts/view/eyJpdiI6IkVobVFBYjRxTldSd0xzVktkWW45Mnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQUpwaHNqbnRTWHBEb3ZaclZQKzJSUT09IiwibWFjIjoiNTkyMDZhODIxZGFhMjhjNTBhMDg0OWY2NWEyNWViNGRkZGI5OGI1YzY4MDFmNjc4ZmI1YzU2NGJjMjY2MTI1MCIsInRhZyI6IiJ9 |archive-date=1 July 2023 |website=Middle East Studies Associatiom}}</ref>

== His photo ==
Some alleged photos of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab have spread on the [[Internet]], but no real [[Image|photo]] of him has been proven, because the [[History of the camera|oldest]] [[Photograph|surviving photograph]] of a [[camera]] dates back to [[1826]] or [[1827]], taken by [[Louis Daguerre]]; and that was thirty-five years after his [[death]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-01-30 |title=The First Photograph - Heliography |url=http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/heliography.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130115410/http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/heliography.html |archive-date=2013-01-30 |access-date=2024-11-17 |website=Harry Ransom Center}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Niépce Heliograph |url=https://www.hrc.utexas.edu/niepce-heliograph/ |access-date=2024-11-17 |website=www.hrc.utexas.edu}}</ref>

==Contemporary recognition==
{{Salafi}}
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab's thoughts would greatly influence the [[Pan-Islamism|pan-Islamic]] movement of the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aydin |first=Cemil |title=The Idea of the Muslim World |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-674-05037-2 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, & London, England |pages=32–33 |chapter=Chapter 1: An Imperial Ummah Before the Nineteenth Century |quote=}}</ref> The [[national mosque]] of [[Qatar]] is named after him.<ref>{{cite web|title=Imam Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab Mosque in Doha - Qatar|url=http://www.beautifulmosque.com/Imam-Muhammad-ibn-Abdul-Wahhab-Mosque-in-Doha-Qatar|website=Beautiful Mosque|access-date=19 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150612015824/http://www.beautifulmosque.com/Imam-Muhammad-ibn-Abdul-Wahhab-Mosque-in-Doha-Qatar|archive-date=12 June 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The "[[Imam Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Mosque]]" was opened in 2011, with the [[Emir of Qatar]] presiding over the occasion.<ref>{{cite news|title=Qatar's state mosque opens to the public|url=http://dohanews.co/the-state-mosque-of-qatar-now-officially/|access-date=19 June 2015 |agency=Doha News|date=6 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619092225/http://dohanews.co/the-state-mosque-of-qatar-now-officially/|archive-date=19 June 2015}}</ref> The mosque has the capacity to host a congregation of 30,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Imam Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab Mosque in Doha - Qatar |url=http://www.beautifulmosque.com/Imam-Muhammad-ibn-Abdul-Wahhab-Mosque-in-Doha-Qatar|website=Beautiful Mosque |access-date=2 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802085457/https://www.beautifulmosque.com/Imam-Muhammad-ibn-Abdul-Wahhab-Mosque-in-Doha-Qatar|archive-date=2 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2017, there was a request published in the Saudi Arabian newspaper ''[[Okaz]]'' signed by 200 descendants of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab that the name of the mosque be changed, because according to their statement "it does not carry its true Salafi path", even though most Qataris adhere to Wahhabism.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/gulf-qatar-idUSL8N1IU0AH|title=Descendants of Saudi Wahhabism founder distance themselves from Qatar |date=29 May 2017|work=Reuters|access-date=10 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802042309/http://www.reuters.com/article/gulf-qatar-idUSL8N1IU0AH |archive-date=2 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Al-Turaif District|Turaif district]] in [[Diriyah]], the capital of the [[First Saudi state]],<ref>{{cite web| url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1329 | title=At-Turaif District in ad-Dir'iyah | publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/site.php?id=1329 | title=Turaif Quarter in Al-Diriyyah | publisher=[[World Heritage Site]] | work=Pictures, info and travel reports }}</ref> was declared a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in 2010. In 2011, [[Saudi Arabia]] announced its plans for large-scale development of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's domain Diriyah; to establish a national cultural site in Diriyah and turn it into a major tourist attraction.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/01/world/middleeast/saudis-turn-birthplace-of-ideology-into-tourist-spot.html|title=Saudis Turn Birthplace of Wahhabism Ideology Into Tourist Spot|first=Ben|last=Hubbard|newspaper=The New York Times|date=31 May 2015|access-date=27 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160618110101/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/01/world/middleeast/saudis-turn-birthplace-of-ideology-into-tourist-spot.html|archive-date=18 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1034231/saudi-arabia|title=Diriyah on course to become world-class tourist spot|author=Estimo Jr, Rodolfo|date=5 January 2017|work=Arab News|access-date=2 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019111841/http://www.arabnews.com/node/1034231/saudi-arabia|archive-date=19 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Other features in the area include the ''Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab Foundation'', which is planned to include a light and sound presentation<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/398770|title=Diriyah – a symbol of Saudi heritage|author=Humaidan, Muhammad|date=22 November 2011|work=Arab News|access-date=2 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730213519/http://www.arabnews.com/node/398770|archive-date=30 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> located near the ''Mosque of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahab''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sauditour.info/en/location/2919|title=Mosque of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahab|work=Saudi Tour|access-date=2 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802042559/http://www.sauditour.info/en/location/2919|archive-date=2 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Works==
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab has been described as a "prolific writer" whose scholarly treatises are collected into fourteen large volumes; which consists of various legal books, [[Tafsir|Qur'anic commentaries]], creedal works, and compilation of ''[[fatwa]]s''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Delong-Bas |first=Natana |title=Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-19-516991-3 |location=New York |chapter=Introduction| page=5}}</ref> Some of his major works include:
{{columns-list|
* ''Risālah Aṣlu Dīn al-Islām wa Qāʿidatuhu'' (The Foundation and Principles of Islam)
* ''Kitāb Tafsīr li-Baʿḍ Suwar al-Qurʾān'' (A Commentary on Some Surahs of the Qurʾan)
* ''Kitāb at-Tawḥīd'' (The Book of the Oneness of God)
* ''Kashf al-Shubuhāt'' (Clarification of the Doubts)
* ''Thalāthatu’l-Uṣūl'' (The Three Fundamental Principles)<ref name="Difference Thalathah Usool">{{cite web |author1=Raehanul Bahraen |title=Perbedaan Kitab "Al-Ushul Ats-Tsalatsah" dan "Tsalatsatul Ushul" |trans-title=Differences between the Books "Al-Ushul Ats-Tsalatsah" and "Tsalatsatul Ushul" |year=2021 |url=https://muslim.or.id/42529-mengenal-kitab-tauhid-dasar.html |website=muslim.or.id |publisher=Yayasan Pendidikan Islam Al-Atsari (YPAI) Al-Atsari Islamic Education Foundation |access-date=30 August 2024 |location=[[Yogyakarta]], Indonesia |language=Id}}</ref>
* ''al-Usūl al-Thalāthah''  (A concise version of Thalāthatu’l-Uṣūl which is aimed for junior students)<ref name="Difference Thalāthatu’l-Uṣūl" />
* ''al-Qawāʿid al-Arbaʿ'' (The Four Foundations)
* ''al-Uṣūl al-Sittah'' (The Six Fundamental Principles)
* ''Nawāqiḍ al-Islām'' (Nullifiers of Islam)
* ''Ādāb al-Mashy ilā al-Ṣalāh'' (Manners of Walking to the Prayer)
* ''Uṣūl al-Īmān'' (Foundations of Faith)
* ''Faḍāʾil al-Islam'' (Excellent Virtues of Islam)
* ''Faḍāʾil al-Qurʾān'' (Excellent Virtues of the Qur'an)
* ''Majmūʿ al-Ḥadīth ʿalā Abwāb al-Fiqh'' (Compendium of the Hadith on the Main Topics of the Fiqh)
* ''Mukhtaṣar al-ʾImān'' (Abridgement of the Faith; i.e. the summarised version of a work on Faith)
* ''Mukhtaṣar al-Insāf wa’l-Sharḥ al-Kabīr'' (An abridgement of the Equity and the Great Explanation)
* ''Mukhtaṣar Sīrat al-Rasūl'' (An abridged Biography of the Messenger)
* ''Kitāb al-Kabāʾir'' (The Book of Great Sins)
* ''al-Radd ʿalā al-[[Rafida]]'' (The Refutation of the Rejectionists)
* ''Mukhtaṣar al-Ṣawāʿiq al-Mursalāh ʿalā al-Jahmiyyah wa al-Muʿaṭṭilah'' (An abridgment of the Thunderbolts Sent Against the Jahmiyyah and the Negators)
}}

==See also==
* [[Ibn Taymiyyah]]
* [[Wahhabi Movement]]
* [[Emirate of Diriyah]]
* [[International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism]]

==Sources==
[[File:Tarikh-An-Najd.jpg|thumb|right|''Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh al-Najd'' by chronicler Uthman ibn 'Abdullah Ibn Bishr]]
Two of the earliest sources for the biography of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and early history of the [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] movement have been documented by its followers:

* Wahhabi chronicler and scholar Ibn Ghannam's ''Rawdhat al-Afkar wal-Afham'' or ''Tarikh Najd'' (History of Najd) and Husain ibn Ghannam (d. 1811), an [[ulama|alim]] from [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|al-Hasa]] was the only historian to have observed the beginnings of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's movement first-hand. His chronicle ends at the year 1797.<ref name="Vasilʹev 1998: 13">[[#Vas98|Vasilʹev 1998]]: 13.</ref><ref>[[#EI2Gha|EI2]]</ref>
* Najdi Historian Ibn Bishr's ''Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd'' (The Glorious History of Najd). Ibn Bishr's chronicle, which stops at the year 1854, was written a generation later than Ibn Ghannam's but is considered valuable partly because Ibn Bishr was a native of [[Najd]] and because he adds many details to Ibn Ghannam's account.<ref name="Vasilʹev 1998: 13" />

A third account, covering Arabian history between the 1730s to 1817 is ''Lam' al-Shihab'' (The Brilliance of the Meteor) written by an anonymous author who respectfully disapproved of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement, regarding it as a ''[[Bidʻah|bid'ah]]'' (heresy).

It is also commonly cited in [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] circles because it is considered to be a relatively objective and unofficial treatment of the subject. However, unlike Ibn Ghannam and Ibn Bishr, its author did not live in Najd and his work contains various tales, apocryphal and legendary materials concerning the details of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life.<ref name="EI2: 677-678" /><ref>[[#Vas98|Vasilʹev 1998]]: 14.</ref>

===Notes===
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |year=2009 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA260 |location=New York |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |pages=260–61 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=6 July 2020}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Bokhari |editor1-first=Kamran |editor2-last=Senzai |editor2-first=Farid |year=2013 |chapter=Conditionalist Islamists: The Case of the Salafis |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThiuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |title=Political Islam in the Age of Democratization |location=New York |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=81–100 |doi=10.1057/9781137313492_5 |isbn=978-1-137-31349-2}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Brown |author-first=Daniel W. |year=2009 |chapter=The Wahhābī Movement |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ViTmBB8DQNcC&pg=PA245 |title=A New Introduction to Islam |location=[[Chichester, West Sussex]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |pages=245–47 |isbn=978-1-4051-5807-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Commins |first=David |year=2015 |chapter=From Wahhabi to Salafi |chapter-url=https://scholar.dickinson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1256&context=faculty_publications |editor1-last=Haykel |editor1-first=Bernard |editor1-link=Bernard Haykel |editor2-last=Hegghammer |editor2-first=Thomas |editor2-link=Thomas Hegghammer |editor3-last=Lacroix |editor3-first=Stéphane |title=Saudi Arabia in Transition: Insights on Social, Political, Economic and Religious Change |location=New York |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139047586.011 |isbn=978-1-139-04758-6 |pages=151–66 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160627013416/https://scholar.dickinson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1256&context=faculty_publications |archive-date=27 June 2016 |url-status=live |access-date=25 June 2021}}
* {{cite book |last=Delong-Bas |first=Natana J. |author-link=Natana J. DeLong-Bas |year=2004 |title=Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=797QCwAAQBAJ |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-516991-3}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |editor-link=John Esposito |year=2004 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&pg=PA123 |chapter=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791) |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=123 |isbn=0-19-512559-2}}
*  {{Cite book |last=Gauvain |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJ6gL2iwhy8C |title=Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7103-1356-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Gaye |first=Abdoul Aziz |year=2021 |chapter=The Violent Wahhabism and the Use of Islamic Texts to Justify Armed Violence Against Muslims and Non-Muslims |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I6kWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA212 |editor1-last=Donlin-Smith |editor1-first=Thomas |editor2-last=Shafiq |editor2-first=Muhammad |title=The (De)Legitimization of Violence in Sacred and Human Contexts |location=[[Basingstoke]] |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-51125-8 |pages=195–218 |isbn=978-3-030-51124-1|s2cid=241136571 }}
* {{cite book |last=Halverson |first=Jeffry R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IYzGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |year=2010 |title=Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism |location=[[Basingstoke]] |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |page=48 |isbn=978-1-349-28721-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Haykel |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Haykel |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&pg=PA231 |chapter=Ibn ‛Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703–92) |year=2013 |editor1-last=Böwering |editor1-first=Gerhard |editor1-link=Gerhard Böwering |editor2-last=Crone |editor2-first=Patricia |editor2-link=Patricia Crone |editor3-last=Kadi |editor3-first=Wadad |editor4-last=Mirza |editor4-first=Mahan |editor5-last=Stewart |editor5-first=Devin J. |editor5-link=Devin J. Stewart |editor6-last=Zaman |editor6-first=Muhammad Qasim |title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=231–32 |isbn=978-0-691-13484-0 |access-date=15 June 2020 }}
* {{cite book |last=Khatab |first=Sayed |year=2011 |title=Understanding Islamic Fundamentalism: The Theological and Ideological Basis |chapter=Wahhabism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBYnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 |location=Cairo |publisher=[[American University in Cairo Press]] |pages=56–76 |isbn=978-977-416-499-6 |access-date=6 July 2020 }}
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* {{cite book |author-last=Van Bruinessen |author-first=Martin |author-link=Martin van Bruinessen |year=2009 |chapter=Sufism, 'Popular' Islam and the Encounter with Modernity|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxKrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125 |editor1-last=Masud |editor1-first=Muhammad Khalid |editor1-link=Muhammad Khalid Masud |editor2-last=Salvatore |editor2-first=Armando |editor3-last=Van Bruinessen |editor3-first=Martin |title=Islam and Modernity: Key Issues and Debate |location=Edinburgh |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |pages=125–57 |isbn=978-0-7486-3792-8}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Wagemakers |author-first=Joas |year=2021 |chapter=Part 3: Fundamentalisms and Extremists – The Citadel of Salafism |editor1-last=Cusack |editor1-first=Carole M. |editor1-link=Carole M. Cusack |editor2-last=Upal |editor2-first=M. Afzal |editor2-link=Afzal Upal |title=Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=21 |doi=10.1163/9789004435544_019 |doi-access=free |pages=333–347 |isbn=978-90-04-43554-4 |issn=1874-6691}}
* {{cite book |author-last=White |author-first=Jonathan R. |year=2017 |chapter=Militant Scholars and Strategists |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XL8aCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA252 |title=Terrorism and Homeland Security |location=Boston |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |edition=9th |pages=252–53 |isbn=978-1-305-63377-3 |lccn=2015951183}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*  Valentine, S. R., "Force & Fanaticism: Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond", Hurst & Co, London, 2015, {{ISBN|978-1-84904-464-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Abualrub |first=Jalal |title=Muhammad ibn Abdil Wahhab: his life-story and mission|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbcQAQAAIAAJ|access-date=25 December 2011|date=2003|publisher=Madinah Publishers and Distributors|isbn=978-0-9703766-5-7}}
* {{cite book |last=al-Rasheed |first=Madawi |title=Kingdom without borders: Saudi political, religious and media frontiers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UKkWRu6u29gC |year=2009 |publisher=Capstone |isbn=978-0-231-70068-9}}

===Online===
* [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad-ibn-Abd-al-Wahhab Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb: Muslim theologian], in ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', by The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Parul Jain, Satyavrat Nirala and Adam Zeidan

==External links==
{{Commons category|Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab}}
{{wikisourcelang|ar|مؤلف:محمد_بن_عبد_الوهاب|Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Wahhābis|author=Wheeler Thatcher, Griffithes|volume=28|page=245|short=x}}
* [http://www.muslimscholars.info/manage.php?submit=scholar&ID=120000 Biodata at MuslimScholars.info]

{{Hanbali scholars}}
{{Islamism}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1703 births]]
[[Category:1792 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century Arab people]]
[[Category:18th-century Muslim scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:18th-century Islamic religious leaders]]
[[Category:Muslim reformers]]
[[Category:Anti-Ottomanism]]
[[Category:Arab Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:Sunni imams]]
[[Category:Critics of Shia Islam]]
[[Category:Proto-Salafists]]
[[Category:Hanbalis]]
[[Category:Mujaddid]]
[[Category:Chief Qadis of Emirate of Dir'iyah]]
[[Category:18th-century Muslim theologians]]
[[Category:Atharis]]
[[Category:Wahhabis]]
[[Category:People from the Arabian Peninsula]]
[[category:Anti-Shi'ism]]