View source for Monism

{{Short description|View that attributes oneness or singleness to a concept}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Monotheism]], [[Mohism]], [[Maoism]] or [[Mo (religion)]]}}
{{About||the academic journal|The Monist|the legal concept|Monism and dualism in international law}}

[[File:Monad.svg|thumb|The [[circled dot]] was used by the Pythagoreans and later Greeks to represent the first metaphysical being, the [[Monad (philosophy)|Monad]] or [[Absolute (philosophy)|The Absolute]].]]{{God sidebar}}
'''Monism''' attributes oneness or singleness ({{Langx|el|{{linktext|μόνος}}}}) to a concept, such as to existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished:
* Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in [[Neoplatonism]] everything is derived from [[Neoplatonism#The One|The One]].{{sfn|Brugger|1972}} In this view only the One is ontologically fundamental or prior to everything else.
* Existence monism posits that, strictly speaking, there exists only a single thing, the [[universe]], which can only be artificially and arbitrarily divided into many things.<ref>Strawson, G. (2014 in press): "Nietzsche's metaphysics?". In: Dries, M. & Kail, P. (eds): "Nietzsche on Mind and Nature". Oxford University Press. [https://www.academia.edu/3051045/Nietzsches_Metaphysics_2015 PDF of draft]</ref>
* Substance monism asserts that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|1974}} Substance monism posits that only one kind of substance exists, although many things may be made up of this substance, e.g., matter or mind.
* [[Dual-aspect monism]] is the view that the mental and the physical are two aspects of, or perspectives on, the same substance.
* [[Neutral monism]] believes the fundamental nature of reality to be neither mental nor physical; in other words it is "neutral".
* Political monism is sometimes used to describe political concepts, such as unitarianism, based on certain principles like ethnicity or identity.

== Definitions ==
There are two sorts of definitions for monism:
* The wide definition: a philosophy is monistic if it postulates unity of the origin of all things; all existing things return to a source that is distinct from them.{{sfn|Brugger|1972}}
* The restricted definition: this requires not only unity of origin but also unity of [[Substance theory|substance]] and [[essence]].{{sfn|Brugger|1972}}

Although the term ''monism'' is derived from Western philosophy to typify positions in the [[mind–body problem]], it has also been used to typify religious traditions. In modern Hinduism, the term "absolute monism" has been applied to [[Advaita Vedanta]],{{sfn|Chande|2000|p=277}}{{sfn|Dasgupta|1992|p=70}} though Philip Renard points out that this may be a Western interpretation, bypassing the intuitive understanding of a nondual reality.{{sfn|Renard|1999}} It is more generally categorized by scholars as a form of absolute [[nondualism]].<ref>Stepaniants, M. (2002). ''Introduction to Eastern Thought''. United States: AltaMira Press. p. 155.</ref><ref>Roberts, M. V. (2010). ''Dualities: A Theology of Difference''. Presbyterian Publishing Corporation. {{isbn|9780664234492}}. p. 21. Discusses why Advaita Vedanta is nondual while Kashmir Shaivism is monist.</ref><ref>Frawley, D. (2015). ''Shiva: The Lord of Yoga''. United States: Lotus Press.</ref>

== History ==
Material monism can be traced back to the [[pre-Socratic]] philosophers who sought to understand the arche or basic principle of the universe in terms of different material causes. These included [[Thales]], who argued that the basis of everything was water, [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]], who claimed it was air, and [[Heraclitus]] who believed it to be fire. Later, [[Parmenides]] described the world as "One", which could not change in any way. [[Zeno of Elea]] defended this view of everything being a single entity through [[Zeno's paradoxes|his paradoxes]], which aim to show the existence of time, motion and space to be illusionary.

[[Baruch Spinoza]] argued that 'God or Nature' (''Deus sive Natura'') is the only [[Substance theory|substance]] of the universe, which can be referred to as either '[[God]]' or '[[Nature]]' (the two being interchangeable). This is because God/Nature has all the possible attributes and no two substances can share an attribute, which means there can be no other substances than God/Nature.<ref>{{Citation |last=Nadler |first=Steven |title=Baruch Spinoza |date=2024 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2024/entries/spinoza/ |access-date=2024-07-31 |edition=Spring 2024 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref>

Monism has been discussed thoroughly in Indian philosophy and [[Vedanta]] throughout their history starting as early as the [[Rig Veda]]. The term ''monism'' was introduced in the 18th century by [[Christian von Wolff]] in his work ''Logic'' (1728),<ref name="New Dictionary" /> to designate types of philosophical thought in which the attempt was made to eliminate the dichotomy of body and mind and explain all phenomena by one unifying principle, or as manifestations of a single substance.<ref name="New Dictionary">{{Cite web |title=Monism, New Dictionary of the History of Ideas |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/monism#4 |last=Peter |first=Machamer |date=2018-05-17 |access-date=2025-07-07 |last2=di Poppa |first2=Francesca}}</ref>

The [[mind–body problem]] in philosophy examines the relationship between [[mind]] and matter, and in particular the relationship between [[consciousness]] and the [[brain]]. The problem was addressed by [[René Descartes]] in the 17th century, resulting in [[mind–body dualism|Cartesian dualism]], and by pre-[[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] philosophers,<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=R. C. |editor1-last=Olby |editor-first2=G. N. |editor-last2=Cantor |editor-first3=J. R. |editor-last3=Christie |editor-first4=M. J. S. |editor-last4=Hodges |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1996 |pages=702–711 |isbn=0-415-14578-3 |chapter=The mind–body problem |chapter-url=http://human-nature.com/rmyoung/papers/pap102h.html |author=Robert M. Young |edition=Paperback reprint of Routledge 1990}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Robinson |first=Howard |title=Dualism |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Winter 2011 |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/dualism/ |date=Nov 3, 2011}}</ref> in [[Avicennism|Avicennian philosophy]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Forming the Mind: Essays on the Internal Senses and the Mind/Body Problem from Avicenna to the Medical Enlightenment |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |year=2010 |edition=Paperback reprint of 2007 |isbn=978-9048175307 |chapter=Introduction |page=3 | first=Henrik |last=Lagerlund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IV-dcQAACAAJ}}</ref> and in earlier Asian and more specifically Indian traditions.

Monism was later also applied to the theory of absolute identity set forth by [[Hegel]] and [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]].{{clarify|date=October 2022}}{{sfn|Urmson|1991|p=297}} Thereafter the term was more broadly used, for any theory postulating a unifying principle.{{sfn|Urmson|1991|p=297}} The opponent thesis of [[mind–body dualism|dualism]] also was broadened, to include pluralism.{{sfn|Urmson|1991|p=297}} According to Urmson, as a result of this extended use, the term is "systematically ambiguous".{{sfn|Urmson|1991|p=297}}

According to [[Jonathan Schaffer]], monism lost popularity due to the emergence of [[analytic philosophy]] in the early twentieth century, which revolted against the neo-Hegelians. [[Rudolf Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]], who were strong proponents of [[positivism]], "ridiculed the whole question as incoherent [[mysticism]]".{{sfn|Schaffer|2010}}

The mind–body problem has reemerged in social psychology and related fields, with the interest in mind–body interaction{{sfn|Fiske|2010 |p= 195}} and the rejection of Cartesian mind–body dualism in the ''[[Type physicalism|identity thesis]]'', a modern form of monism.{{sfn|Fiske|2010|pp=195–196}} Monism is also still relevant to the [[philosophy of mind]],{{sfn|Urmson|1991|p=297}} where various positions are defended.{{sfn|Mandik|2010}}{{sfn|McLaughlin|2009}}

== Types ==
[[File:Dualism-vs-Monism.png|thumb|upright=1.36|A diagram with neutral monism compared to Cartesian dualism, physicalism and idealism]]
Different types of monism include:{{sfn|Urmson|1991|p=297}}<ref name=Schaffer>Schaffer, Jonathan, Monism: The Priority of the Whole, http://www.jonathanschaffer.org/monism.pdf</ref>
* [[Substance theory|Substance]] monism, "the view that the apparent plurality of substances is due to different states or appearances of a single substance"{{sfn|Urmson|1991|p=297}}
* Attributive monism, "the view that whatever the number of substances, they are of a single ultimate kind"{{sfn|Urmson|1991|p=297}}
* Epistemological monism, where "ultimately, everything that can be thought, observed and engaged, shares one conceptual system of interaction, however complex."<ref name="Sariel">Sariel, Aviram. "Jonasian Gnosticism." Harvard Theological Review 116.1 (2023): 91-122, here 99.</ref>
* Partial monism, "within a given realm of being (however many there may be) there is only one substance"{{sfn|Urmson|1991|p=297}}
* Existence monism, "the view that there is only one concrete object [[Type–token distinction|token]] (The One, "Τὸ Ἕν" or the [[Monad (philosophy)|Monad]])"<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schaffer |first=Jonathan |title=Monism |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2007 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/monism |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |edition=Summer 2015}}</ref>
* Priority monism, "the whole is prior to its parts" or "the world has parts, but the parts are dependent fragments of an integrated whole"<ref name="Schaffer" />
* Property monism, "the view that all properties are of a single type (e.g., only physical properties exist)"
* Genus monism, "the doctrine that there is a highest category; e.g., being"<ref name="Schaffer" />

Views contrasting with monism are:
* Metaphysical dualism, which asserts that there are two ultimately irreconcilable substances or realities such as Good and Evil, for example, [[Gnosticism]] and [[Manichaeism]].<ref name="Sariel" />{{sfn|Brugger|1972}}
* [[Metaphysical pluralism]], which asserts three or more fundamental substances or realities.{{sfn|Brugger|1972}}
* [[Metaphysical nihilism]], negates any of the above categories (substances, properties, concrete objects, etc.).

Monism in modern [[philosophy of mind]] can be divided into three broad categories:{{clarify|reason=This paragraph claims there are three broad categories, but lists five|date=July 2025}}
* [[Idealist]], mentalistic monism, which holds that only mind or spirit exists.{{sfn|Brugger|1972}}
* [[Neutral monism]], which holds that one sort of thing fundamentally exists,{{sfn|Mandik|2010|p=76}} to which both the mental and the physical can be reduced
*Material monism (also called [[Physicalism]] and [[materialism]]), which holds that the material world is primary, and consciousness arises through the interaction with the material world<ref>{{Cite book |title=Materialism and Empirio-criticism |last=Lenin |first=Vladimir |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |year=1909 |location=World Socialist Web Site}}</ref>{{sfn|Mandik|2010|p=76}}
* [[Eliminative materialism]], according to which everything is physical and mental things do not exist{{sfn|Mandik|2010|p=76}}
* [[Reductive physicalism]], according to which mental things do exist and are a kind of physical thing{{sfn|Mandik|2010|p=76}}{{refn|group=note|Such as [[Behaviourism]], [[Type-identity theory]] and [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|Functionalism]]}}

Certain positions do not fit easily into the above categories, such as [[functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalism]], [[anomalous monism]], and [[reflexive monism]]. Moreover, they do not define the meaning of "real".

== Monistic philosophers ==

=== Pre-Socratic ===
While the lack of information makes it difficult in some cases to be sure of the details, the following [[pre-Socratic philosophers]] thought in monistic terms:{{sfn|Abernethy|Langford|1970|pp=1–7}}
* [[Thales]]: Water
* [[Anaximander]]: ''[[Apeiron]]'' (meaning 'the undefined infinite'). Reality is some, one thing, but we cannot know what.
* [[Anaximenes of Miletus]]: Air
* [[Heraclitus]]: Change, symbolized by fire (in that everything is in constant flux).
* [[Parmenides]]: Being or Reality is an unmoving perfect sphere, unchanging, undivided.{{sfn|Abernethy|Langford|1970|pp=8–9}}

=== Post-Socrates ===
* Neopythagorians such as [[Apollonius of Tyana]] centered their cosmologies on the [[Monad (philosophy)|Monad]] or One.
* [[Stoics]] taught that there is only one substance, identified as God.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cbEGAAAAQAAJ&q=Stoics+taught+that+there+is+only+one+substance,+identified+as+God&pg=PA9 |title=The popular Biblical educator [by J. Blackburn]. |last=Blackburn |first=John |date=1854}}</ref>
* Middle Platonism under such works as those by [[Numenius of Apamea|Numenius]] taught that the Universe emanates from the Monad or One.
* [[Neoplatonism]] is monistic. [[Plotinus]] taught that there was an ineffable transcendent god, 'The One', of which subsequent realities were emanations. From The One emanates the Divine Mind ([[Nous]]), the Cosmic Soul ([[Psyche (psychology)|Psyche]]), and the World ([[Cosmos]]).

=== Modern ===
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Alexander Bogdanov]]
* [[F. H. Bradley]]
* [[Giordano Bruno]]<ref>''De la causa, principio e Uno, London, 1584''</ref><ref>''De monade (De monade, numero et figura liber consequens quinque de minimo magno et mensura), Frankfurt, 1591''</ref>
* [[Gilles Deleuze]]
* [[Friedrich Engels]]
* [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]
* [[Ernst Haeckel]]<ref>[https://archive.org/details/wonderslifeapop01haecgoog ''Wonders of Life''] by Ernst Haeckel.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=RdsdAAAAMAAJ The Evolution of Man: A Popular Scientific Study, Volume 2] by Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel.</ref>
* [[David Bentley Hart]]
* [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
* [[Christopher Langan]]
* [[Giacomo Leopardi]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ft.com/content/ae962862-03fc-11e3-8aab-00144feab7de |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/ae962862-03fc-11e3-8aab-00144feab7de |archive-date=2022-12-10 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Review: Giacomo Leopardi's 'Zibaldone' |date=2013-08-16 |website=Financial Times |access-date=2018-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Ernst Mach]]
* [[Karl Marx]]
* [[Wilhelm Ostwald]]
* [[Charles Sanders Peirce]]
* [[Georgi Plekhanov]]
* [[Gilbert Ryle]]
* [[Jonathan Schaffer]]
* [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling]]
* [[Hans Jonas]]<ref name="Sariel" />
* [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]
* [[Rupert Sheldrake]]
* [[B. F. Skinner]]
* [[Herbert Spencer]]
* [[Baruch Spinoza]]
* [[Rudolf Steiner]]
* [[Alan Watts]]
* [[Alfred North Whitehead]]
}}

== Monistic neuroscientists ==
* [[György Buzsáki]]
* [[Francis Crick]]
* [[Karl Friston]]
* [[Eric Kandel]]
* [[Mark Solms]]
* [[Rodolfo Llinas]]
* [[Ivan Pavlov]]
* [[Roger Sperry]]

== Religion ==

=== Pantheism ===
{{Main|Pantheism}}
Pantheism is the belief that everything composes an all-encompassing, [[immanent]] God,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-first=Paul |editor-last=Edwards |publisher=Macmillan |year=1967 |location=New York |page=34}}</ref> or that the [[universe]] (or [[nature]]) is identical with [[divinity]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The New Oxford Dictionary Of English |publisher=Clarendon |year=1998 |location=Oxford |page=1341 |isbn=0-19-861263-X}}</ref> Pantheists thus do or do not believe in a [[personal god|personal]] or [[anthropomorphic]] god, but believe that interpretations of the term differ.

Pantheism was popularized in the modern era as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th-century philosopher [[Baruch Spinoza]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Picton |first=James Allanson |title=Pantheism: its story and significance |year=1905 |publisher=Archibald Constable & Co. |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-4191-4008-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/pantheismitsstor00pictrich}}</ref> whose ''[[Ethics (Spinoza)|Ethics]]'' was an answer to [[Descartes]]' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate.<ref name="Plumptre-1879" /> Spinoza held that the two are the same, and this monism is a fundamental quality of his philosophy. He was described as a "God-intoxicated man," and used the word God to describe the unity of all substance.<ref name="Plumptre-1879">{{cite book |last=Plumptre |first=Constance |title=General sketch of the history of pantheism, Volume 2 |year=1879 |publisher=Samuel Deacon & Co |location=London |isbn=978-0-7661-5502-2 |pages=3–5, 8, 29}}</ref> Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shoham |first=Schlomo Giora |title=To Test the Limits of Our Endurance |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars |isbn=978-1-4438-2068-4 |page=111}}</ref>

[[H. P. Owen]] claimed that
{{blockquote|Pantheists are "monists" ... they believe that there is only one Being, and that all other forms of reality are either modes (or appearances) of it or identical with it.<ref>Owen 1971, p. 65</ref>}}

Pantheism is closely related to monism, as pantheists too believe all of reality is one substance, called Universe, God or Nature. [[Panentheism]], a slightly different concept, is explained below in the next section.<ref>Crosby, Donald A. (2008). Living with Ambiguity: Religious Naturalism and the Menace of Evil. State University of New York Press. p. 124. {{ISBN|0-7914-7519-0}}.</ref> Some of the most famous pantheists are the [[Stoics]], [[Giordano Bruno]] and [[Spinoza]].

=== Panentheism ===
{{Main|Panentheism}}
Panentheism (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|πᾶν}} (pân) "all"; {{lang|grc|ἐν}} (en) "in"; and {{lang|grc|θεός}} (theós) "God"; "all-in-God") is a belief system that [[postulate|posits]] that the divine (be it a [[monotheistic]] [[God]], [[polytheistic]] [[gods]], or an eternal cosmic animating force) interpenetrates every part of nature, but is not one with nature. Panentheism differentiates itself from [[pantheism]], which holds that the divine is synonymous with the universe.<ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley, David B. Barrett 1999">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sCY4sAjTGIYC&pg=PA21 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |page=21 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |first=Erwin |last=Fahlbusch |first2=Geoffrey William |last2=Bromiley |first3=David B. |last3=Barrett |year=1999 |isbn=0-8028-2416-1}}</ref>

In panentheism, there are two types of substance, "pan" the [[universe]] and God. The universe and the divine are not [[ontologically]] equivalent. God is viewed as the eternal animating force within the universe. In some forms of panentheism, the [[cosmos]] exists within God, who in turn "[[Transcendence (religion)|transcends]]", "pervades" or is "in" the cosmos.

While pantheism asserts that 'All is God', panentheism claims that God animates all of the universe, and also transcends the universe. In addition, some forms indicate that the universe is contained within God,<ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley, David B. Barrett 1999" /> like in the Judaic concept of [[Tzimtzum]]. Much [[Hindu thought]] is highly characterized by panentheism and pantheism.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/441533/pantheism/38168/Pantheism-and-panentheism-in-non-Western-cultures] Britannica – Pantheism and Panentheism in non-Western cultures</ref><ref>Whiting, Robert. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UfRgCZThWYC&dq=shakti+panentheism&pg=PR8 Religions for Today] Stanley Thomes (Publishers) Ltd. P. VIII. {{ISBN|0-7487-0586-4}}.</ref>

[[Paul Tillich]] has argued for such a concept within Christian theology, as has [[liberal Christianity|liberal]] biblical scholar [[Marcus Borg]] and [[Christian mysticism|mystical]] theologian [[Matthew Fox (priest)|Matthew Fox]], an Episcopal priest.{{refn|group=note|See [[Creation Spirituality]]}}

=== Pandeism ===
{{Main|Pandeism}}
Pandeism or pan-deism (from {{langx|grc|πᾶν|pan|all}} and {{langx|la|[[deus]]}} meaning "[[god]]" in the sense of [[deism]]) is a term describing beliefs coherently incorporating or mixing [[logic]]ally reconcilable elements of pantheism (that "God", or a metaphysically equivalent [[creator deity]], is identical to [[Nature]]) and [[Deism#Enlightenment Deism|classical deism]] (that the creator-god who designed the universe no longer exists in a status where it can be reached, and can instead be confirmed only by reason). It is therefore most particularly the belief that the creator of the universe actually became the universe, and so ceased to exist as a separate entity.<ref>{{cite book |title=The History of Science: A Beginner's Guide p. 90 |author=Sean F. Johnston |year=2009 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-85168-681-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofscience0000john}}</ref><ref>Alex Ashman, ''[[BBC News]]'', "[https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A25172309 Metaphysical Isms]".</ref>

Through this [[synergy]] pandeism claims to answer primary objections to deism (why would God create and then not interact with the universe?) and to pantheism (how did the universe originate and what is its purpose?).

=== Indian and East Asian religions ===

==== Characteristics ====
The central problem in Asian (religious) philosophy is not the body-mind problem, but the search for an unchanging Real or Absolute beyond the world of appearances and changing phenomena,{{sfn|Nakamura|1991}} and the search for liberation from [[dukkha]] and the liberation from the [[cycle of rebirth]].{{sfn|Puligandla|1997}} In Hinduism, [[Substance theory|substance-ontology]] prevails, seeing [[Brahman]] as the unchanging real beyond the world of [[Maya (illusion)|appearances]].{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=50}} In Buddhism, [[process ontology]] is prevalent,{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=50}} seeing reality as [[sunyata|empty]] of an unchanging essence.{{sfn|Kalupahana|1992}}{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994}}

Characteristic for various Asian philosophy, technology and religions is the discernment of levels of truth,{{sfn|Loy|1988|p=9-11}} an emphasis on intuitive-experiential understanding of the Absolute{{sfn|Rambachan|1994}}{{sfn|Hawley|2006}}{{sfn|Sharf|1995}}{{sfn|Renard|1999|p=59}} such as [[jnana]], [[bodhi]] and [[kensho|jianxing: (Chinese; 見性)]], and the technology of [[yin and yang]] used within [[East Asian medicine]] with an emphasis on the integration of these levels of truth and its understanding.{{sfn|Renard|1999|p=31}}{{sfn|Maezumi| Glassman|2007}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism |date=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15786-3 |editor-last=Buswell |editor-first=Robert E. |location=Princeton |editor-last2=Lopez |editor-first2=Donald S.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ryan 陈明 |first=Paul F. |title=Chinese Medical Classics: Selected Readings |publisher=People's Medical Publishing House |year=2014 |isbn=9787117189316}}</ref>

==== Hinduism ====
{{Main|Hinduism|Hindu philosophy|Hindu denominations}}

===== Vedanta =====
{{Main|Vedanta}}
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|''[[Adi Shankara]] with Disciples'', by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] (1904)|right|thumb|x216px]]
Vedanta is the inquiry into and systematisation of the Vedas and Upanishads, to harmonise the various and contrasting ideas that can be found in those texts. Within Vedanta, different schools exist:<ref>Wilhelm Halbfass (1995), Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791425824}}, pages 137–143</ref>

* [[Vishishtadvaita]], qualified monism, is from the school of [[Ramanuja]];<ref>Jeaneane Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, page xxviii</ref>
* [[Shuddhadvaita]], in-essence monism, is the school of [[Vallabha]];
* [[Dvaitadvaita]], differential monism, is a school founded by [[Nimbarka]];
* [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]], a school of [[Vedanta]] founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference''. It can be understood as an integration of the strict dualist (dvaita) theology of [[Madhvacharya]] and the qualified monism (vishishtadvaita) of [[Ramanuja]].

===== Modern Hinduism =====
{{Main|Hindu reform movements}}
The colonisation of India by the British had a major impact on Hindu society.{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} In response, leading Hindu intellectuals started to study western culture and philosophy, integrating several western notions into Hinduism.{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} This modernised Hinduism, at its turn, has gained popularity in the west.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994}}

A major role was played in the 19th century by [[Swami Vivekananda]] in the [[Hindu reform movements|revival of Hinduism]],{{sfn|Dense|1999|p=191}} and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the [[Ramakrishna Mission]]. His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called [[Neo-Vedanta]].{{sfn|Mukerji|1983}} In Advaita, Shankara suggests meditation and [[Nirvikalpa]] Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of ''Brahman'' and ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'',{{sfn|Comans|1993}} not the highest goal itself:
{{blockquote|[Y]oga is a meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness. This approach is different from the classical Yoga of complete thought suppression.{{sfn|Comans|1993}}}}

Vivekananda, according to [[Gavin Flood]], was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism."{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=257}} Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} According to Flood, Vivekananda's view of Hinduism is the most common among Hindus today.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=259}} This monism, according to Flood, is at the foundation of earlier Upanishads, to theosophy in the later Vedanta tradition and in modern Neo-Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=85}}

==== Buddhism ====
{{Main|Buddhism|Nondualism in Buddhism}}
According to the [[Pāli Canon]], both pluralism (''nānatta'') and monism (''ekatta'') are speculative [[View (Buddhism)|views]]. A [[Theravada]] commentary notes that the former is similar to or associated with [[nihilism]] (''ucchēdavāda''), and the latter is similar to or associated with eternalism (''[[sassatavada]]'').<ref>[[David Kalupahana]], ''Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.'' The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, page 88. The passage is SN 2.77.</ref>

===== Levels of truth =====
Within Buddhism, a rich variety of philosophical{{sfn|Williams|1994}} and pedagogical models{{sfn|Buswell|Gimello|1994}} can be found. Various schools of Buddhism discern levels of truth:
* The [[Two truths doctrine]] of the [[Madhyamaka]]
* The [[Three natures|Three Natures]] of the [[Yogacara]]
* [[Essence-Function]], or [[Chinese Chán#Absolute-relative|Absolute-relative]] in Chinese and Korean Buddhism
* The [[Trikaya]]-formule, consisting of
** The ''[[Dharmakāya]]'' or ''Truth body'' which embodies the very principle of [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]] and knows no limits or boundaries;
** The ''[[Sambhogakāya]]'' or ''body of mutual enjoyment'' which is a body of bliss or clear light manifestation;
** The ''[[Nirmāṇakāya]]'' or ''created body'' which manifests in time and space.<ref>Welwood, John (2000). [http://www.purifymind.com/PlayMind.htm ''The Play of the Mind: Form, Emptiness, and Beyond''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001230910/http://www.purifymind.com/PlayMind.htm |date=2016-10-01 }}, accessed January 13, 2007</ref>

The [[Prajnaparamita]]-sutras and [[Madhyamaka]] emphasize the [[Nondualism|non-duality]] of form and emptiness: "form is emptiness, emptiness is form", as the [[heart sutra]] says.{{sfn|Liang-Chieh|1986|p=9}} In Chinese Buddhism this was understood to mean that ultimate reality is not a transcendental realm, but equal to the daily world of relative reality. This idea was well-situated for the existing Chinese culture, which emphasized the mundane world and society. But this does not tell how the absolute is present in the relative world:
{{blockquote|To deny the duality of samsara and nirvana, as the Perfection of Wisdom does, or to demonstrate logically the error of dichotomizing conceptualization, as Nagarjuna does, is not to address the question of the relationship between samsara and nirvana -or, in more philosophical terms, between phenomenal and ultimate reality [...] What, then, is the relationship between these two realms?{{sfn|Liang-Chieh|1986|p=9}}}}
This question is answered in such schemata as [[Five Ranks|the Five Ranks of Tozan]],{{sfn|Kasulis|2003|p=29}} the [[Ten Bulls|Oxherding Pictures]], and [[Hakuin#Four ways of knowing|Hakuin's Four ways of knowing]].{{sfn|Low|2006}}

==== Sikhism ====
{{Main|God in Sikhism}}
Sikhism complies with the concept of Absolute&nbsp;Monism. Sikh philosophy advocates that all that our senses comprehend is an illusion; God is the ultimate reality. Forms being subject to time shall pass away. God's Reality alone is eternal and abiding.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.allaboutsikhs.com/sikhism-articles/the-idea-of-the-supreme-being-god-in-sikhism |title=The Idea Of The Supreme Being (God) In Sikhism – Sikhism Articles – Gateway to Sikhism |work=Gateway to Sikhism |access-date=2017-12-14}}</ref>&nbsp;The thought is that Atma (soul) is born from, and a reflection of, ParamAtma (Supreme Soul), and "will again merge into it", in the words of the fifth guru of Sikhs, [[Guru Arjan]], "just as water merges back into the water."<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.thesikhencyclopedia.com/metaphysics/atma |title=ATMA |last=Gujral |first=Maninder S |encyclopedia=The Sikh Encyclopedia -ਸਿੱਖ ਧਰਮ ਵਿਸ਼ਵਕੋਸ਼ |date=19 December 2000 |access-date=2017-12-14}}</ref>

God and Soul are fundamentally the same; identical in the same way as Fire and its sparks. "Atam meh Ram, Ram meh Atam" which means "The Ultimate Eternal reality resides in the Soul and the Soul is contained in Him". As from one stream, millions of waves arise and yet the waves, made of water, again become water; in the same way all souls have sprung from the Universal Being and would blend again into it.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rFm9_Jc1ykcC&q=atma+merges+in+parmatma+sikhism&pg=PA266 |title=A Complete Guide to Sikhism |last=Singh |first=Jagraj |date=2009 |publisher=Unistar |isbn=9788171427543 |page=266}}</ref>

=== Abrahamic faiths ===
{{original research|section|date=April 2024}}

==== Judaism ====
{{Main|Judaism}}
Jewish thought considers God as [[transcendence (religion)|separate from all physical, created things]] and as existing outside of time.{{refn|group=note|For a discussion of the resultant [[paradox]], see ''[[Tzimtzum]]''.}}{{refn|group=note|See also [[Negative theology#In the Jewish tradition|Negative theology]].}}

According to [[Maimonides]], God is an [[Incorporeality|incorporeal being]] that caused all other existence; to admit [[wikt:wiki/corporeal|corporeality]] to God is tantamount to admitting complexity to God, which is a contradiction to God as the [[Unmoved mover#First cause|first cause]] and constitutes [[Heresy in Judaism|heresy]].<ref name="FoL-1">See ''Foundations of the Law'', Chapter 1</ref> While [[Hasidic]] mystics considered the existence of the physical world a contradiction to God's [[Divine simplicity#In Jewish thought|simpleness]], Maimonides saw no contradiction.{{refn|group=note|See the "Guide for the Perplexed", especially chapter I:50.}}

According to [[Hasidic thought]] (particularly as propounded by the 18th century, early 19th-century founder of [[Chabad]], [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]]), God is held to be [[immanent]] within [[Genesis creation myth|creation]] for two interrelated reasons:
# A very strong Jewish belief is that "[t]he Divine life-force which brings [the universe] into existence must constantly be present ... were this life-force to forsake [the universe] for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation ..."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chabad.org/library/tanya/tanya_cdo/aid/7988/jewish/Chapter-2.htm |title=Chapter 2 |website=Chabad.org |access-date=24 January 2019}}</ref>
# Simultaneously, Judaism holds as [[axiom]]atic that God is an absolute unity, and that he is perfectly simple, thus, if his sustaining power is within nature, then his essence is also within nature.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

==== Christianity ====
{{See also|Christian anthropology}}

===== Creator–creature distinction =====
Christians maintain that God created the universe ''[[ex nihilo]]'' and not from his own substance, so that the creator is not to be confused with creation, but rather [[transcendence (religion)|transcends]] it. There is a movement of "[[Panentheism#Christianity|Christian Panentheism]]".<ref>{{Cite book |title=In whom we live and move and have our being : panentheistic reflections on God's presence in a scientific world |last1=Clayton |first1=Philip |last2=Peacocke |first2=A. R. |date=2004 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Pub |isbn=0-8028-0978-2 |oclc=53880197}}</ref>

===== Rejection of radical dualism =====
In ''[[On Free Choice of the Will]]'', [[Augustine]] argued, in the context of [[the problem of evil]], that evil is not the opposite of good, but rather merely the absence of good, something that does not have existence in itself. Likewise, [[C. S. Lewis]] described evil as a "parasite" in ''[[Mere Christianity]]'', as he viewed evil as something that cannot exist without good to provide it with existence. Lewis went on to argue against dualism from the basis of [[moral absolutism]], and rejected the dualistic notion that God and [[Satan]] are opposites, arguing instead that God has no equal, hence no opposite. Lewis rather viewed Satan as the opposite of [[Michael the archangel]]. Due to this, Lewis instead argued for a more limited type of dualism.<ref>Lewis, C. S. 1970, "God and Evil" in ''God in the Dock: Essays in Theology and Ethics'', ed. W. Hooper, Grand Rapids, [[Michigan|MI]]: Eerdsman, pp. 21–24</ref> Other theologians, such as [[Greg Boyd (theologian)|Greg Boyd]], have argued in more depth that the Biblical authors held a "limited dualism", meaning that God and Satan do engage in real battle, but only due to free will given by God, for the duration that God allows.<ref>Boyd, Gregory. A 1971, ''God at War'', Downers Grove, [[Illinois|IL]]: InterVarsity Press, p. 185</ref>

===== Mormonism =====
{{religious text primary|date=December 2022}}
{{Main|Materialism#Christianity|Materialism and Christianity}}
[[Mormonism|Latter Day Saint]] theology also expresses a form of [[Dual aspect theory|dual-aspect]] monism via [[materialism]] and [[Eternity of the world|eternalism]], claiming that creation was ex materia (as opposed to ex nihilo in conventional Christianity), as expressed by [[Parley Pratt]] and echoed in view by the movement's founder [[Joseph Smith]], making no distinction between the spiritual and the material, these being not just similarly eternal, but ultimately two manifestations of the same reality or substance.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Wrestling the angel : the foundations of Mormon thought: cosmos, God, humanity |last=Terryl |first=Givens |isbn=978-0-19-979492-8 |location=Oxford |oclc=869757526 |year=2015}}</ref>

Parley Pratt implies a [[vitalism]] paired with evolutionary adaptation noting, "these eternal, self-existing elements possess in themselves certain inherent properties or attributes, in a greater or less degree; or, in other words, they possess intelligence, adapted to their several spheres."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Key to the Science of Theology. |last=Pratt |first=Parley |location=Liverpool |year=1855}}</ref>

Parley Pratt's view is also similar to Gottfried Leibniz's [[monadology]], which holds that "reality consists of mind atoms that are living centers of force."<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Theological Foundations of the Mormon Religion. |last=McMurrin |first=Sterling |location=Salt Lake City |year=1965}}</ref>

[[Brigham Young]] anticipates a proto-mentality of elementary particles with his vitalist view, "there is life in all matter, throughout the vast extent of all the eternities; it is in the rock, the sand, the dust, in water, air, the gases, and in short, in every description and organization of matter; whether it be solid, liquid, or gaseous, particle operating with particle."<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Complete Discourses of Brigham Young. |last=Van Wagoner |first=Richard S. |location=Salt Lake City |year=2009}}</ref>

The LDS conception of matter is "essentially dynamic rather than static, if indeed it is not a kind of living energy, and that it is subject at least to the rule of intelligence."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Process Theology: What It Is and Is Not. In Mormonism in Dialogue with Contemporary Christian Theologies. |last=Griffin |first=David Ray |location=Macon, GA |year=2007}}</ref>

[[John A. Widstoe]] held a similar, more vitalist view, that "Life is nothing more than matter in motion; that, therefore, all matter possess a kind of life... Matter... [is] intelligence... hence everything in the universe is alive." However, Widstoe resisted outright affirming a belief in [[panpsychism]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Joseph Smith as Scientist. |last=Widstoe |first=John A. |location=Salt Lake City |year=1908}}</ref>

==== Islam ====
{{See also|Tawhid}}

===== Quran =====
[[Vincent Cornell]] argues that the [[Quran]] provides a monist image of God by describing reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things.<ref name="Yusuf-2009">{{cite book |last1=Yusuf |first1=Hamza |title=The Creed of Imam al-Tahawi |date=2009 |publisher=Zaytuna Institute |isbn=978-0-9702843-9-6}}</ref>

But most argue that Abrahamic religious scriptures, especially the Quran, see creation and God as two separate existences. It explains that everything has been created by God and is under his control, but at the same time distinguishes creation as being dependent on the existence of God.<ref name="Yusuf-2009" />

===== Sufism =====
{{See also|Sufism}}
Some Sufi mystics advocate monism. One of the most notable being the 13th-century Persian poet [[Rumi]] (1207–1273) in his didactic poem ''[[Masnavi]]'' espoused monism.<ref name="nicholson">[http://www.globalwebpost.com/farooqm/study_res/rumi/intro_nicholson.html Reynold Nicholson ''Rumi''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017141204/http://www.globalwebpost.com/farooqm/study_res/rumi/intro_nicholson.html |date=2006-10-17 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rumi.org.uk/sufism/persian_sufism.htm |title=Cyprian Rice (1964) ''The Persian Sufism'' George Allen, London |access-date=2008-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516025909/http://www.rumi.org.uk/sufism/persian_sufism.htm |archive-date=2008-05-16 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Rumi says in the [[Masnavi]],
{{blockquote|In the shop for Unity (wahdat); anything that you see there except the One is an idol.<ref name="nicholson" />}}

Other Sufi mystics however, such as [[Ahmad Sirhindi]], upheld dualistic Monotheism (the separation of God and the Universe).<ref>Saleem, Abdul Qadeer. A CRITICAL STUDY OF MUJADDID ALF-E THANI'S PHILOSOPHY. Diss. University of Karachi, 1998. pp.59-60</ref>

The most influential of the [[Islam]]ic monists was the Sufi philosopher [[Ibn Arabi]] (1165–1240). He developed the concept of 'unity of being' (Arabic: ''[[Sufi metaphysics|waḥdat al-wujūd]]''), which some argue is a monistic philosophy.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Born in [[al-Andalus]], he made an enormous impact on the Muslim world, where he was crowned "the great Master". In the centuries following his death, his ideas became increasingly controversial. [[Ahmad Sirhindi]] criticised monistic understanding of 'unity of being', advocating the dualistic-compatible 'unity of witness' (Arabic: ''[[Sufi metaphysics#Waḥdat asḥ-Shuhūd|wahdat ash-shuhud]]''), maintaining separation of creator and creation.<ref>Siddiqui, B. H. "Islam: Synthesis of Tradition and Change."</ref><ref>Ansari, Abdul Haq. "SHAYKH AḤMAD SIRHINDĪ'S DOCTRINE OF" WAḤDAT AL-SHUHŪD"." Islamic Studies 37.3 (1998): 281-313.</ref><ref>Knysh, Alexander D. Ibn'Arabi in the later Islamic tradition: The making of a polemical image in medieval Islam. Suny Press, 1999.</ref><ref>Nizami, F. A. "23 Islam in the Indian Sub-Continent." The World's Religions (2004): 368.</ref> Later, [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]] reconciled the two ideas maintaining that their differences are semantic differences, arguing that the universal existence (which is different in creation to creator) and the divine essence are different and that the universal existence emanates (in a non-platonic sense) from the divine essence and that the relationship between them is similar to the relationship between the number four and a number being even.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Hafiz |last=Khan |year=1998 |contribution=Shah Wali Allah (Qutb al-Din Ahmad al-Rahim) (1703–62) |encyclopedia=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy|Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=[[Routledge]]}}</ref><ref>Ansari, Abdul Haq. "Shah waliy Allah Attempts to Revise wahdat al-wujud." Arabica 35.2 (1988): 197-213.</ref>

===== Shi'ism =====
{{See also|Shi'ism}}
The doctrine of ''[[Sufi metaphysics|waḥdat al-wujūd]]'' also enjoys considerable following in the rationalist philosophy of [[Twelver Shi'ism]], with the most famous modern-day adherent being [[Ruhollah Khomeini]].<ref>Knysh, Alexander. "'Irfan' Revisited: Khomeini and the Legacy of Islamic Mystical Philosophy", 633.</ref>

==== Baháʼí Faith ====
{{Main|Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion}}
Although the [[Baháʼí teachings|teachings]] of the [[Baháʼí Faith]] have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, there exist a number of foundational texts that have been described as mystical.<ref>{{Cite book |year=1992 |contribution=The Baháʼí Faith |title=Britannica Book of the Year |isbn=0-85229-486-7 |editor1=Daphne Daume |editor2=Louise Watson |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |location=Chicago |url=https://archive.org/details/1988britannicabo0000daum}}</ref> Some of these include statements of a monist nature (e.g., ''[[The Seven Valleys]]'' and the ''[[Hidden Words]]''). The differences between dualist and monist views are reconciled by the teaching that these opposing viewpoints are caused by differences in the observers themselves, not in that which is observed. This is not a 'higher truth/lower truth' position. God is unknowable. For man it is impossible to acquire any direct knowledge of God or the Absolute, because any knowledge that one has, is relative.<ref>{{cite book |last=Momen |first=Moojan |year=1988 |title=Studies in the Bábí and Baháʼí Religions vol. 5, chapter: A Basis For Baháʼí Metaphysics |publisher=Kalimat Press |pages=185–217 |url=http://bahai-library.com/momen_relativism_bahai_metaphysics |isbn=0-933770-72-3}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Cosmic pluralism]]
* [[Dialectical monism]]
* [[Henosis]]
* [[Holism]]
* [[Indefinite monism]]
* [[Neoplatonism]]
* [[Material monism]]
* [[Monadology]]
* [[Monistic idealism]]
* [[Ontological pluralism]]
* [[Realistic monism]]
* [[Waheguru|Sikhism]]
* [[Taoism]]
* [[Univocity of being]]
* [[Wuji (philosophy)|Wuji]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{lacking ISBN|date=April 2024}}
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{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane D. |year=2002 |title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |ref=none}}
* {{Citation |last=Hori |first=Victor Sogen |year=1999 |title=Translating the Zen Phrase Book. In: Nanzan Bulletin 23 (1999) |url=http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/translating_zen_phrasebook.pdf |ref=none}}
* {{Citation |last=Momen |first=Moojan |year=2009 |orig-year=Originally published as ''The Phenomenon of Religion'' in 1999 |title=Understanding Religion: A Thematic Approach |publisher=Oneworld Publications |place=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-1-85168-599-8 |ol=25434252M |ref=none}}
* {{Citation |last1=Radhakrishnan |first1=Sarvepalli |last2=Moore |first2=Charles A. |year=1957 |title=A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy |edition=12th Princeton Paperback |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01958-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh |ref=none}}
* {{Citation |editor-last=White |editor-first=David Gordon |year=2000 |title=Introduction. In: Tantra in practice |place=Princeton and Oxford |publisher=Princeton University Press |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
*{{Sep entry|monism|Monism|Jonathan Schaeffer}}
*{{PhilPapers|category|monism}}
*{{InPho|idea|357}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10483a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] – Monism
*[http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/lexicon/ Hinduism's Online Lexicon] – (search for Monism)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090422180907/http://secure.pdcnet.org/pdc/bvdb.nsf/journal?openform&journal=pdc_monist The Monist]

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