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{{Short description|Religious way of life}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2016}}

'''Monasticism''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|μοναχός}}'' ({{grc-transl|μοναχός}})|solitary, monastic}}; {{etymology||''{{Wikt-lang|grc|μόνος}}'' ({{grc-transl|μόνος}})|alone}}), also called '''monachism''' or '''monkhood''', is a [[religion|religious]] way of life in which one renounces [[world (theology)|worldly]] pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual activities. Monastic life plays an important role in many [[Christianity|Christian]] churches, especially in the [[Catholicism|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Anglican]] traditions as well as in other faiths such as [[Buddhist monasticism|Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Jain monasticism|Jainism]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Monasticism |url=https://britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/388935/monasticism |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |access-date=2014-10-06 |archive-date=8 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008223318/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/388935/monasticism |url-status=live}}</ref> In other religions, monasticism is generally criticized and not practiced, as in [[Islam]] and [[Zoroastrianism]]; or plays a marginal role, as in modern [[Nazirite|Judaism]].

Many monastics live in [[abbey]]s, [[convent]]s, [[monastery|monasteries]], or priories to separate themselves from the [[secular]] world, unless they are in [[mendicant]] or [[missionary order]]s.

==Buddhism==
{{Main|Buddhist monasticism}}
[[File:Buddhist monk in Mae Klang Waterfall.jpg|thumb|Forest dwelling was a common practice in early Buddhism, and it is still followed by some Buddhist sects such as the [[Thai Forest Tradition]].]]
The [[Sangha]] or community of ordained [[Buddhist]] [[bhikkhu]]s ([[Pali]] ''bhikkhu'', like [[Sanskrit]] ''bhikṣu'', means 'mendicant; one who lives by [[dāna|alms]]'<ref>''Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary'' by [[Vaman Shivram Apte]].</ref>), and original [[bhikkhunī]]s (nuns) were founded by [[the Buddha]] during his lifetime over 2500 years ago. This communal monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering [[Asceticism|ascetics]], some of whom the Buddha had studied under. It was initially fairly [[eremitic]] or reclusive in nature. Bhikkhus and bhikkunis were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community.<ref name="bhikku">{{cite web |url=http://en.dhammadana.org/sangha/monks.htm |title=What is a bhikkhu? |publisher=En.dhammadana.org |access-date=2012-04-12 |archive-date=28 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128041116/http://en.dhammadana.org/sangha/monks.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Lay followers also provided the daily food that bhikkhus required, and provided shelter for bhikkhus when they needed it.<ref name="bhikku"/>

[[File:Young monks of Drepung.jpg|thumb|Young Buddhist bhikkhus in [[Tibet]]]]
After the ''[[Parinirvana|parinibbāna]]'' (Final Passing) of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily [[cenobitic]] or communal movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy [[vassa]] season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by bhikkhus and bhikkhunis—as encoded in the [[Patimokkha]]—relate to such an existence, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of bhikkhus or bhikkhunis. The number of rules observed varies with the order; [[Theravada]] bhikkhus follow around 227 rules, the [[Vinaya]]. There are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis (nuns).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=70,8074,0,0,1,0 |title=The Bhikkhuni question |publisher=Buddhistchannel.tv |date=2009-04-28 |access-date=2012-04-12 |archive-date=23 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123223642/http://buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=70,8074,0,0,1,0 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Buddhist monastic order consists of the male [[bhikkhu]] assembly and the female [[bhikkhunī]] assembly. Initially consisting only of males, it grew to include females after the Buddha's stepmother, [[Mahaprajapati]], asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner.

Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers—providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the bhikkhus. In return for the support of the laity, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character.<ref name="bhikku"/>

A bhikkhu first ordains as a ''samanera'' (novice). Novices often ordain at a young age, but generally no younger than eight. Samaneras live according to the [[Ten Precepts (Buddhism)|Ten Precepts]], but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full bhikkhu, is given only to men who are aged 20 or older. Bhikkhunis follow a similar progression, but are required to live as samaneras for longer periods of time, typically five years.

The disciplinary regulations for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. However, [[celibacy]] is a fundamental part of this form of monastic discipline.

==Christianity==
{{Main|Christian monasticism}}

[[File:Trappist praying 2007-08-20 dti.jpg|thumb|[[Trappist]] monk praying in his [[monastic cell|cell]].]][[File:St. Anthony's Monastery 2006.jpg|thumb|The [[Monastery of Saint Anthony]] in Egypt, built over the tomb of [[Anthony the Great|Saint Anthony]], the "Father of Christian Monasticism"]]

Monasticism in Christianity, which provides the origins of the words "monk" and "monastery", comprises several diverse forms of religious living. It began to develop early in the history of the Church, but is not mentioned in the scriptures. The precise origins of the movement are obscure but it seems that it originated in more than one place with Egypt and Syria as important early centres.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Helvétius |first1=Anne-Marie |title=Re-Reading Monastic Traditions: Monks and Nuns, East and West, from the Origins to c. 750 |date=2020 |work=The Cambridge History of Medieval Monasticism in the Latin West |pages=40–72 |editor-last=Beach |editor-first=Alison I. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-medieval-monasticism-in-the-latin-west/rereading-monastic-traditions-monks-and-nuns-east-and-west-from-the-origins-to-c-750/BD59F58B5A2CBB8379FF54923FB1BA8D |access-date=2024-04-12 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781107323742.003 |isbn=978-1-107-04211-7 |last2=Kaplan |first2=Michel |last3=Boud'hors |first3=Anne |last4=Debié |first4=Muriel |last5=Lesieur |first5=Bénédicte |last6=Boynton |first6=Susan |editor2-last=Cochelin |editor2-first=Isabelle |archive-date=17 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617080046/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-medieval-monasticism-in-the-latin-west/rereading-monastic-traditions-monks-and-nuns-east-and-west-from-the-origins-to-c-750/BD59F58B5A2CBB8379FF54923FB1BA8D |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e.g. the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict) and, in modern times, the Church law of the respective apostolic Christian churches that have forms of monastic living.

The Christian monk embraces the monastic life as a vocation from God. His objective is to imitate the life of Christ as far as possible in preparation for attaining eternal life after death.

[[File:Coptic monks.jpg|thumb|right|Coptic monks between 1898 and 1914]]

Titles for monastics differ between the Christian denominations. In Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism, monks and nuns are addressed as Brother (or Father, if ordained to the priesthood) or Mother, Sister, while in Eastern Orthodoxy, they are addressed as Father or Mother. Women pursuing a monastic life are generally called nuns, religious sisters or, rarely, canonesses, while monastic men are called monks, friars or brothers.

During the fourth and fifth century monasticism allowed women to be removed from traditional lifestyles such as marriage and childbearing to live a life devoted to God. Guided by daily rules and lifestyle guidelines, monasticism afforded women great spiritual autonomy. Women also played a crucial role in promoting and financing the monastic movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fafinski |first1=Mateusz |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/abs/monasticism-and-the-city-in-late-antiquity-and-the-early-middle-ages/38CBB3E9ED81B916BB54A6FF4037C778#element |title=Monasticism and the city in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages |last2=Riemenschneider |first2=Jakob |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-98931-2 |series=Cambridge elements elements in religion in late antiquity |location=Cambridge |pages=12–14 |access-date=13 April 2024 |archive-date=16 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416192023/https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/abs/monasticism-and-the-city-in-late-antiquity-and-the-early-middle-ages/38CBB3E9ED81B916BB54A6FF4037C778#element |url-status=live }}</ref> Monasteries served as a space for communal living for monks and nuns many operated under different ranges of severity for rules and punishment of disobedience towards practices that largely originated from the Desert Fathers, these parameters were administered by a superior (Father/Mother). While the practices of female monastic communities varied, they were united by a commitment to a life of prayer, contemplation, and service to others.

Teachings from Shenoute of Atripe, an influential figure in the development of the monastic tradition in Egypt and for his writings on monastic life were also implemented throughout monasteries. Sometimes written in the masculine gender as if exclusively applicable to the male congregations, despite the fact Shenoute commanded a federation that included both male and female congregations.

Later, during 379 AD the first monastery for women was founded in Jerusalem by Saint Melania the Elder. This was a significant moment in history: before then, female monasteries were solely adjunct to male monasteries, although the history of female ascetics predates even the earliest recognized female ascetic pioneers, such as Saint Mary of Egypt, who lived during the 5th century AD.

In fourth century Egypt, Christians felt called to a more reclusive or [[Hermit|eremitic]] form of living (in the spirit of the "Desert Theology" for the purpose of spiritual renewal and return to God). Saint [[Anthony the Great]] is cited by [[Pope Athanasius I of Alexandria|Athanasius]] as one of the early "Hermit monks". Especially in the Middle East, eremitic monasticism continued to be common until the decline of [[Syriac Christianity]] in the late Middle Ages.

Around 318 Saint [[Pachomius]] started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian [[Cenobium|cenobitic]] or communal [[monastery]]. Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Notable [[Monastery|monasteries]] in the East include:
* [[Monastery of Saint Anthony]], one of the oldest Christian monasteries in the world.
* [[Mar Awgin]] founded a monastery on [[Mt. Izla]] above [[Nisibis]] in [[Mesopotamia]] (c. 350), and from this monastery the cenobitic tradition spread in Mesopotamia, Persia, Armenia, Georgia and even India and China.
* St. [[Sabbas the Sanctified]] organized the monks of the Judean Desert in a monastery close to [[Bethlehem]] (483), now known as [[Mar Saba]], which is considered the mother of all monasteries of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] churches.
* [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] was founded between 527 and 565 in the [[Sinai Peninsula]], [[Egypt]], by order of Emperor [[Justinian I]].

In the West, the most significant development occurred when the rules for monastic communities were written down, the Rule of St Basil being credited with having been the first. The precise dating of the [[Rule of the Master]] is problematic. It has been argued that it antedates the Rule of Saint Benedict created by [[Benedict of Nursia]] for his monastery in [[Monte Cassino]], Italy (c. 529), and the other [[Benedictine]] monasteries he had founded as part of the [[Order of St Benedict]]. It would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages and is still in use today. The [[Augustinian Rule]], due to its brevity, has been adopted by various communities, chiefly the [[Canons Regular]]. Around the 12th century, the [[Franciscan]], [[Carmelite]], [[Dominican Order|Dominican]], [[Servite Order]] (see [[Servants of Mary]]) and [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[mendicant order]]s chose to live in city [[convent]]s among the people instead of being secluded in monasteries. [[St. Augustine's Monastery (Erfurt)|St. Augustine's Monastery]], founded in 1277 in [[Erfurt]], Germany is regarded by many historians and theologians as the "cradle of the [[Reformation]]", as it is where [[Martin Luther]] lived as a monk from 1505 to 1511.<ref name=extapp>[http://www.welterbe-luther.de/en/extension-application/augustinian-monastery-erfurt UNESCO World Heritage. Augustinian Monastery, Erfurt extension application] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804013636/http://www.welterbe-luther.de/en/extension-application/augustinian-monastery-erfurt |date=4 August 2017 }} (Accessed: 29 May 2017)</ref>

Today new expressions of [[Christian monasticism]], many of which are [[ecumenical]], are developing in various places such as the [[Bose Monastic Community]] in Italy, the [[Monastic Fraternities of Jerusalem]] throughout Europe, the Anglo-Celtic Society of Nativitists, the [[Taizé Community]] in France, the Eastern Orthodox monasteries of [[New Skete (New York)|New Skete]], New York, and the mainly Evangelical [[Protestant]] [[New Monasticism]].

==Hinduism==
{{See also|Dashanami Sampradaya|Matha|Sādhanā}}
[[File:Shankaracharyas_meet_together.jpg|thumb|A meeting of various [[Shankaracharya]] – heads of monasteries called [[matha]]s in the [[Advaita Vedanta]] tradition. The title derives from [[Adi Shankara]], an eighth-century CE reformer of [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Aditya Thakur">{{cite news|title=Just A Handful Of Hindus Know Adi Shankaracharya Revived Their Religion|url=http://topyaps.com/just-handful-hindus-know-adi-shankaracharya-revived-religion|access-date=16 May 2014|newspaper=Topyaps|date=1 November 2014|author=Aditya Thakur|archive-date=3 May 2014|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503043917/http://topyaps.com/just-handful-hindus-know-adi-shankaracharya-revived-religion}}</ref>]]
In their quest to attain the [[spirituality|spiritual]] goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism ([[Sannyasa]]). Monastics commit themselves to a life of [[simplicity]], [[celibacy]], detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.<ref>Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 112 (Viveka Press 1994) {{ISBN|1-884852-02-5}}</ref> A Hindu monk is called a ''sanyāsī'', ''sādhu'', or ''swāmi''.<ref>[[R.S. McGregor]], ''The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary'' (5th ed. 1999) {{ISBN|0-19-563846-8}}</ref> A nun is called a ''sanyāsini'', ''sādhvi'', or ''swāmini''. Such renunciates are accorded high respect in Hindu society, because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their physical needs.<ref>Alex Michaels, ''Hinduism: Past and Present'' 316 (Princeton 1998) {{ISBN|0-691-08953-1}}</ref> It is considered a highly meritorious act for a lay devotee to provide [[sadhu]]s with food or other necessaries. [[Sādhu]]s are expected to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked. They are also expected to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.<ref>Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 112 (Viveka Press 1994) {{ISBN|1-884852-02-5}}.</ref> A sādhu can typically be recognized by his ochre-colored clothing. Generally, [[Vaisnava]] monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head, while [[Saivite]] monks let their hair and beard grow uncut.

A ''sādhu's'' vow of renunciation typically forbids him from:
* owning personal property apart from a bowl, a cup, two sets of clothing and medical aids such as eyeglasses;
* having any contact with, looking at, thinking of or even being in the presence of women;
* eating for pleasure;
* possessing or even touching money or valuables in any way, shape or form;
* maintaining personal relationships.

==Islam==
{{See also|Zuhd}}

Islam forbids the practice of monasticism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=33. How Does Islam View Monasticism? |date=22 December 2021 |url=https://www.al-islam.org/180-questions-enquiries-about-islam-volume-2-various-issues/33-how-does-islam-view-monasticism |access-date=27 February 2024 |archive-date=14 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240514044155/https://www.al-islam.org/180-questions-enquiries-about-islam-volume-2-various-issues/33-how-does-islam-view-monasticism |url-status=live }}</ref> In [[Sunni Islam]], one example is [[Uthman ibn Maz'un]]; one of the [[Companions of the Prophet|companions]] of [[Muhammad]]. He was married to [[Khawlah bint Hakim]], both being two of the earliest [[Conversion to Islam|converts to Islam]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inter-islam.org/Biographies/sawdah.htm|title=Hazrat Sawdah|website=www.inter-islam.org|access-date=31 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219053117/http://www.inter-islam.org/Biographies/sawdah.htm|archive-date=19 February 2014}}</ref> There is a Sunni narration that, out of religious devotion, Uthman decided to dedicate himself to [[tahajjud|night prayers]] and take a vow of [[chastity]] from his wife. His wife got upset and spoke to Muhammad about this. Muhammad reminded Uthman that he himself, as the Prophet, also had a family life, and that Uthman had a responsibility to his family and should not adopt monasticism as a form of religious practice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mutahhari |first=Murtada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9CYtyoaY5yEC&pg=PA5 |title=Sexual Ethics in Islam and in the Western World |date=2011 |publisher=ICAS Press |isbn=978-1-904063-46-9 |language=en}}</ref>

Muhammad told his companions to ease their burden and avoid excess. According to some Sunni [[hadith]]s, in a message to some companions who wanted to put an end to their sexual life, pray all night long or fast continuously, Muhammad said: "Do not do that! Fast on some days and eat on others. Sleep part of the night, and stand in prayer another part. For your body has rights upon you, your eyes have a right upon you, your wife has a right upon you, your guest has a right upon you." Muhammad once exclaimed, repeating it three times: "Woe to those who exaggerate [who are too strict]!" And, on another occasion, Muhammad said: "Moderation, moderation! For only with moderation will you succeed."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamicstudies.info/family/ideal_muslim/ideal_muslim.php?id=4 |title=The Ideal Muslim |access-date=2014-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323004019/http://www.islamicstudies.info/family/ideal_muslim/ideal_muslim.php?id=4 |archive-date=23 March 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Monasticism is also mentioned in the following verse of [[Quran|Qur'an]]:

<blockquote> Then We caused Our messengers to follow in their footsteps; and We caused Isa (A.S.), son of Maryam, to follow, and gave him the Injil, and placed compassion and mercy in the hearts of those who followed him. But monasticism they invented – We ordained it not for them – only seeking Allah's pleasure, and they observed it not with right observance. So We give those of them who believe their reward, but many of them are evil-livers.
:—Qur'an Verse 27, Surah [[Al-Hadid]] (chapter 57)<ref>Qur'an Verse 27, Surah Al-Hadid (chapter 57)</ref></blockquote>

Nevertheless, as [[Christian de Chergé]] laid out in a conference of the [[DIMMID]] in 1995, there are three significant similarities between Muslim and monastic spirituality. Firstly, the central place of obedience in the monastic tradition parallels the importance of surrender or submission in Islam. Secondly, similar to monastic communities which come together several times a day for prayer, Muslims practices ritual prayer (salāt) five times a day. Finally, the [[Lectio Divina]], the meditative reading of Sacred Scripture interpreted as God's word directed to the reader is echoed by the Muslim conviction that in and through the Qur'ān, God speaks to each individual.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Skudlarek, OSB |first1=William |title=Monastic Interreligious Dialogue |url=https://paulist.org/the-conversation/monastic-interreligious-dialogue/ |website=Paulist Fathers |access-date=25 February 2024 |date=2 April 2020 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225150840/https://paulist.org/the-conversation/monastic-interreligious-dialogue/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Islam does encourage one to abstain from pursuing the life of the world solely, but it does not obligate that believers must abandon the worldly life entirely, and this is known as [[zuhd]] in Islam.<ref>{{Cite web |title=zuhd |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/zuhd |website=[[Britannica]]}}</ref> At best, the only monasticism of Islam is Jihad, as mentioned by Hadith and Tafsir. Imam Ahmad recorded that Anas bin Malik said that the Prophet said, "Every Prophet has Rahbaniyyah (monasticism); Jihad in the cause of Allah, the Exalted and Most Honored, is the Rahbaniyyah of this Ummah."<ref name="Tafsir Ibn Kathir (Tafsir of 57:27)">{{cite book |author=Ibn Kathir |title=Tafseer Ibn Kathir |section=Al-Hadid |url=https://archive.org/details/TafseerIbnKathirenglish114SurahsComplete/057Hadid/page/n59/mode/2up?view=theater |page=60 |language=ar, en}}</ref>

==Jainism==
[[File:Ellora, cave 33, Digambar Jain guru (9841591645).jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Digambara]] Jain monks renounce all clothing.]]
{{Main|Jain monasticism|Sādhanā}}
In [[Jainism]], monasticism is encouraged and respected. Rules for monasticism are rather strict. A Jain ascetic has neither a permanent home nor any possessions, wandering barefoot from place to place except during the months of [[Chaturmas]]. The quality of life they lead is difficult because of the many constraints placed on them. They don't use a vehicle for commuting and always commute barefoot from one place to another, irrespective of the distance. They don't possess any materialistic things and also don't use the basic services like that of a phone, electricity etc. They don't prepare food and live only on what people offer them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jainstudy.org/jsc1.99-JainismAtAGlance.htm |title=Jainism At A Glance |first=Mrs. Sushila |last=Singhvi |access-date=9 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726201209/http://www.jainstudy.org/jsc1.99-JainismAtAGlance.htm |archive-date=26 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

==Judaism==
{{See also|Nazirite}} 
[[Judaism]] does not encourage the monastic ideal of celibacy and poverty. To the contrary—all of the [[Torah]]'s [[Mitzvos|commandments]] are a means of sanctifying the physical world. As further disseminated through the teachings of the [[Baal shem tov|Yisrael Ba'al Shem Tov]], the pursuit of permitted physical pleasures is encouraged as a means to "serve God with joy" (Deut. 28:47).

However, until the [[Destruction of the Second Temple]], about two thousand years ago, taking [[Nazirite]] vows was a common feature of the religion. Nazirite [[Jew]]s (in {{langx|he|נזיר}}) abstained from grape products, haircuts, and contact with the dead.<ref>Maimonides ''Mishne Torah Hilkhot Nazirut'' 1:1</ref> However, they did not withdraw from general society, and they were permitted to marry and own property; moreover, in most cases a Nazirite vow was for a specified time period and not permanent.<ref>Maimonides ''Hilkhot Nazirut'' 3:1</ref> In Modern Hebrew, the term "Nazir" is most often used to refer to non-Jewish monastics.

Unique among Jewish communities is the monasticism of the [[Beta Israel]] of Ethiopia, a practice believed to date to the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kribus |first=Verena Krebs, Bar |date=2016-08-09 |title=The Bete Israel monastery of Amba Gualit |url=https://www.jewseast.org/single-post/2016/08/02/the-bete-israel-monastery-of-amba-gualit |access-date=2024-10-03 |website=jewseast |language=de}}</ref>

A form of asceticism was practiced by some individuals in pre–[[World War II]] European [[Ashkenazi Jew]]ish communities. Its principal expression was ''prishut'', the practice of a married [[Talmud]] student going into self-imposed exile from his home and family to study in the [[kollel]] of a different city or town.<ref>[[Yaffa Eliach|Eliach]], Y. ''There Once Was a World'' (Back Bay Books, 1998), p. 780.</ref><ref>{{Cite Tidhar|1|79|הרב יחיאל מיכל טוקצ'ינסקי|title=Rabbi Yechiel Michel Tucazinsky}}</ref> This practice was associated with, but not exclusive to, the [[Perushim]].

The [[Essenes]] (in [[Modern Israeli Hebrew|Modern]] but not in [[Biblical Hebrew|Ancient Hebrew]]: {{Script/Hebrew|אִסִּיִים}}, ''Isiyim''; [[Koine Greek|Greek]]: Εσσηνοι, Εσσαιοι, or Οσσαιοι; ''Essēnoi'', ''Essaioi'', or ''Ossaioi'') were a Jewish [[sect]] that flourished from the second century BC to AD 100 which some scholars claim seceded from the [[Zadokite]] priests.<ref>F. F. Bruce, ''Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls''. Paternoster Press, 1956.</ref> Being much fewer in number than the [[Pharisees]] and the [[Sadducees]] (the other two major sects at the time), the Essenes lived in various cities but congregated in communal life dedicated to [[asceticism]], [[voluntary poverty]], daily immersion (in mikvah), and abstinence from worldly pleasures, including (for some groups) [[marriage]]. Many separate <!-- pagchur?? --> but related religious groups of that era shared similar [[mysticism|mystic]], [[Jewish eschatology|eschatological]], [[Jewish Messiah|messianic]], and [[asceticism|ascetic]] beliefs. These groups are collectively referred to by various scholars as the "Essenes". [[Josephus]] records that Essenes existed in large numbers, and thousands lived throughout [[Judaea (Roman province)|Roman Judaea]].

The [[Essene]]s have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library—although there is no proof that the Essenes wrote them.  These documents include multiple preserved copies of the [[Hebrew Bible]] which were untouched from as early as 300 years before Christ until their discovery in 1946. Some scholars, however, dispute the notion that the Essenes wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls.<ref>Hillel Newman, Ph.D. Bar Ilan University: ''Proximity to Power and Jewish Sectarian Groups of the Ancient Period'', Brill, {{ISBN|90-04-14699-7}}.</ref> [[Rachel Elior]], a prominent [[Israelis|Israeli]] scholar, even questions the existence of the Essenes.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Ofri |last=Ilani |date=13 March 2009 |title=Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed |url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1070797.html |work=[[Haaretz]] |access-date=17 March 2009 |archive-date=18 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418191102/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1070797.html }}</ref><ref name=time20090316>{{Cite news|first=Tim |last=McGirk |date=16 March 2009 |title=Scholar Claims Dead Sea Scrolls 'Authors' Never Existed |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1885421,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320020525/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1885421,00.html |archive-date=20 March 2009 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=17 March 2009}}</ref><ref name=elior-responds>{{cite web |url=http://jwest.wordpress.com/2009/03/15/rachel-elior-responds-to-her-critics/ |title=Rachel Elior Responds to Her Critics |publisher=Jim West |date=15 March 2009 |access-date=17 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321091436/http://jwest.wordpress.com/2009/03/15/rachel-elior-responds-to-her-critics/ |archive-date=21 March 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=March 2009}}

==Sikhism==

While [[Sikhism]] treats [[Kaam|lust]] as a sin, it at the same time points out that man must share the moral responsibility by leading the life of a householder. According to [[Sikhism]], being God-centred while being a householder is better than being an ascetic. According to Sikhism, ascetics are not on the right path.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqIbJz7vMn0C&pg=PA22 | title=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism (over 1000 Entries) | publisher=Hemkunt Press | last=Singha | first=H.S. | year=2000 | page=22 | isbn=978-81-7010-301-1}}</ref> When [[Guru Nanak]] visited [[Nanakmatta|Gorakhmata]], he discussed the true meaning of asceticism with some yogis.<ref name=pruthi>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KxndvJs3wUkC&pg=PA55 | title=Sikhism and Indian Civilization | publisher=Discovery Publishing House | last=Pruthi | first=Raj | year=2004 | page=55 | isbn=978-81-7141-879-4}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|<poem>Asceticism doesn't lie in ascetic robes, or in walking staff, nor in the ashes. Asceticism doesn't lie in the earring, nor in the shaven head, nor blowing a conch. Asceticism lies in remaining pure amidst impurities. Asceticism doesn't lie in mere words; He is an ascetic who treats everyone alike. Asceticism doesn't lie in visiting burial places, It lies not in wandering about, nor in bathing at places of pilgrimage. Asceticism is to remain pure amidst impurities.</poem>|Guru Nanak<ref name=pruthi/>}}

==Taoism==
{{Further|Taoist philosophy|White Cloud Monastery}}

Throughout the centuries, [[Taoism]] especially [[Quanzhen School]], have developed their own extensive monastic traditions and practices. Particularly well-known is the [[White Cloud Monastery]] of [[Dragon Gate Taoism]] in Beijing, which houses a rare complete copy of the ''[[Daozang]]'', the major Taoist Canon.<ref>Schipper, Kristopher. ''The Taoist Body''. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993 [original French version 1982]), p. 220.</ref>

==Other religions or movements==
* [[Ananda Marga]] has both monks and nuns (i.e. [[celibacy|celibate]] male and female [[acharya]]s or [[missionary|missionaries]]) as well as a smaller group of family acharyas. The monks and nuns are engaged in all kinds of direct services to society, so they have no scope for permanent retreat. They do have to follow strict celibacy, poverty and many other rules of conduct during as well as after they have completed their training.
* [[Bön]] is believed to have a rich monastic history. Bön monasteries exist today, and the monks there practice Bön-Buddhism.
* [[Manichaeism]] had two types of followers, the auditors, and the elect. The elect lived apart from the auditors to concentrate on reducing the material influences of the world. They did this through strict celibacy, poverty, teaching, and preaching. Therefore, the elect were probably at least partially monastic.
* [[Scientology]] maintains a "fraternal order" called the Sea Organization or just [[Sea Org]]. They work only for the [[Church of Scientology]] and have signed billion year contracts. Sea Org members live communally with lodging, food, clothing, and medical care provided by the Church.
* [[Sikhism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and the [[Baháʼí Faith]] specifically forbid the practice of monasticism. Hence there are no Sikh, Zoroastrian, or Baháʼí monk conclaves or brotherhoods.
* [[Quanzhen School]] of [[Taoism]] has [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s<ref>[http://220.178.21.125/xkjyck/uploads/pdfdata/2010/20110315074257325.pdf 全真道是道教发展史上的一个革新派]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://game.dsyd.cn/sywz/qikan/qikan/Shehuikexueyanjiu/shyj2008/shyj20080122.html|title=论宋元道教的社会化存在形态|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130731153002/http://game.dsyd.cn/sywz/qikan/qikan/Shehuikexueyanjiu/shyj2008/shyj20080122.html|archive-date=31 July 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* [[Way of Former Heaven]] sect of [[Zhaijiao]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gaya.org.tw/journal/m21-22/21-main3-2.htm|title=gaya/佛教圖書館館訊/第二十一／二十二期/關於臺灣佛教寺院調查之出版概論|website=www.gaya.org.tw|access-date=31 July 2013|archive-date=16 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216163041/http://www.gaya.org.tw/journal/m21-22/21-main3-2.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The [[Transcendental Meditation movement]] sponsors two monastic groups: the Thousand-Headed Purusha for men and the Mother Divine for women.<ref name=Williamson>{{Cite book|last=Williamson|first=Lola |title=Transcendent in America:Hindu-Inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion |url=https://archive.org/details/transcendentamer00will|url-access=limited|publisher=NYU Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8147-9450-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/transcendentamer00will/page/n117 103]}}</ref> The US residences for the groups were in Heavenly Mountain, North Carolina.<ref name=Williamson/> There is also a Purusha program at an [[ashram]] in [[Uttarkashi]], India.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.goerie.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070811/LIFESTYLES03/708110323/-1/RSS|last=Massing|first=Dana|title=TM quiets mind, rests body says Erie man|work=Erie Times-News|date=August 11, 2007|page=1|access-date=7 October 2010|archive-date=6 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606224249/http://www.goerie.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070811/LIFESTYLES03/708110323/-1/RSS|url-status=live}}</ref> The Global Mother Divine Organization describes itself as the women's wing of the [[Global Country of World Peace]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gmdousa.org/indigenous-grandmothers/aboutus.html|archive-date=30 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130045613/http://gmdousa.org/indigenous-grandmothers/aboutus.html|title=The Global Mother Divine Organization: About Us|publisher=gmdousa.org|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Asceticism]]
* [[Double monastery]]
* [[Guru]]
* [[Hermit]]
* [[Mendicant]]
* [[Religious order]]
* [[Sādhanā]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Fafinski, Mateusz, and Jakob Riemenschneider. ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/abs/monasticism-and-the-city-in-late-antiquity-and-the-early-middle-ages/38CBB3E9ED81B916BB54A6FF4037C778 Monasticism and the City in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416192023/https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/abs/monasticism-and-the-city-in-late-antiquity-and-the-early-middle-ages/38CBB3E9ED81B916BB54A6FF4037C778 |date=16 April 2024 }}''. Elements in Late Antique Religion 2. Cambridge: Camabridge University Press, 2023.
* Fracchia, Charles. ''Living Together Alone: The New American Monasticism''. Harper & Row, 1979. {{ISBN|0-06-063011-6}}.
* Gruber, Mark. 2003. ''Sacrifice In the Desert: A Study of an Egyptian Minority Through the Lens of Coptic Monasticism''. Lanham: University Press of America. {{ISBN|0-7618-2539-8}}
* Johnston, William M. (ed.). 2000. ''Encyclopedia of Monasticism''. 2 vols., Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
* Knowles, David. ''Christian Monasticism''. London: World University Library, 1969
* Lawrence, C. H. 2001. ''Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages'' (3rd ed.). New York: Longmans. {{ISBN|0-582-40427-4}}
* [[George Zarnecki|Zarnecki, George.]] 1985. "The Monastic World: The Contributions of the Orders". pp.&nbsp;36–66, in Evans, Joan (ed.). 1985. ''The Flowering of the Middle Ages.'' London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{EB1911 poster|Monasticism}}
* [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8733 The Hermits by Charles Kingsley (Gutenberg)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221153119/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8733 |date=21 February 2021 }}
* [http://st-takla.org/Links/Coptic-Links-04_Monasteries.html Links to Coptic Orthodox Monasteries of Egypt and the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050224091759/http://st-takla.org/Links/Coptic-Links-04_Monasteries.html |date=24 February 2005 }}
* [http://www.historyfish.net/monastics/monastics.html Historyfish.net: texts and articles regarding the Western Christian monastic tradition.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090102223829/http://historyfish.net/monastics/monastics.html |date=2 January 2009 }}
* [http://www.historyfish.net/monastics/monasticlife.html Abbot Gasquet's English Monastic Life. Full Text + Illustrations.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223151651/http://www.historyfish.net/monastics/monasticlife.html |date=23 February 2009 }}
* [http://www.historyfish.net/abbeys/photochrom_abbeys.html Public Domain Photochrom photographs, Abbeys, Cathedrals, Holy Sites and the Holy Land.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090104080035/http://historyfish.net/abbeys/photochrom_abbeys.html |date=4 January 2009 }}
* [http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab88 History of Monasticism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928044932/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab88 |date=28 September 2006 }}
* [http://doc0mr.tripod.com/id23.html Monasticism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214002708/http://doc0mr.tripod.com/id23.html |date=14 February 2021 }} Immaculate Heart of Mary's Hermitage
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061105212858/http://www.atmajyoti.org/mo_woman.asp "Woman"&nbsp;– The correct perspective for the monastic]&nbsp;– An eastern point of view
* [http://www.americanbenedictine.org American Benedictines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430063731/http://www.americanbenedictine.org/ |date=30 April 2021 }}
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