View source for Mohawk language

{{short description|Iroquoian language spoken by Mohawks in the United States and Canada}}
{{About|the language spoken by the Mohawk people||Mohawk (disambiguation){{!}}Mohawk}}
{{Infobox language
|name = Mohawk
|nativename = {{lang|moh|Kanienʼkéha<br />Kanyenʼkéha}}
|pronunciation = {{IPA|moh|ɡa.njʌ̃ʔ.ˈɡe.ha|}}
|states = [[United States]], [[Canada]]
|region = [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]] and northern [[New York (state)|New York]]
|ethnicity = [[Mohawk people]]
|speakers = 3,875
|date = 2011–2016
|ref = <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/moh|title=Mohawk|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-06-09|language=en}}</ref><ref name="census">{{Cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=112132&PRID=10&PTYPE=109445&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2017&THEME=122&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|title=Aboriginal Mother Tongue (90), Single and Multiple Mother Tongue Responses (3), Aboriginal Identity (9), Registered or Treaty Indian Status (3) and Age (12) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2016 Census - 25% Sample Data|last=Canada|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca|date=28 March 2018|language=en|access-date=2018-06-09}}</ref>
|familycolor = American
|fam1 = [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]]
|fam2 = Northern
|fam3 = Lake Iroquoian
|fam4 = Five Nations
|fam5 = Mohawk–[[Oneida language|Oneida]]
|iso2 = moh
|iso3 = moh
|glotto = moha1258
|glottorefname = Mohawk
|notice = IPA
|map = Mohawklang.jpg
|mapcaption = Current distribution of Mohawk speakers in the [[United States]]
| map2              = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
| mapcaption2       = {{center|{{small|Mohawk is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}
}}

'''Mohawk''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|oʊ|h|ɔː|k|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Mohawk.wav}})<ref>Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student's Handbook'', Edinburgh</ref> or {{lang|moh|'''Kanienʼkéha'''}} ('[language] of the Flint Place') is an [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian language]] currently spoken by around 3,500 people of the [[Mohawk people|Mohawk nation]], located primarily in current or former [[Haudenosaunee]] territories, predominantly in [[Canada]] (southern [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]]), and to a lesser extent in the [[United States]] (western and northern [[New York (state)|New York]]). The word "Mohawk" is an [[exonym]]. In the Mohawk language, the people say that they are from {{lang|moh|Kanien:ke}} ('Mohawk Country' or 'Flint Stone Place') and that they are {{lang|moh|Kanienʼkehá꞉ka}} ('People of the Flint Stone Place' or 'People of the Flint Nation').<ref name="First3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstvoices.com/sections/Kanienkeha-Mohawk-EN|title=FirstVoices|website=www.firstvoices.com|access-date=Sep 3, 2020}}</ref>

The Mohawks were extremely wealthy traders, as other nations in their confederacy needed their flint for tool-making. Their Algonquian-speaking neighbors (and competitors), the People of ''Muh-heck Heek Ing'' ('food-area place'), a people called by the Dutch "[[Mohicans]]" or "Mahicans", called the People of Ka-nee-en Ka "Maw Unk Lin" or 'Bear People'. The Dutch heard and wrote that as "Mohawks" and so the People of Kan-ee-en Ka are often referred to as ''Mohawks''. The Dutch also referred to the Mohawk as ''Egils'' or ''Maquas''. The [[French people|French]] adapted those terms as ''Aigniers'' or ''Maquis'', or called them by the generic ''Iroquois''.{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}}

==History==
The Mohawks were the largest and most powerful of the original [[Iroquois|Five Nations]], controlling a vast area of land on the eastern frontier of the Iroquois Confederacy. The [[North Country, New York|North Country]] and [[Adirondacks|Adirondack]] region of present-day [[Upstate New York]] would have constituted the greater part of the Mohawk-speaking area lasting until the end of the 18th century.

==Current status==
[[File:Mohawk language stop sign.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Mohawk language stop sign]]
The Mohawk language is currently classified as threatened, and the number of native speakers has continually declined over the past several years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/moh/|title=Redirected|date=19 November 2019}}</ref>

Mohawk has the largest number of speakers among the [[Iroquois|Northern Iroquoian]] languages, and today it is the only one with more than a thousand remaining speakers.  At [[Akwesasne]], residents have founded a language immersion school (pre-K to grade 8) in ''Kanienʼkéha'' to revive the language. With their children learning it, parents and other family members are taking language classes, too.

The radio station [[CKON-FM]] (97.3 on-air in [[Hogansburg, New York]] and [[Saint Regis, Quebec]] and widely available online through streaming), licensed by the Akwesasne Mohawk Nation, broadcasts portions of its programming in ''Kanienʼkéha''. The call sign is a reference to the Mohawk word "sekon" (or "she:kon"), which means "hello".

A Mohawk language immersion school was established.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mohawkcommunity.com/languageimmersion.html|title=Kanatsiohareke Mohawk Community|website=www.mohawkcommunity.com|access-date=Sep 3, 2020}}</ref> Mohawk parents, concerned with the lack of culture-based education in public and parochial schools, founded the Akwesasne Freedom School in 1979. Six years later, the school implemented a Mohawk language immersion curriculum based on a traditional cycle of fifteen seasonal ceremonies, and on the Mohawk [[Haudenosaunee Thanksgiving Address|Thanksgiving Address]], or Ohén꞉ton Karihwatékwen, "The words before all else." Every morning, teachers and students gather in the hallway to recite the Thanksgiving Address in Mohawk.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ourmothertongues.org/language/Mohawk/7|title=Our Mother Tongues &#124; Mohawk|first=Our Mother|last=Tongues|website=ourmothertongues.org|access-date=Sep 3, 2020}}</ref>

An adult immersion program was also created in 1985 to address the issue of intergenerational fluency decline of the Mohawk language.<ref>http://mje.mcgill.ca/article/view/8645. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034251/http://mje.mcgill.ca/article/view/8645 |date=2017-12-01 }}</ref>

'''Kanatsiohareke''' (Gah-nah-jo-ha-lay-gay), meaning "Place of the clean pot", is a small Mohawk community on the north bank of the [[Mohawk River]], west of [[Fonda, New York]].<sup>[[Kanatsiohareke#cite note-1|[1]]]</sup> Kanatsiohareke was created to be a "[[Carlisle Indian Boarding School]] in Reverse", teaching Mohawk language and culture.<sup>[[Kanatsiohareke|[2]]]</sup> Located at the ancient homeland of the Kanienkehaka (Mohawk), it was re-established in September 1993 under the leadership of Thomas R. Porter (Sakokwenionkwas-"The One Who Wins").<sup>[[Kanatsiohareke#cite note-3|[3]]]</sup> The community must raise their own revenue and frequently hold cultural presentations, workshops, and academic events, including an annual Strawberry Festival.<sup>[[Kanatsiohareke#cite note-4|[4]]]</sup> A craft shop on site features genuine handmade Native crafts from all over North America.

The primary mission of the community is to try to preserve traditional values, culture, language and lifestyles in the guidance of the ''Kaienerekowa'' (Great Law of Peace).<sup>[[Kanatsiohareke#cite note-5|[5]]]</sup> Kanatsiohareke, Inc. is a [[non-profit organization]] under IRS code 501(c)(3).

In 2006, over 600 people were reported to speak the language in Canada, many of them elderly.<ref name="ReferenceA">Statistics Canada, 2006 Census of Population, Statistics Canada catalogue no. 97-558-XCB2006015</ref>

[[Kahnawake]] is located at a metropolitan location, near central [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], Canada. As Kahnawake is located near Montreal, many individuals speak both English and French, and this has contributed to a decline in the use of Mohawk language over the past century. The Mohawk Survival School, the first immersion program was established in 1979. The school's mission was to revitalize Mohawk language. To examine how successful the program had been, questionnaire was given to the Kahnawake residents following the first year. The results indicated that teaching towards younger generation have been successful and showed an increase in the ability to speak the language in private settings, as well as an increase in the mixing of Mohawk in English conversations were found.<ref>http://www3.brandonu.ca/cjns/12.2/hoover.pdf. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106174344/http://www3.brandonu.ca/cjns/12.2/hoover.pdf |date=2017-01-06 }}</ref>

===Current number of speakers===
In 2011, there were approximately 3,500 speakers of Mohawk, primarily in Quebec, Ontario and western New York.<ref>Moseley, Christopher and R. E. Asher, ed. ''Atlas of World Languages'' (New York: Routelege, 1994) p. 7</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mohawk|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/moh|website=Ethnologue|access-date=Jan 26, 2016}}</ref> Immersion (monolingual) classes for young children at [[Akwesasne]] and other reserves are helping to train new first-language speakers. The importance of immersion classes among parents grew after the passage of [[Charter of the French Language|Bill 101]], and in 1979 the Mohawk Survival School was established to facilitate language training at the high school level.<ref>{{cite report |author= Michael Hoover|title= The Revival of the Mohawk Language in Kahnawake |url= http://www3.brandonu.ca/cjns/12.2/hoover.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news
| last = Tanya Lee
| title = Ambitious and Controversial School Attempts to Save the Mohawk Language and Culture
| work = Indian Country Today Media Network
| access-date = 2013-02-08
| date = 2012-07-29
| url = http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/article/ambitious-and-controversial-school-attempts-to-save-the-mohawk-language-and-culture-126169
}}</ref> [[Kahnawake]] and [[Kanatsiohareke]] offer immersion classes for adults.<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Sam Slotnick
| title = Learning More Than a Language : Intensive Kanienʼkéha Course a Powerful Link for Mohawk Community
| work = The Link: Concordia's Independent Newspaper Sonce 1980
| access-date = 2013-02-08
| url = http://thelinknewspaper.ca/article/3962
}}</ref><ref>
{{Cite news
| last = Kay Olan
| title = Kanatsiohareke, Language and Survival
| work = Indian Country Today Media Network
| access-date = 2013-02-08
| date = 2011-06-16
| url = http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/opinion/kanatsiohareke%2C-language-and-survival-38706
}}</ref> In the 2016 Canadian census, 875 people said Mohawk was their only mother tongue.<ref name="census"/>

===Usage in popular culture===
Mohawk dialogue features prominently in [[Ubisoft Montreal]]'s 2012 [[Action-adventure game|action-adventure]] [[open world]] video game ''[[Assassin's Creed III]]'', through the game's main character, the half-Mohawk, half-Welsh [[Ratonhnhaké꞉ton]], also called Connor, and members of his native [[Mohawk people#Mohawk communities today|Kanièn꞉ke]] village around the times of the [[American Revolution]]. Ratonhnhaké꞉ton was voiced and modelled by [[Crow tribe|Crow]] actor [[Noah Watts|Noah Bulaagawish Watts]]. [[Hiawatha]], the leader of the [[Iroquois|Iroquoian]] civilization in ''[[Sid Meier's Civilization V]]'', voiced by Kanentokon Hemlock, speaks Mohawk.

The stories of Mohawk language learners are also chronicled in 'Raising The Words', a short documentary film released in 2016 that explores personal experiences with Mohawk language revitalization in [[Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory|Tyendinaga]], a Mohawk community roughly 200 kilometres east of [[Toronto]], Ontario, Canada.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.raisingthewords.com/about/ |title=About — Raising the Words |access-date=2017-01-07 |archive-date=2017-01-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108002019/http://www.raisingthewords.com/about/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The film was set to be shown at the 4th annual Ethnografilm festival in [[Paris, France]].

The Mohawk language is used in the 2017 film ''[[Mohawk (2017 film)|Mohawk]]'', the 1991 film ''[[Black Robe (film)|Black Robe]]'', and the 2020 television series ''[[Barkskins (TV series)|Barkskins]]''.

The language was used throughout in the [[Marvel Studios]] animated series ''[[What If...? (TV series)|What If...?]]'', in the [[What If...? season 2|season 2]] episode "[[What If... Kahhori Reshaped the World?]]", where they introduce an original Mohawk superhero named Kahhori.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Graves |first=Sabina |date=March 9, 2023 |title=Marvel's ''What If?'' Season 2 Will Introduce a Brand New Mohawk Hero |url=https://gizmodo.com/marvel-studios-what-if-introduces-new-super-hero-1850208638 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309223716/https://gizmodo.com/marvel-studios-what-if-introduces-new-super-hero-1850208638 |archive-date=March 9, 2023 |access-date=December 27, 2023 |website=[[Gizmodo]]}}</ref>

==Dialects==
Mohawk has three major dialects: Western ({{lang|moh|Ohswé:ken}} and {{lang|moh|Kenhté:ke}}), Central ({{lang|moh|Ahkwesáhsne}}), and Eastern ({{lang|moh|Kahnawà꞉ke}} and {{lang|moh|Kanehsatà꞉ke}}); the differences between them are largely phonological. These are related to the major Mohawk territories since the eighteenth century. The pronunciation of {{IPA|/r/}} and several consonant clusters may differ in the dialects.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
!&nbsp;
!Phonology
!Western
!Central
!Eastern
|-
!''seven''
|{{IPA|/tsjáːta/}}
|{{IPA|[ˈd͡ʒaːda]}}
|{{IPA|[ˈd͡ʒaːda]}}
|{{IPA|[ˈd͡zaːda]}}
|-
!''nine''
|{{IPA|/tjóhton/}}
|{{IPA|[ˈdjɔhdũ]}}
|{{IPA|[ˈɡjɔhdũ]}}
|{{IPA|[ˈd͡ʒɔhdũ]}}
|-
!''I fall''
|{{IPA|/kjaʔtʌʔs/}}
|{{IPA|[ˈɡjàːdʌ̃ʔs]}}
|{{IPA|[ˈɡjàːdʌ̃ʔs]}}
|{{IPA|[ˈd͡ʒàːdʌ̃ʔs]}}
|-
!''dog''
|{{IPA|/érhar/}}
|{{IPA|[ˈɛrhar]}}
|{{IPA|[ˈɛlhal]}}
|{{IPA|[ˈɛːɽhaɽ]}}
|}

==Phonology==
{{IPA notice|section}}
The phoneme inventory of Mohawk is as follows (using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]).

===Consonants===
A [[Linguistic typology|typologically]] uncommon feature of Mohawk (and Iroquoian) phonology is that there are no [[labial consonant|labials]] (m, p, b, f, v), except in a few adoptions from French and English, where {{IPA|[m]}} and {{IPA|[p]}} appear (e.g., {{lang|moh|mátsis}} "matches" and {{lang|moh|aplám}} "Abraham"); these sounds are late additions to Mohawk phonology and were introduced after widespread European contact.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Mohawk Consonants
!
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|n}}
| || ||
|-
! [[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
| {{IPA link|t}} ({{IPA link|d}})
|
| {{IPA link|k}} ({{IPA link|ɡ}})
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
|
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
| ||
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| {{IPA link|s}} ({{IPA link|z}})
| ||
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| {{IPA link|l}} / {{IPA link|r}}
| {{IPA link|j}}
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|}

====Consonant clusters====
The Central ({{lang|moh|Ahkwesáhsne}}) dialect has the following consonant clusters. 
All clusters can occur word-medially; those on a tinted background can also occur word-initially.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! 1st↓ · 2nd→ !! t !! k !! s !! h !! l !! n !! d͡ʒ !! j !! w
|-
! t
| tt || style="background:#FFDFBF"| tk
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| ts
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| th || || || || ||
|-
! k
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| kt
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| kk
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| ks
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| kh || || || || || kw
|-
! ʔ
| ʔt || ʔk || ʔs || || ʔl || ʔn || ʔd͡ʒ || ʔj || ʔw
|-
! s
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| st
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| sk || ss
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| sh
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| sl
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| sn ||
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| sj
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| sw
|-
! h
| ht || hk || hs ||
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| hl || hn || hd͡ʒ || hj || hw
|-
! l
| || || || lh || || || || lj ||
|-
! n
| || || || nh || nl || ||
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| nj ||
|-
! d͡ʒ
| || || || || || ||
| style="background:#FFDFBF"| d͡ʒj ||
|-
! w
| || || || wh || || || || ||
|}

Note that /th/ and /sh/ are pronounced individually in consonant clusters, ''not'' single sounds like in English ⟨th⟩ and ⟨sh⟩ in ''thing'' and ''she''.

====Consonant voicing====
The consonants {{IPA|/k/, /t/}} and the clusters {{IPA|/ts kw/}} are pronounced voiced before any voiced sound (i.e. a vowel or {{IPA|/j/}}). They are voiceless at the end of a word or before a voiceless sound. {{IPA|/s/}} is voiced word initially and between vowels.

:{{lang|moh|kà꞉sere}} {{IPA|[ˈɡǎːzɛrɛ]}} "car"
:{{lang|moh|thí꞉ken}} {{IPA|[ˈthǐːɡʌ̃]}} "that"
:{{lang|moh|shé꞉kon}} {{IPA|[ˈshɛ̌ːɡũ]}} "still"

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|High]]
|{{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|iː}}
|
|{{IPA link|ũ}} {{IPA link|ũː}}
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|eː}}
|{{IPA link|ʌ̃}} {{IPA link|ʌ̃ː}}
|{{IPA link|o}} {{IPA link|oː}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Low]]
|
|{{IPA link|a|}} {{IPA link|aː}}
|
|}

Mohawk has oral and [[Nasal vowel|nasalized vowels]]; four vowel qualities occur in oral [[phoneme]]s {{IPA|/i e a o/}}, and two only occur as nasalized vowels ({{IPA|/ʌ̃ ũ/}}). Vowels can be long or short.

===[[Suprasegmental]]s===
==== Stress, length, and tone ====
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2023}}
Mohawk words have both stress and [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], and it can be classified as a restricted tone system (aka [[Pitch-accent language|pitch-accent]] system). [[Stress (linguistics)|Stressed]] vowels carry one of four tonal configurations, two of which are [[Tone contour|contour tones]]: high, low, rising and falling tones. Contour tones only occur in syllables with long vowels.
*High tone usually appears in closed syllables containing a short vowel, or before {{IPA|/h/}}. It is written with an acute accent: {{lang|moh|káhi}} {{IPA|/ˈkáhi/}} {{gloss|fruit}}, {{lang|moh|oháha}} {{IPA|/oˈháha/}} {{gloss|road}}.
*Rising tone generally occurs in open syllables. It is written with a combination acute accent and colon: {{lang|moh|kaná꞉ta}} /kaˈnáːta/ {{gloss|town}}, {{lang|moh|rón꞉kwe}} /ˈrṹːkwe/ {{gloss|man}}. Notice that when it is one of the nasal vowels which is long, the colon appears after the {{angbr|n}}.
*Long-falling tone is the result of the word stress falling on a vowel which comes before a {{IPA|/ʔ/}} or {{IPA|/h/}} + a consonant (there may be, of course, exceptions to this and other rules). The underlying {{IPA|/ʔ/}} or {{IPA|/h/}} reappears when stress is placed elsewhere. It is written with a grave accent and colon: {{lang|moh|onekwèn꞉ta}} {{IPA|/oneˈkwʌ̃̂ːta/}} {{gloss|stomach}}.

== Orthography ==
[[File:Trilingual plaque on the Grand River, Cambridge, Ontario.jpg|thumb|Plaque in English, Mohawk, and French describing the Grand River. Plaque located in Galt, Cambridge, Ontario]]
Mohawk orthography was standardized in 1993.<ref name="Standarization">{{Cite web |title="Mohawk Language Standardization Project", Kanienkehaka |url=http://www.kanienkehaka.com/msp/msp.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202234850/http://www.kanienkehaka.com/msp/msp.htm |archive-date=2013-12-02 |access-date=2006-11-05}}</ref> The orthography uses the following letters: ⟨Aa Ee Hh Ii Kk Ll Nn Rr Ss Tt Ww Yy⟩ and {{vr|’}}. It uses diacritics for tone, stress, and vowel duration, along with three [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]: ⟨ts en on⟩ for /d͡ʒ ʌ̃ ũ/, respectively. 

The standard allows for some variation of how the language is represented, and the clusters {{IPA|/ts(i)/}}, {{IPA|/tj/}}, and {{IPA|/ky/}} are written as pronounced in each community. The orthography matches the phonological analysis as above except:
*The glottal stop {{IPA|/ʔ/}} is written with an apostrophe {{vr|ʼ}}, but is often omitted at the end of words, especially in Eastern dialect where it is typically not pronounced.
*{{IPA|/dʒ/}}
**Written {{vr|ts}} in the Eastern dialect (reflecting pronunciation), as in {{lang|moh|tsá꞉ta}} {{IPA|[ˈdzǎːda]}} "seven".
**Written {{vr|tsi}} in the Central dialect, as in {{lang|moh|tsiá꞉ta}} {{IPA|[ˈdʒǎːda]}} "seven".
**Written {{vr|tsy}} in the Western dialect, as in {{lang|moh|tsyá꞉ta}} {{IPA|[ˈdʒǎːda]}} "seven".
*{{IPA|/j/}}
**Typically written with {{vr|i}} in the Central and Eastern dialects, as in {{lang|moh|ià꞉iaʼk}} {{IPA|[ˈjâːjaʔk]}} "six".
**Typically written with a {{vr|y}} in the Western dialect, as in {{lang|moh|yà꞉yaʼk}} {{IPA|[ˈjâːjaʔk]}} "six".
*The nasalized vowel {{IPA|/ʌ̃/}} is written as {{vr|en}}, as in {{lang|moh|énska}} {{IPA|[ˈʌ̃́nska]}} "one".
*The nasalized vowel {{IPA|/ũ/}} is written {{vr|on}}, as in {{lang|moh|shaʼté꞉kon}} {{IPA|[shaʔˈdɛ̌ːɡũ]}} "eight".
*In cases where the vowel {{IPA|/e/}} or {{IPA|/o/}} is followed by an {{IPA|/n/}} in the same syllable, the {{IPA|/n/}} is written with an under-macron diacritic: {{lang|moh|keṉhó꞉tons}} "I am closing a door". If the {{vr|ṉ}} did not have the diacritic, the sequence {{vr|en}} would be pronounced {{IPA|[ʌ̃]}}. Another convention is to write the nasal vowel with an [[ogonek]], e.g. {{vr|ę}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mohawk Language - Ohwejagehka Hadegaenage |url=http://www.ohwejagehka.com/mohawk/ |access-date=Sep 3, 2020 |website=www.ohwejagehka.com}}</ref>
The low-macron accent is not a part of standard orthography and is not used in the Central or Eastern dialects. In standard orthography, {{vr|h}} is written before {{vr|n}} to create the {{IPA|[en]}} or {{IPA|[on]}}: {{lang|moh|kehnhó꞉tons}} 'I am closing it'.

==Grammar==
[[File:Mohawk no-swimming sign.jpg|thumb|A warning sign in Mohawk]]

Mohawk words tend to be longer on average than words in English, primarily because they consist of a large number of [[morphemes]].

Mohawk expresses a number of distinctions on its pronominal elements: person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular, dual, plural), gender (masculine, feminine/indefinite, feminine/neuter) and [[Inclusive and exclusive we|inclusivity/exclusivity]] on the first person dual and plural. Pronominal information is encoded in prefixes on the verbs; separate pronoun words are used for emphasis. There are three main paradigms of pronominal prefixes: subjective (with dynamic verbs), objective (with stative verbs), and transitive.

There are three core components to the Mohawk proposition: the noun, the predicate, and the particle.<ref name=":0"/>

Mohawk words can be composed of many morphemes. What is expressed in English in many words can often be expressed by just one Mohawk word, a phenomenon known as [[polysynthetic language|polysynthesis]].

===Nouns===
Nouns are given the following form in Mohawk:<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = A Grammar Of Awkwesasne Mohawk|last = Bonvillain|first = Nancy|publisher = National Museum of Man, National Museums of Canada|year = 1973}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = A Thousand Words Of Mohawk|last = Michelson|first = Günther|publisher = National Museum of Man, National Museums Of Canada|year = 1973}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = One thousand useful Mohawk words|last = Maracle|first = David|publisher = Audio-Forum|location = Guilford, Conn}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!Nominal Prefix
!Noun Stem
!Nominal Suffix
|}

Noun prefixes give information relating to gender, animacy, number and person, and identify the word as a noun.

For example:

1) '''oʼ'''nenste   "corn"

2) '''o'''ienʼkwa  "tobacco"

Here, the prefix  ''o-'' is generally found on nouns found in natural environments. Another prefix exists which marks objects that are made by humans.

3) '''ka'''nhoha     "door"

4) '''kaʼ'''khare  "slip, skirt"

Here, the prefix ''ka-'' is generally found on human-made things. Phonological variation amongst the Mohawk dialects also gives rise to the prefix ''ga-''.

Noun roots are similar to nouns in English in that the noun root in Mohawk and the noun in English have similar meanings.

(Caughnawaha)

5) –eri-  "heart"

6) –hi- "river"

7) –itshat- "cloud"

These noun roots are bare. There is no information other than the noun root itself. Morphemes cannot occur individually. That is, to be well-formed and grammatical, ''-eri-'' needs pronominal prefixes, or the root can be incorporated into a predicate phrase.

Nominal suffixes are not necessary for a well-formed noun phrase. The suffixes give information relating to location and attributes. For example:

Locative Suffix:

8) i. onuʼtaʼ              "hill"

ii. onutaʼ'''ke'''  "'''on''' the hill"

9) i. onekwvhsaʼ       "blood"

ii. onekwvhsaʼ'''ke'''   "'''in''' the blood"

Here the suffix < -ke > denotes location.

Attributive Suffix:

10) kvjyʼ                  "fish"

11) kvjaʼ'''koʼwa'''       "sturgeon" or "big fish"

Here, the suffix ''-koʼwa'' denotes an augmentative suffix, which increases the attribute of the noun in question.

===Verbs===
Mohawk verbs are one of the more complex parts of the language, composed of many morphemes that describe grammatical relations. The verb takes the following structure:<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
{| class="wikitable"
!Pre-Pronominal Prefix
!Pronominal Prefix
!Reflexive And Reciprocal Particle
!Incorporated Noun Root
!Verb Root
!Suffixes
|}
Mohawk grammar allows for whole prepositions to be expressed by one word, which we classify as a verb. The other core elements (subjects, objects, etc.) can be [[incorporation (linguistics)|incorporated]] into the verb. Well-formed verb phrases contain at the bare minimum a verb root and a pronominal prefix. The rest of the elements are not necessary.

Tense, aspect and [[linguistic modality|modality]] are expressed via suffixes on the verb phrase as well.

Some examples:

{{interlinear|number=(12)
|top= katorats
|k- atorat- s
|1SG- hunt HAB
|"I hunt"}}

This is composed of three parts; the pronominal prefix, the verb root and a suffix which marks aspect. Mohawk seems to prefer aspect markers to tense to express grammaticalisation in time.

{{interlinear|number=(13)|abbreviations=TRLOC:translocative
|top= nyaʼtsvshayayaʼkeʼ
|n-  yaʼ-  t-  v-   s-    ha-   yahyaʼk- eʼ
|PTV TRLOC DU- FUT- ITER- noun- verb-    {root suffix}
|"…where he will cross over again from here to there…"}}

This example shows multiple prefixes that can be affixed to the verb root, but certain affixes are forbidden from coexisting together. For example, the aorist and the future tense affix will not be found on the same well-formed sentence.

{{interlinear|number=(14)|abbreviations=ROOT:root
|top= vsenataraʼ
|v- se- natahr- aʼ
|FUT NOM-PRO VB-ROOT {momentary ASP suffix}
|"You will make a visit"}}

{{interlinear|number=(15)|abbreviations=ROOT:root
|top= asenataraʼ
|a-   se-     natahr-  aʼ
|COND NOM-PRO VB-ROOT {momentary suffix}
|"You should make a visit"}}

{{interlinear|number=(16)|abbreviations=ROOT:root
|top= sanatahruneʼ
|sa-     natahr- u-   hneʼ
|ACC-PRO VB-ROOT STAT {momentary suffix}
|"You were visiting"}}

Here, different prefixes and suffixes are used that mark tense, aspect and modality.

Most grammatical relations in Mohawk are expressed through various different affixes onto a verb. Subjects, objects, and relationships between subjects and objects are given their own affixes. In Mohawk, each transitive relationship between subjects and objects are given their own prefix. For example:

{{interlinear|number=(17a)
|ku- noruhkwa
|I-you love
|"I love you"}}

{{interlinear|number=(17b)
|ri- noruhkwa
|I-him love
|"I love him"}}

{{interlinear|number=(17c)
|ke- noruhkwa
|I-it/her love
|"I love it/her"}}

Each of these affixes are denoting a transitive relationship between two things. There are more affixes for denoting transitive relationships like "we-they", they-us (inclusive/exclusive), etc.

===Noun incorporation===

One of the features of Mohawk called ''noun incorporation'' allows a verb to absorb a noun into it. When incorporation happens, an epenthetic ''a'' can appear between the noun root and the verb root.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> For example:

{{interlinear |number=18)
|Owiraʼa wahrakeʼ ne oʼwahru
|Baby      ate        the  meat
|}}

With noun incorporation:

{{interlinear |number=19)
|Owiraʼa wah'''a'''ʼwahrakeʼ
|Baby     meat-ate
|}}

{{interlinear |number=20)
|top= Waʼeksohareʼ
|waʼe -ks -ohareʼ
|{} dish wash
|"She dish-washed"}}

{{interlinear |number=21)
|top= Waʼkenakt'''a'''hninuʼ
|waʼke -nakt -a -hninuʼ
|{} bed increment buy
|"I bed-bought"}}

{{interlinear |number=22)
|top= Wahanaʼtar'''a'''kwetareʼ
|waha -naʼtar -a -kwetareʼ
|{} bread increment -cut
|"He bread-cut"}}

Most of these examples take the epenthetic vowel ''a''; it can be omitted if the incorporated noun does not give rise a complex consonant cluster in the middle of the word.

==Education==
[[Six Nations Polytechnic]] in [[Ohsweken, Ontario]], offers [[Iroquoian languages|Ogwehoweh language]] diploma and degree programs in Mohawk or [[Cayuga language|Cayuga]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snpolytechnic.com/programs-courses/university|title=University Program|website=Six Nations Polytechnic|date=21 December 2016|accessdate=December 3, 2021}}</ref>

Since September 2017, the [[University of Waterloo]] in [[Waterloo, Ontario]], Offers a credit course in Mohawk; the classes are given at [[Renison University College]] in collaboration with the Waterloo Aboriginal Education Centre, [[St. Paul's University College]].<ref name=Bueckert>{{cite news |title=Mohawk language course to be offered for 1st time at UW |work=CBC News |author= Bueckert, Kate |date=17 Aug 2017 |access-date=17 Aug 2017 |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/mohawk-course-kanienkeha-renison-university-waterloo-1.4249770?cmp=rss}}</ref>

Resources are available for self-study of Mohawk by a person with no or limited access to native speakers of Mohawk. Here is a collection of some resources currently [as of when?] available:

*''Talk Mohawk'', an [[iPhone app]] and [[Android app]], includes words, phrases, and the Thanksgiving Address from Monica Peters 
* ''Rosetta Stone levels 1 and 2'' (CD-ROM) edited by Frank and Carolee Jacobs and produced by the [http://www.korkahnawake.org/ Kanienʼkehá꞉ka Onkwawén꞉na Raotitióhkwa Language and Cultural Center at Kahnawà꞉ke] (secondary/high school level)
* A collection of 33 vocabulary lessons provided by the Mohawk Language Custodian Association. [http://www.kanehsatakevoices.com/lessons/lesson-1/ Lesson Collection at KanehsatakeVoices.com]
* David Kanatawakhon Maracle, ''Kanyenʼkeha Tewatati (Let's Speak Mohawk)'', {{ISBN|0-88432-723-X}} (book and 3 companion tapes are available from [https://web.archive.org/web/20181005011047/http://www.audioforum.com/ Audio Forum]) (high school/college level)
* Nancy Bonvillain, ''A Grammar of Akwesasne Mohawk'' (professional level)
* Nancy Bonvillain and Beatrice Francis, ''Mohawk–English, English–Mohawk Dictionary'', 1971, University of the State of New York in Albany (word lists, by category)
* Chris W. Harvey, ''Sathahitáhkhe' Kanienʼkéha (Introductory Level Mohawk Language Textbook, Eastern Dialect)'', {{ISBN|0-9683814-2-1}} (high school/college level)
* Josephine S. Horne, [http://www.korkahnawake.org/gift-shop ''Kanienʼkéha Iakorihonnién꞉nis''] (book and 5 companion CDs are available from Kahnawà꞉ke Cultural Center) (secondary/high school level)
* Nora Deering and Helga Harries Delisle, [http://www.korkahnawake.org/gift-shop ''Mohawk: A Teaching Grammar''] (book and 6 companion tapes are available from Kahnawà꞉ke Cultural Center) (high school/college level)
* On October 8, 2013, [[Daryl Kramp]], Member of Parliament for Prince Edward-Hastings announced, on behalf of [[Shelly Glover]], Minister of Canadian Heritage and Official Languages, support for the Tsi Kionhnheht Ne Onkwawenna Language Circle (TKNOLC) to develop Mohawk language-learning tools.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}
* Tom Porter and Dorothy Lazore, ''Nobody Can Do It Better Than Wariso꞉se: Language Guide and Dictionary''
* [[FirstVoices]], a free online learning tool, includes videos, text entries, pictures, games, an [[iPhone app]] and [[Android app]] to facilitate language learning, teaching and revitalization.<ref name="First3"/>
* ''Speak Mohawk'', an app that can be downloaded from iTunes or Google Play, facilitates language by teaching words and phrases

=== Keyboards ===
There are software packages available for both the [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[MacOS|Mac]] operating systems to enable typing of the Mohawk language electronically. Both packages are available through [[FirstVoices]], a web-based project to support Aboriginal peoples' teaching and archiving of language and culture.<ref name=First>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstvoices.com/|title=FirstVoices|website=www.firstvoices.com|access-date=Sep 3, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Iroquoian languages]]
*[[Oneida language]]
*[[Seneca language]]
*[[Mohawk Dutch]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last=Hoover |first=Michael L. |author2=The Kanien'kehaka Raotitiohkwa Cultural Center |year=1992 |title=The revival of the Mohawk language in Kahnawake |journal=Canadian Journal of Native Studies |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=269–287 |url=https://cjns.brandonu.ca/wp-content/uploads/12-2-hoover.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240108064413/https://cjns.brandonu.ca/wp-content/uploads/12-2-hoover.pdf |archive-date=2024-01-08}}
* {{cite journal |last1=McAlpine |first1=Lynn |last2=Eriks-Brophy |first2=Alice |last3=Crago |first3=Martha |year=1996 |title=Teaching Beliefs in Mohawk Classrooms: Issues of Language and Culture |journal=Anthropology & Education Quarterly |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=390–413 |doi=10.1525/aeq.1996.27.3.04x0355q |jstor=3195813}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Julian |first=Charles |year=2011 |title=A history of the Iroquoian languages |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=University of Manitoba |location=Winnipeg |url=https://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/6b2df4a6-c15a-4d2d-8042-a189bf638df4/content |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708052747/https://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/6b2df4a6-c15a-4d2d-8042-a189bf638df4/content |archive-date=2023-07-08}}
* {{cite journal |last=Maracle |first=Bonnie Jane (Iehnhotonkwas) |date=Fall 2002 |title=Adult Mohawk language immersion programming |journal=McGill Journal of Education |volume=37 |issue=3 |page=387 |url=https://www.malsmb.ca/docs/adult-mohawk-language-immersion-programming.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506005834/http://malsmb.ca/docs/adult-mohawk-language-immersion-programming.pdf |archive-date=2021-05-06}}
* {{cite book |last1=Deering |first1=Nora |last2=Harries-Delisle |first2=Helga |year=1976 |title=Mohawk. A Teaching Grammar |version=Preliminary Version |id=ED136613}}
* {{cite book |last=Michelson |first=Gunther |year=1973 |title=A thousand words of Mohawk |series=Mercury Series |publisher=University of Ottawa Press |jstor=j.ctv16xzk}}
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Akwiratékha' |title=Tekawennahsonterónnion: Kanien'kéha Morphology |edition=2023 |publisher=Kanien'kehá:ka Onkwawén:na Raotitióhkwa Language and Cultural Center |url=https://www.korkahnawake.org/gift-shop]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Michelson |first1=Gunther |last2=Canadian Deer |first2=Glenda |year=2024 |title=A Dictionary of Kanien'kéha (Mohawk) with Connections to the Past |work=Default Book Series |publisher=University of Toronto Press |doi=10.3138/9781487548452 |doi-broken-date=4 May 2025 | url=https://utppublishing.com/doi/book/10.3138/9781487548452}}
* {{Cite book| edition = 3rd ed. entirely revised, enlarged and updated.| isbn = 978-92-3-104095-5| publisher =  UNESCO, Intangible Cultural Heritage Section| last1 = Moseley| first1 = Christopher| last2 = Nicolas| first2 = Alexandre| title = Atlas of the world's languages in danger | location = Paris| series = Memory of peoples series| date = 2010 |url= https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026}}

==External links==
{{incubator|code = moh}}
* {{commons category-inline}}
* {{Wikibooks inline}}
* [https://market.mashape.com/monigarr/mohawk-language Mohawk Language API] for developers of software, websites, mobile apps, video games (AR, VR and mixed reality).
* [https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/1668 Mohawk Language Profile], The [[Endangered Languages Project]]
* [https://kah.kawennonnis.ca/ kah.kawennonnis.ca], "Kanien'kéha Verb Conjugator" (Kahnawa'kéha, Kahnawà:ke Dialect) from Kahnawà:ke and National Research Council.
* [https://kawennonnis.ca/ kawennonnis.ca], "Kanyen'kéha Verb Conjugator" (Ohswekèn:'a, Ohswé:ken Dialect) from Okwawenna Kentyohkwa and National Research Council.
* [http://www.kanienkeha.net kanienkeha.net], "Mohawk Dictionary" Endangered Language Initiative.
* [https://www.kanehsatakevoices.com/lessons/lesson-1/ Kanehsatake Voices, online lessons], Bilingual Mohawk course in English and French
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080316020512/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Mohawk-english/ Mohawk - English Dictionary], Websters Online Dictionary
* [https://www.omniglot.com/writing/mohawk.htm Mohawk language, alphabet and pronunciation], Omniglot
* [[Marianne Mithun|Marianne Mithun, "A grammar sketch of Mohawk"]], Conseil Supérieur de la Langue Française, Quebec {{in lang|fr}}
* [http://cdm.bostonathenaeum.org/cdm/search/collection/p16057coll24/searchterm/mohawk/field/langua/mode/all/conn/and/order/nosort Mohawk Language Texts], from the [http://cdm.bostonathenaeum.org/cdm/landingpage/collection/p16057coll24 Boston Athenæum: Schoolcraft Collection of Books in Native American Languages. Digital Collection.]

{{Iroquoian languages}}
{{Languages of Canada}}
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[[Category:Mohawk culture|+]]
[[Category:Northern Iroquoian languages]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands]]
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[[Category:Polysynthetic languages]]