View source for Modern Greek phonology

{{Short description|Sound system of standard Modern Greek}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2019}}
{{Self-reference|For assistance with IPA transcriptions of Greek for Wikipedia articles, see [[Help:IPA/Greek]].}}
{{IPA notice}}

This article deals with the [[phonology]] and [[phonetics]] of [[Standard Modern Greek]]. For phonological characteristics of other varieties, see [[varieties of Modern Greek]], and for Cypriot, specifically, see {{section link|Cypriot Greek|Phonology}}.

==Consonants==
Greek [[linguist]]s do not agree on which consonants to count as [[phoneme]]s in their own right, and which to count as conditional [[allophone]]s. The table below is adapted from {{harvtxt|Arvaniti|2007|p=7}}, who considers the [[palatal consonant|palatal]]s and both [[affricate consonant|affricate]]s, {{IPAblink|t͡s}} and {{IPAblink|d͡z}}, to be allophonic.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"

|+ Consonant phonemes
! colspan=2|
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! colspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAslink|m}} [[μ]]
| 
| {{IPAslink|n}} [[ν]]
| 
|-
! rowspan=2|[[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPAslink|p}} [[Pi (letter)|π]]
| 
| {{IPAslink|t}} [[τ]]
| {{IPAslink|k}} [[κ]]
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPAslink|b}} [[μ]][[Pi (letter)|π]]
| 
| {{IPAslink|d}} [[ν]][[τ]]
| {{IPAslink|ɡ}} [[γ]][[κ]]
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPAslink|f}} [[φ]]
| {{IPAslink|θ}} [[θ]]
| {{IPAslink|s}} [[σ]], [[ς]]
| {{IPAslink|x}} [[χ]]
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPAslink|v}} [[β]]
| {{IPAslink|ð}} [[δ]]
| {{IPAslink|z}} [[ζ]]
| {{IPAslink|ɣ}} [[γ]]
|-
! colspan=2|[[Alveolar tap|Tap]]
| 
| 
| {{IPAslink|ɾ}} [[ρ]]
| 
|-
! colspan=2|[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
| 
| 
| {{IPAslink|l}} [[λ]]
| 
|}

{|class="toccolours" style="float: right;"
|+ Examples for consonant phonemes{{sfn|Arvaniti|1999|p=2}}
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''π'''ήρα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''p'''ira/}}
| 'I took'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''μπ'''ύρα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''b'''ira/}}
| 'beer'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''φ'''άση}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''f'''asi/}}
| 'phase'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''β'''άση}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''v'''asi/}}
| 'base'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''μ'''όνος}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''m'''onos/}}
| 'alone'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''ν'''όμος}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''n'''omos/}}
| 'law'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''τ'''είνω}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''t'''ino/}}
| 'I tend'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''ντ'''ύνω}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''d'''ino/}}
| 'I dress'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''θ'''έμα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''θ'''ema/}}
| 'topic'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''δ'''έμα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''ð'''ema/}}
| 'parcel'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''σ'''ώα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''s'''oa/}}
| 'safe' (fem.)
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''ζ'''ώα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''z'''oa/}}
| 'animals'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''ρ'''ήμα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''r'''ima/}}
| 'verb'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''λ'''ίμα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''l'''ima/}}
| 'nail file'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''κ'''όμμα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''k'''oma/}}
| 'comma'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''χ'''ώμα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''x'''oma/}}
| 'soil'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''γ'''όμα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''ɣ'''oma/}}
| 'eraser'
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|'''γκ'''άμα}}
| {{IPA|/ˈ'''ɡ'''ama/}}
| 'range'
|}

The alveolar nasal {{IPA|/n/}} is [[Homorganic consonants|assimilated]] to following [[obstruent]]s; it can be labiodental (e.g. {{lang|el|αμφιβολία}} {{IPA|[aɱfivoˈlia]}} 'doubt'), dental (e.g. {{lang|el|άνθος}} {{IPA|[ˈan̪θos]}} 'flower'), [[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|retracted]] alveolar (e.g. {{lang|el|πένσα}} {{IPA|[ˈpen̠sa]}} 'pliers'), [[alveolo-palatal]] (e.g. {{lang|el|συγχύζω}} {{IPA|[siɲˈçizo]}} 'to annoy'), or velar (e.g. {{lang|el|άγχος}} {{IPA|[ˈaŋхos]}} 'stress').{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|pp=14–15}}

Voiceless stops are [[aspirated consonant|unaspirated]] and with a very short [[voice onset time]].{{sfn|Arvaniti|1999|p=2}} They may be lightly voiced in rapid speech, especially when [[intervocalic consonant|intervocalic]].{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=7}} {{IPA|/t/}}'s exact [[place of articulation]] ranges from [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]] to [[denti-alveolar]], to [[dental consonant|dental]].{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=10}} It may be fricated {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|θ̠}} ~ {{IPAplink|θ}}]}} in rapid speech, and very rarely, in [[function word]]s, it is deleted.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=11}} {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} are reduced to lesser degrees in rapid speech.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=11}}

Voiced stops are [[prenasalised]] (which is reflected in the orthography) to varying extents, and sometimes not at all.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=9}} The nasal component—when present—does not increase the duration of the stop's closure; as such, prenasalised voiced stops would be most accurately transcribed {{IPA|[ᵐb ⁿd ᵑɡ]}} or {{IPA|[m͡b, n͡d, ŋ͡ɡ]}}, depending on the length of the nasal component.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=9}} Word-initially and after {{IPA|/r/}} or {{IPA|/l/}}, they are very rarely, if ever, prenasalised.{{sfn|Arvaniti|1999|p=2}}{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=10}} In rapid and casual speech, prenasalisation is generally rarer, and voiced stops may be lenited to fricatives.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=10}} That also accounts for Greeks having trouble disambiguating voiced stops, nasalised voiced stops, and nasalised voiceless stops in borrowings and names from foreign languages such as, ''d'', ''nd'', and ''nt'', which are all written ντ in Greek.

{{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} are somewhat [[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|retracted]] ({{IPA|[s̠, z̠]}}); they are produced in between [[English language|English]] alveolars {{IPA|/s, z/}} and [[postalveolar]]s {{IPA|/ʃ, ʒ/}}. {{IPA|/s/}} is variably fronted or further retracted depending on environment, and, in some cases, it may be better described as an advanced postalveolar ({{IPA|[ʃ˖]}}).{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=12}}

The only Greek rhotic {{IPA|/r/}} is prototypically an alveolar tap {{IPAblink|ɾ}}, often retracted ({{IPA|[ɾ̠]}}). It may be an [[alveolar approximant]] {{IPAblink|ɹ}} intervocalically, and is usually a [[alveolar trill|trill]] {{IPAblink|r}} in clusters, with two or three short cycles.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=15}}

Greek has palatals {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|c̠|c}}, {{IPAplink|ɟ˗|ɟ}}, {{IPAplink|ç˗|ç}}, {{IPAplink|ʝ˗|ʝ}}]}} which are allophones of the velar consonants {{IPA|/{{IPAplink|k}}, {{IPAplink|ɡ}}, {{IPAplink|x}}, {{IPAplink|ɣ}}/}} before the front vowels {{IPA|/e, i/}}. The velars also merge with a following nonsyllabic {{IPA|/i/}} to the corresponding palatal before the vowels {{IPA|/a, o, u/}}, e.g. {{lang|el|χιόνι}} {{IPA|[ˈçoni]}} (= {{IPA|/ˈxi̯oni/}}) 'snow', thus producing a surface contrast between palatal and velar consonants before {{IPA|/a, o, u/}}.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=19}} {{IPAblink|ʎ}} and {{IPAblink|ɲ}} occur as allophones of {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/n/}}, respectively, in {{mono|CJV}} (consonant–glide–vowel) clusters, in analyses that posit an [[archiphoneme]]-like [[semivowel|glide]] {{mono|/J/}} that contrasts with the vowel {{IPA|/i/}}.{{sfn|Baltazani|Topinzi|2013|p=23}} All palatals may be analysed in the same way. The palatal stops and fricatives are somewhat retracted, and {{IPAblink|ʎ}} and {{IPAblink|ɲ}} are somewhat fronted. {{IPAblink|ʎ}} is best described as a postalveolar, and {{IPAblink|ɲ}} as [[alveolo-palatal nasal|alveolo-palatal]].{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=19–20}}

Finally, Greek has two phonetically affricate [[consonant cluster|clusters]], {{IPAblink|t͡s}} and {{IPAblink|d͡z}}.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|pp=20, 23}} {{harvtxt|Arvaniti|2007}} is reluctant to treat these as phonemes on the grounds of inconclusive research into their phonological behaviour.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=24}}

The table below, adapted from {{harvtxt|Arvaniti|2007|p=25}}, displays a near-full array of consonant phones in Standard Modern Greek.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant phones
!
!colspan="2"|[[Labial consonant|Bilabial]]
!colspan="2"|[[Labiodental consonant|Labio-<br />dental]]
!colspan="2"|[[Dental consonant|Dental]]
!colspan="2"|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan="2"|[[Alveolar consonant|Retracted<br />alveolar]]
!colspan="2"|[[Post-alveolar consonant|Post-<br />alveolar]]
!colspan="2"|[[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-<br />palatal]]
!colspan="2"|[[Palatal consonant|Retracted<br />palatal]]
!colspan="2"|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|m}}
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ɱ}}
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|n̪}}
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|n}}
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|n̠}}
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ɲ̟}}
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|-
![[Stop consonant|Stop]]
|{{IPA link|p}} ||{{IPA link|b}}
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|{{IPA link|t}} ||{{IPA link|d}}
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|{{IPA link|c̠}} ||{{IPA link|ɟ˗}}
|{{IPA link|k}} ||{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
![[affricate consonant|Affricate]]
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|{{IPA link|t͡s}} ||{{IPA link|d͡z}}
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
![[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|colspan="2"|
|{{IPA link|f}} ||{{IPA link|v}}
|{{IPA link|θ}} ||{{IPA link|ð}}
|colspan="2"|
|{{IPA link|s̠}} ||{{IPA link|z̠}}
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|{{IPA link|ç˗}} ||{{IPA link|ʝ˗}}
|{{IPA link|x}} ||{{IPA link|ɣ}}
|-
![[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|style="border-right: 0;"| || style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ɹ̠}}
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
![[Flap consonant|Flap or tap]]
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|style="border-right: 0;"| || style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ɾ̠}}
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
![[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|style="border-right: 0;"| || style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|r̠}}
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
![[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|style="border-right: 0;"| || style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|l}}
|colspan="2"|
|style="border-right: 0;"| || style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ʎ}}
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Sandhi===
Some [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilatory]] processes mentioned above also occur across word boundaries. In particular, this goes for a number of grammatical words ending in {{IPA|/n/}}, most notably the negation particles {{lang|el|δεν}} and {{lang|el|μην}} and the [[Accusative case|accusative]] forms of the personal pronoun and definite article {{lang|el|τον}} and {{lang|el|την}}. If these words are followed by a voiceless stop, {{IPA|/n/}} either assimilates for place of articulation to the stop, or is altogether deleted, and the stop - in both circumstances -  becomes voiced. This results in pronunciations such as {{lang|el|τον πατέρα}} {{IPA|[to(m)baˈtera]}} ('the father' <small>ACC</small>) or {{lang|el|δεν πειράζει}} {{IPA|[ðe(m)biˈrazi]}} ('it doesn't matter'), instead of {{IPA|*[ton paˈtera]}} and {{IPA|*[ðen piˈrazi]}}. The precise extent of assimilation may vary according to dialect, speed and formality of speech.{{sfn|Joseph|Philippaki-Warburton|1987|p=246}} This may be compared with pervasive [[sandhi]] phenomena in Celtic languages, particularly nasalisation in [[Irish language|Irish]] and in certain dialects of [[Scottish Gaelic]].

==Vowels==
[[Image:Standard Modern Greek vowel chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.13|The vowels of Standard Modern Greek on a [[vowel chart]]. Adapted from {{harvtxt|Arvaniti|2007|p=28}}.]]

Greek has a system of five vowels {{IPA|/i, u, e, o, a/}}. The first two are close to the [[cardinal vowels]] {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|i}}, {{IPAplink|u}}]}}; the mid vowels {{IPA|/e, o/}} are [[Mid vowel|true-mid]] {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|e̞}}, {{IPAplink|o̞}}]}}; and the open {{IPA|/a/}} is near-open central {{IPAblink|ɐ}}.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|pp=25, 28}}

There is no phonemic length distinction, but vowels in stressed syllables are pronounced somewhat longer {{IPA|[iˑ, uˑ, eˑ, oˑ, aˑ]}} than in unstressed syllables. Furthermore, vowels in stressed syllables are more peripheral, but the difference is not large. In casual speech, unstressed {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} in the vicinity of voiceless consonants may become devoiced or even elided.{{sfn|Arvaniti|1999|pp=3, 5}}

{| class="toccolours"
|+ Examples for vowel phonemes{{sfn|Arvaniti|1999|p=3}}
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|πας|π'''α'''ς}}
| {{IPA|/p'''a'''s/}}
| 'you go' subj.
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|πες|π'''ε'''ς}}
| {{IPA|/p'''e'''s/}}
| 'say' imper.
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|πεις|π'''ει'''ς}}
| {{IPA|/p'''i'''s/}}
| 'you say' subj.
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|πως|π'''ω'''ς}}
| {{IPA|/p'''o'''s/}}
| 'that' conj.
|-
| {{wikt-lang|el|που|π'''ού'''}}
| {{IPA|/p'''u'''/}}
| 'where'
|}

Some falling diphthongs exist as well, e.g. {{lang|el|ακούει}} {{IPA|[aˈkui̯]}} 's/he listens', {{lang|el|γάιδαρος}} {{IPA|[ˈɣai̯ðaɾos]}} 'donkey', {{lang|el|φράουλα}} {{IPA|[ˈfɾau̯la]}} 'strawberry'.{{sfn|Arvaniti|2007|p=106}}

==Stress==
Unlike [[Ancient Greek]], which had a [[pitch accent]] system, Modern Greek has variable (phonologically unpredictable) [[stress (linguistics)|stress]]. Every multisyllabic word carries stress on one of its three final syllables. [[Enclitic]]s form a single [[phonological word]] together with the host word to which they attach, and count towards the three-syllable rule. When an enclitic attaches to a word with stress on the third-to-last syllable, that stress becomes secondary, and the primary stress shifts to the second-last syllable (e.g. {{lang|el|αυτοκίνητό μου}} {{IPA|[aftoˌciniˈto mu]}} 'my car'). Phonetically, stressed syllables are longer, or carry higher amplitude, or both.{{sfn|Arvaniti|1999|p=5}}

The position of the stress can vary between different inflectional forms of the same word within its inflectional paradigm. In some paradigms, the stress is always on the third-last syllable, shifting its position in those forms that have longer affixes (e.g. {{lang|el|κάλεσα}} 'I called' vs. {{lang|el|καλέσαμε}} 'we called'; {{lang|el|πρόβλημα}} 'problem' vs. {{lang|el|προβλήματα}} 'problems'). In some word classes, stress position also preserves an older pattern inherited from [[Ancient Greek]] according to which a word could not be accented on the third-last syllable if the vowel in the [[ultima (linguistics)|last syllable]] was long, e.g. {{lang|el|άνθρωπος}} ('man', [[nominative]] [[grammatical number|singular]], last vowel short), but {{lang|el|ανθρώπων}} ('of men', [[genitive case|genitive]] [[plural]], last vowel long). However, in Modern Greek this rule is no longer automatic and does not apply to all words (e.g. {{lang|el|καλόγερος}} 'monk', {{lang|el|καλόγερων}} 'of monks'), as the phonological vowel length distinction itself no longer exists.{{sfn|Holton|Mackridge|Philippaki-Warburton|1998|pp=25–27, 53–54}}

==Sample==
This sample text, the first sentence of [[Aesop's Fables|Aesop's fable]] "[[The North Wind and the Sun]]" in Greek, and the accompanying transcription, are adapted from {{harvtxt|Arvaniti|1999|pp=5–6}}.

===Orthographic version===
{{lang|el|Ο βοριάς κι ο ήλιος μάλωναν για το ποιος απ’ τους δυο είναι ο δυνατότερος, όταν έτυχε να περάσει από μπροστά τους ένας ταξιδιώτης που φορούσε κάπα.}}
{{Further|Greek orthography}}

===Transcription===
{{IPA|[o voˈɾʝas ˈco̯iʎoz ˈmalonan {{pipe}} ʝa to ˈpços aptuz ˈðʝo ˈineo̯ ðinaˈtoteɾos {{pipe}} ˈota ˈnetiçe napeˈɾasi apo broˈstatus {{pipe}} ˈenas taksiˈðʝotis pu̥ foˈɾuse ˈkapa]}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|indent=yes}}
*{{cite journal|last=Arvaniti|first=Amalia|year=1999|title=Standard Modern Greek|pages=167–172|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=29|issue=2|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231965155_Standard_Modern_Greek|jstor=44526244|access-date=2024-12-15}}
*{{cite journal|last=Arvaniti|first=Amalia|year=2007|title=Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art|pages=97–208|journal=Journal of Greek Linguistics|volume=8|url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/handle/2066/221101|access-date=2024-12-15|citeseerx=10.1.1.692.1365}}
*{{cite conference|last1=Baltazani|first1=Mary|last2=Topinzi|first2=Nina|year=2013|title=Where the glide meets the palatals|book-title=Selected Papers of the 20th International Symposium of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics|publisher=Versita|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.2478/9788376560762.p23/html?srsltid=AfmBOorWl2ln7-11Xs07bpgsrnNuQ3C0grygiLda8_88Qdl-1ILA0Qlm|access-date=2024-12-15}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Holton |first1=David |last2=Mackridge |first2=Peter |last3=Philippaki-Warburton |first3=Irene |title=Greek: an essential grammar of the modern language |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315680309/greek-essential-grammar-modern-language-david-holton-peter-mackridge-irene-philippaki-warburton |access-date=2024-12-15 |url-access=subscription |date=2016 |orig-date=2004 |edition=2 |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-68030-9 |language=en |oclc=946887585}}
*{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Holton|first2=Peter|last2=Mackridge|first3=Irini|last3=Philippaki-Warburton|title=Grammatiki tis ellinikis glossas|script-title=el:Γραμματική της ελληνικής γλώσσας|trans-title=Grammar of the Greek Language|language=el|place=Athens|publisher=Pataki|year=1998|isbn=960-378-082-0|oclc=1074912202}}
*{{cite book|last1=Joseph|first1=Brian|last2=Philippaki-Warburton|first2=Irene|year=1987|title=Modern Greek|series=Croom Helm descriptive grammars series|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-03685-2|oclc=18960976}}
*{{Cite book |last=Zachariou |first=Philemon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oQLtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 |title=Reading and Pronouncing Biblical Greek: Historical Pronunciation versus Erasmian |date=2020-06-08 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-7252-5448-0 |language=en}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|indent=yes}}
*{{cite conference
 |last         = Adaktylos
 |first        = Anna-Maria
 |title        = The accent of Ancient and Modern Greek from a typological perspective
 |book-title   = Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Greek Linguistics
 |editor-first = George
 |editor-last  = Tsoulas
 |year         = 2007
 |url          = http://anna.adaktylos.com/publ/2006accent.pdf
 |access-date  = 2024-12-15
}}
*{{cite journal
 |last1       = Arvaniti
 |first1      = Amalia
 |last2       = Ladd
 |first2      = D. Robert
 |year        = 2009
 |title       = Greek wh-questions and the phonology of intonation
 |pages       = 43–74
 |journal     = Phonology
 |volume      = 26
 |url         = https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/12802635/LADD_2009_Greek_wh_questions_and_the_phonology_of_intonation..pdf
 |access-date = 2024-12-15
 |doi         = 10.1017/s0952675709001717
 |s2cid       = 30810921
 |hdl= 20.500.11820/1a20a4b7-4e70-40c7-8e03-5a2b19e30f30
 |hdl-access= free
 }}
*{{cite conference
|last=Baltazani
|first=Mary
|year=2007
|title=Prosodic Rhythm and the status of vowel reduction in Greek
|book-title=Selected Papers on Theoretical and Applied Linguistics from the 17th International Symposium on Theoretical & Applied Linguistics
|volume=1
|pages=31–43
|location=Thessaloniki
|publisher=Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
|url=http://users.uoi.gr/mbaltaz/en/Baltazani-v-reduction.pdf
}}
*{{cite book
 |last1        = Joseph
 |first1       = Brian D.
 |last2        = Tserdanelis
 |first2       = Georgios
 |year         = 2003
 |chapter      = Modern Greek
 |title        = Variationstypologie. Ein sprachtypologisches Handbuch der europäischen Sprachen in Geschichte und Gegenwart / Variation Typology. A Typological Handbook of European Languages
 |language= de,en
 |editor-last  = Roelcke
 |editor-first = Thorsten
 |pages        = 823–836
 |publisher    = Walter de Gruyter
 |isbn         = 3-11-020202-6
 |chapter-url  = http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~gdanelis/Variationstypologie.pdf
 |url-status   = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070302095746/http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~gdanelis/Variationstypologie.pdf
 |archive-date = 2007-03-02
}}
*{{cite conference
|last1=Kong
|first1=Eunjong
|last2=Beckman
|first2=Mary
|last3=Edwards
|first3=Jan
|date=6–10 August 2007
|title=Fine-grained phonetics and acquisition of Greek voiced stops
|book-title=Proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences
|url=http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~edwards/KongICPhS2007.pdf
}}
*{{cite conference
|last1=Mennen
|first1=Ineke
|last2=Olakidou
|first2=Areti
|year=2006
|title=Acquisition of Greek phonology: an overview
|conference=QMU Speech Science Research Centre Working Papers (WP-11)
|url=http://eresearch.qmu.ac.uk/153/
}}
*{{cite conference
|last1=Nicolaidis
|first1=Katerina
|last2=Edwards
|first2=Jan
|last3=Beckman
|first3=Mary
|last4=Tserdanelis
|first4=Georgios
|date=18–21 September 2003
|title=Acquisition of lingual obstruents in Greek
|book-title=Proceedings of the 6th International Conference of Greek Linguistics
|url=https://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/pdlg/glc6.pdf
|access-date=2024-12-15
}}
*{{cite journal|last=Trudgill|first=Peter|year=2009|title=Greek Dialect Vowel Systems, Vowel Dispersion Theory, and Sociolinguistic Typology|journal=Journal of Greek Linguistics|volume=9|issue=1|pages=80–97|doi=10.1163/156658409X12500896406041|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233523754|doi-access=free}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.foundalis.com/lan/greek.htm About the Greek Language – Harry Foundalis]
*[http://speakgreek.web.auth.gr/dp/en/library/choose  Segmentals and suprasegmentals in Modern Greek with pronunciation]

{{Greek language}}
{{Language phonologies}}

[[Category:Modern Greek language|Phonology]]
[[Category:Greek phonologies]]