View source for Mobile computing

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{{Short description|Using devices designed to be portable}}

[[File:Galaxy Z series.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Foldable [[Samsung Galaxy]] [[smartphones]], capable of web browsing, e-mail access, video playback, document editing, [[file transfer]], image editing, and other tasks common on smartphones. A smartphone is a tool of mobile computing.]]

'''Mobile computing''' is [[human–computer interaction]] in which a [[computer]] is expected to be transported during normal usage and allow for transmission of data, which can include voice and video transmissions. Mobile computing involves [[mobile communication]], mobile hardware, and [[mobile software]]. Communication issues include ad hoc networks and infrastructure networks as well as communication properties, protocols, data formats, and concrete technologies. Hardware includes mobile devices or device components. Mobile software deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications.

== Main principles ==
[[File:Telxon PTC-710 with MP 830-42.jpg|thumb|upright|The Telxon PTC-710 is a 16-bit mobile computer PTC-710 with MP 830-42 micro[[Printer (computing)|printer]] 42-column version.]]

* Portability: Devices/nodes connected within the mobile computing system should facilitate mobility. These devices may have limited device capabilities and limited power supply but should have a sufficient processing capability and physical portability to operate in a movable environment.
* Connectivity: This defines the [[quality of service]] (QoS) of the network connectivity.  In a mobile computing system, the network availability is expected to be maintained at a high level with a minimal amount of lag/downtime without being affected by the mobility of the connected nodes.
* Interactivity: The nodes belonging to a mobile computing system are connected with one another to communicate and collaborate through active transactions of data.
* Individuality: A portable device or a mobile node connected to a mobile network often denotes an individual; a mobile computing system should be able to adopt the technology to cater to the individual needs and also to obtain contextual information of each node.

== Devices ==
Some of the most common forms of mobile computing devices are as given below:

* Portable computers, compact, lightweight units including a full character set keyboard and primarily intended as [[computer terminal|host]]s for software that may be parameterized, such as [[laptop]]s/[[desktop computer|desktops]], [[smartphones]]/[[Tablet computer|tablets]], etc.

* [[Smart card]]s that can run multiple applications but are typically used for payment, travel, and secure area access.

* [[Mobile phone]]s, telephony devices which can [[telephone call|call]] from a distance through cellular networking technology.

* [[Wearable computer]]s, mostly limited to functional keys and primarily intended for the incorporation of [[software agent]]s, such as bracelets, keyless implants, etc.

[[File:Apple Watch-.jpg|thumb|250x250px|The wearable computer, [[Apple Watch]], released in 2015]]

These classes are expected to endure and to complement each other, none replacing another completely.

Other types of mobile computers have been introduced since the 1990s, including the:
* [[Portable computer]]
* [[Personal digital assistant]], [[enterprise digital assistant]]
* [[Ultra-Mobile PC]]
* [[Laptop]]
* [[Tablet computer]]
* [[Wearable computer]]
* [[E-reader]]
* [[Carputer]]
* [[Handheld PC]]

==Limitations==
* Expandability, [[Replaceability (technology)|replaceability]] and [[modularity]]: In contrast to the common traditional [[motherboard]]-based PC the [[System on a chip|SoC]] architecture in which they are embedded makes these features impossible.
* Lack of a [[BIOS]]: As most smart devices lack a proper [[BIOS]], their [[bootloading]] capabilities are limited as they can only boot into the single [[operative system]] with which it came, in contrast with the PC BIOS model.
* Range and bandwidth: Mobile Internet access is generally slower than direct cable connections, using technologies such as [[GPRS]] and [[EDGE (telecommunication)|EDGE]], and more recently [[HSDPA]], [[HSUPA]], [[3G]] and [[4G]] networks and also the proposed [[5G]] network. These networks are usually available within a range of commercial cell phone towers. High-speed network wireless LANs are inexpensive but have a very limited range.
* Security standards: When working mobile, one is dependent on public networks, requiring careful use of [[virtual private network|VPN]]. Security is a major concern while concerning the mobile computing standards on the fleet. One can easily attack the VPN through a huge number of networks interconnected through the line.
* Power consumption: When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers must rely entirely on battery power. Combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery life.
* Transmission interferences: Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point can all interfere with signal reception. Reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural areas is often poor.
* Potential health hazards: People who use mobile devices while driving are often distracted from driving and are thus assumed more likely to be involved in traffic accidents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.distraction.gov/stats-and-facts/|title=U Drive. U Text. U Pay.|last=andrew.currin.ctr@dot.gov|date=8 September 2016|website=NHTSA|access-date=25 March 2018|archive-date=5 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005162804/http://www.distraction.gov/stats-and-facts/|url-status=live}}</ref> (While this may seem obvious, there is considerable discussion about whether banning mobile device use while driving reduces accidents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://handsfreeinfo.com/study-handheld-cell-bans-have-no-effect|title=Hands Free Cell Phones No Safer, Insurance Study Claims|access-date=16 July 2015|archive-date=17 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717052047/http://handsfreeinfo.com/study-handheld-cell-bans-have-no-effect/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-30686_3-10444717-266.html|title=Study: Distractions, not phones, cause car crashes|publisher=CBS Interactive|work=CNET|access-date=16 July 2015|archive-date=18 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118084549/http://news.cnet.com/8301-30686_3-10444717-266.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>) Cell phones may interfere with sensitive medical devices. Questions concerning [[mobile phone radiation and health]] have been raised. 
* Human interface with device: Screens and keyboards tend to be small, which may make them hard to use. Alternate input methods such as speech or [[handwriting recognition]] require training.

==In-vehicle computing and fleet computing==
[[File:MOBIDIC cutaway.jpg|left|thumb|[[MOBIDIC]] mobile computer of 1959]]
Many commercial and government field forces deploy a rugged portable computer with their fleet of vehicles. This requires the units to be anchored to the vehicle for driver safety, device security, and [[ergonomics]]. [[Rugged computer]]s are rated for severe vibration associated with large service vehicles and off-road driving and the harsh environmental conditions of constant professional use such as in [[emergency medical services]], fire, and public safety.

[[Image:Compaq portable.jpg|thumb|The [[Compaq Portable]] - {{Circa|1982}}, pre-[[laptop]]]]

Other elements affecting function in the vehicle:
* [[Operating temperature]]: A vehicle cabin can often experience temperature swings from {{convert|-30|-|60|C|abbr=on}}. Computers typically must be able to withstand these temperatures while operating. Typical fan-based cooling has stated limits of {{convert|35|-|38|C|abbr=on}} of ambient temperature and temperatures below freezing require localized heaters to bring components up to operating temperature (based on independent studies by the SRI Group and by Panasonic R&D).
* Vibration can decrease the life expectancy of computer components, notably rotational storage such as [[Hard disk drive|HDDs]].
* Visibility of standard screens becomes an issue in bright sunlight.
* Touchscreen users easily interact with the units in the field without removing gloves.
* High-temperature battery settings: Lithium-ion batteries are sensitive to high-temperature conditions for charging. A computer designed for the mobile environment should be designed with a high-temperature charging function that limits the charge to 85% or less of capacity.
* External antenna connections go through the typical metal cabins of vehicles which would block wireless reception and take advantage of much more capable external communication and navigation equipment.

==Security issues involved in mobile==
{{main article|Mobile security}}
[[Mobile security]] has become increasingly important in mobile computing. It is of particular concern as it relates to the [[information security|security]] of personal information now stored on the [[smartphone]]. Mobile applications might copy user data from these devices to a remote server without the users’ permission and often without the users’ consent.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-09-05/apple-iphones-could-have-been-hacked-for-years-%E2%80%93-heres-what-to/11481206 |title=Apple iPhones could have been hacked for years — here's what to do about it |last1=Sikos |first1=Leslie F. |last2=Haskell-Dowland |first2=Paul |date=5 Sep 2019 |publisher=ABC News |access-date=2019-12-10 |archive-date=2019-09-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909011141/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-09-05/apple-iphones-could-have-been-hacked-for-years-%E2%80%93-heres-what-to/11481206 |url-status=live }}</ref> The user profiles automatically created in the cloud for smartphone users raise [[privacy]] concerns on all major platforms, in terms of, including, but not limited to, [[mobile phone tracking|location tracking]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cnet.com/news/google-sued-over-keeping-location-data-amid-privacy-concerns/ | title=Google sued over tracking user location amid privacy concerns | first=Laura | last=Hautala | date=20 August 2018 | publisher=CNET | access-date=10 December 2019 | archive-date=10 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210071243/https://www.cnet.com/news/google-sued-over-keeping-location-data-amid-privacy-concerns/ | url-status=live }}</ref> and personal data collection,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cpomagazine.com/data-privacy/pre-installed-apps-on-android-represent-a-threat-to-user-privacy-and-security/ | title=Pre-Installed Apps on Android Represent a Threat to User Privacy and Security | first=Nicole | last=Lindsey | publisher=CPO Magazine | date=10 April 2019 | access-date=10 December 2019 | archive-date=10 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210071243/https://www.cpomagazine.com/data-privacy/pre-installed-apps-on-android-represent-a-threat-to-user-privacy-and-security/ | url-status=live }}</ref> regardless of user settings on the device.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/aug/13/google-location-tracking-android-iphone-mobile | title=Google records your location even when you tell it not to | work=The Guardian | date=14 August 2018 | access-date=10 December 2019 | archive-date=10 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210071239/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/aug/13/google-location-tracking-android-iphone-mobile | url-status=live }}</ref>

More and more users and businesses use smartphones as a means of planning and organizing their work and private life. Within companies, these technologies are causing profound changes in the organization of [[information systems]] and therefore they have become the source of new risks. Indeed, smartphones collect and compile an increasing amount of sensitive information to which access must be controlled to protect the [[information privacy|privacy]] of the user and the [[intellectual property]] of the company. 


All smartphones are preferred targets of attacks. These attacks exploit weaknesses related to smartphones that can come from means of wireless telecommunication like [[WiFi|WiFi networks]] and [[GSM]]. There are also attacks that exploit software vulnerabilities from both the web browser and operating system. Finally, there are forms of [[malware|malicious software]] that rely on the weak knowledge of average users.

Different security counter-measures are being developed and applied to smartphones, from security in different layers of software to the dissemination of information to end-users. There are good practices to be observed at all levels, from design to use, through the development of [[operating system]]s, software layers, and downloadable apps.

==Portable computing devices==
{{main article|Mobile device|Portable computer}}
Several categories of portable computing devices can run on batteries but are not usually classified as laptops: portable computers, [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]]s, ultra mobile PCs (UMPCs), tablets, and smartphones.

* A [[portable computer]] is a general-purpose computer that can be easily moved from place to place, but cannot be used while in transit, usually because it requires some "setting-up" and an AC power source. The most famous example is [[Osborne 1]]. Portable computers are also called a "transportable" or a "luggable" PC.
* A [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) is a small, usually pocket-sized, computer with limited functionality. It is intended to supplement and to synchronize with a desktop computer, giving access to contacts, address book, notes, e-mail, and other features.[[Image:PalmTX.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Palm TX]] PDA]]
* An [[ultra mobile PC]] is a full-featured, PDA-sized computer running a general-purpose operating system.
* [[Smartphone|Phones]], [[Tablet computer|tablets]]: a slate tablet is shaped like a paper notebook. Smartphones are the same devices as tablets, however, the only difference with smartphones is that they are much smaller and pocketable. Instead of a physical keyboard, these devices have a [[touchscreen]] including a combination of a [[virtual keyboard]] but can also link to a physical keyboard via wireless [[Bluetooth]] or USB. These devices include features other computer systems would not be able to incorporate, such as built-in cameras, because of their portability - although some laptops possess camera integration, and desktops and laptops can connect to a [[webcam]] by way of USB.
* A [[carputer]] is installed in an automobile. It operates as a wireless computer, sound system, GPS, and DVD player. It also contains word processing software and is Bluetooth compatible.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/tag/carputer/|title=Carputer Articles on Engadget|publisher=AOL|work=Engadget|access-date=16 July 2015|archive-date=5 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180505145743/https://www.engadget.com/tag/carputer/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* A Pentop (discontinued) is a computing device the size and shape of a pen. It functions as a writing utensil, MP3 player, language translator, digital storage device, and calculator.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geardiary.com/2007/10/07/the-fly-fusion-pentop-computer-review/|title=Gear Diary » The FLY Fusion Pentop Computer Review|date=7 October 2007|access-date=16 July 2015|archive-date=23 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023064252/https://geardiary.com/2007/10/07/the-fly-fusion-pentop-computer-review/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* An application-specific computer is one that is tailored to a particular application. For example, [[Ferranti]] introduced a handheld application-specific mobile computer (the [[Ferranti MRT|MRT-100]]) in the form of a [[clipboard]] for conducting [[opinion polls]].<ref>G Rowley, K Barker, and V Callaghan “'' The Questronic Project and the Ferranti MRT 100 A Boon For Survey Research''”, The Professional Geographer, Volume 37, Issue 4, pages 459–463, November 1985</ref>

Boundaries that separate these categories are blurry at times. For example, the [[OQO]] UMPC is also a PDA-sized tablet PC; the [[EMate 300|Apple eMate]] had the clamshell form factor of a laptop but ran PDA software. The [[HP Omnibook]] line of laptops included some devices small enough to be called ultra mobile PCs. The hardware of the [[Nokia 770]] internet tablet is essentially the same as that of a PDA such as the [[Sharp Zaurus|Zaurus]] 6000; the only reason it's not called a PDA is that it does not have [[Personal information manager|PIM]] software. On the other hand, both the 770 and the Zaurus can run some desktop Linux software, usually with modifications.

==Mobile data communication==
[[Wireless]] data connections used in mobile computing take three general forms.<ref name="Ositech">{{Cite web|title=Wireless Data Communications for Beginners|url=http://www.ositech.com/downloads/123dwnlod_1.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713084232/http://www.ositech.com/downloads/123dwnlod_1.html|archive-date=2011-07-13|access-date=2011-07-12|publisher=Ositech Communications}}</ref> [[Cellular network|Cellular]] data service uses technologies [[GSM]], [[code-division multiple access|CDMA]] or [[General Packet Radio Service|GPRS]], [[3G]] networks such as [[W-CDMA]], [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution|EDGE]] or [[CDMA2000]].<ref>Lachu Aravamudhan, Stefano Faccin, Risto Mononen, Basavaraj Patil, Yousuf Saifullah, Sarvesh Sharma, Srinivas Sreemanthula. [http://www.informit.com/articles/printerfriendly.aspx?p=98132 "Getting to Know Wireless Networks and Technology"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004200150/http://www.informit.com/articles/printerfriendly.aspx?p=98132 |date=2013-10-04 }}, ''InformIT''<!--accessed July 12, 2011--></ref><ref>[http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/imt-2000/DocumentsIMT2000/What_really_3G.pdf "What really is a Third Generation (3G) Mobile Technology"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607105523/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/imt-2000/DocumentsIMT2000/What_really_3G.pdf |date=2011-06-07 }}, ''ITU''<!--accessed July 12, 2011--></ref> and more recently [[4G]] and [[5G]] networks.  These networks are usually available within range of commercial [[Cell site|cell towers]].  [[Wi-Fi]] connections offer higher performance,<ref>Gier, Jim. [http://www.wireless-nets.com/resources/downloads/wireless_industry_report_2007.pdf "Wireless Network Industry Report"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012152324/http://www.wireless-nets.com/resources/downloads/wireless_industry_report_2007.pdf |date=2012-10-12 }}, ''Wireless Nets, Ltd.''<!--accessed July 12, 2011--></ref> may be either on a private business network or accessed through public [[Hotspot (Wi-Fi)|hotspots]], and have a typical range of 100 feet indoors and up to 1000 feet outdoors.<ref>[http://www.hotrecruiter.com/resources/technical-tutorials/35-freelance-tips-a-tutorials/893-wi-fi "Wi-Fi"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327014110/http://www.hotrecruiter.com/resources/technical-tutorials/35-freelance-tips-a-tutorials/893-wi-fi |date=2012-03-27 }} <!--accessed July 12, 2011--></ref> [[Satellite Internet access]] covers areas where cellular and Wi-Fi are not available<ref>{{cite web|last =Mitchell|first = Bradley|website = about.com|url =http://compnetworking.about.com/od/internetaccessbestuses/g/bldef_satellite.htm|title =Satellite Internet|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110726110741/http://compnetworking.about.com/od/internetaccessbestuses/g/bldef_satellite.htm|archivedate = 26 July 2011}}</ref> and may be set up anywhere the user has a [[Line-of-sight propagation|line of sight]] to the satellite's location,<ref>[http://www.compassroseintl.com/pubs/Intro_to_sats.html "Introduction to Global Satellite Systems"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023204753/http://www.compassroseintl.com/pubs/Intro_to_sats.html |date=2011-10-23 }}, ''CompassRose International Publications''<!--accessed July 12, 2011--></ref> which for satellites in [[geostationary]] orbit means having an unobstructed view of the southern sky.<ref name="Ositech" /> Some enterprise deployments combine networks from multiple cellular networks or use a mix of cellular, Wi-Fi and satellite.<ref>[http://www.netmotionwireless.com/resources/case_studies.aspx Case studies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331081316/http://www1.netmotionwireless.com/resources/case_studies.aspx |date=2012-03-31 }}, ''netmotionwireless.com''<!--accessed July 12, 2011--></ref> When using a mix of networks, a [[mobile virtual private network]] ([[mobile virtual private network|mobile VPN]]) not only handles the [[Computer security|security]] concerns, but also performs the multiple network [[login]]s automatically and keeps the [[Application software |application]] connections alive to prevent [[Crash (computing)|crashes]] or data loss during network transitions or coverage loss.<ref>Phifer, Lisa. [http://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/tip/0,289483,sid40_gci1210989_mem1,00.html "Mobile VPN: Closing the Gap"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706084816/https://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/tip/Mobile-VPN-Closing-the-gap |date=2020-07-06 }}, ''SearchMobileComputing.com'', July 16, 2006. <!--accessed July 12, 2011--></ref><ref name="Cheng">Cheng, Roger. [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB119717610996418467 "Lost Connections"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328101055/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB119717610996418467 |date=2018-03-28 }}, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', December 11, 2007. <!--accessed July 12, 2011--></ref>

==See also==
{{commons category|Mobile computers}}
* [[Lists of mobile computers]]
* [[Mobile cloud computing]]
* [[Mobile Computing and Communications Review]]
* [[Mobile development]]
* [[Mobile device management]]
* [[Mobile identity management]]
* [[Mobile interaction]]
* [[Mobile software]]
* [[Ubiquitous computing]]

== References ==

=== Footnotes ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Bibliography ===
* GH Forman, J Zahorjan - Computer, 1994 - doi.ieeecomputersociety.org
* David P. Helmbold, "A dynamic disk spin-down technique for mobile computing", citeseer.ist.psu.edu, 1996
* [[Michael Repacholi|MH Repacholi]], "health risks from the use of mobile phones", [[Toxicology Letters]], 2001 - Elsevier
* Landay, J.A. Kaufmann, T.R., "user interface issues in mobile computing", Workstation Operating Systems, 1993.
*{{cite journal| first1=T. | last1=Imieliński | author-link= Tomasz Imieliński | first2=B.R. | last2=Badrinath |title=Mobile wireless computing, challenges in data management|journal=[[Communications of the ACM]]|date= Oct 1994| volume = 37 | issue = 10 | pages=18–28| doi=10.1145/194313.194317| s2cid=20233082 | doi-access=free }} 
*{{cite journal| first1=T. | last1=Imieliński | author-link= Tomasz Imieliński | first2=B.R. | last2=Badrinath |title=Querying in highly mobile distributed environments|journal=Proceedings VLDB '92|date= 1992|pages=41–52|url=http://www.vldb.org/conf/1992/P041.PDF}} 
*{{cite book|author1=T. Imielinski |author-link= Tomasz Imieliński | author2 = H.F. Korth (Eds.)| title=Mobile Computing |year=1996|publisher= Springer | url=https://www.springer.com/us/book/9780792396970}}
*{{cite journal | first1=T. | last1=Imieliński | author-link=Tomasz Imieliński | first2=S. | last2=Viswanathan | first3=B.R. | last3=Badrinath | title=Data on Air: Organization and Access | journal=[[Knowledge engineering|IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering]] | volume=9 | issue=3 | date=May–June 1997 | pages=353–372 | url=http://arbor.ee.ntu.edu.tw/archive/mobile/imielinskida97.pdf | doi=10.1109/69.599926 | citeseerx=10.1.1.569.2573 | access-date=2017-02-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060205124646/http://arbor.ee.ntu.edu.tw/archive/mobile/imielinskida97.pdf | archive-date=2006-02-05 | url-status=dead }} 
* Roth, J. "Mobile Computing - Grundlagen, Technik, Konzepte", 2005, dpunkt.verlag, Germany
* Pullela, Srikanth. "Security Issues in Mobile Computing" http://crystal.uta.edu/~kumar/cse6392/termpapers/Srikanth_paper.pdf
*Zimmerman, James B. "Mobile Computing: Characteristics, Business Benefits, and Mobile Framework" April 2, 1999. https://web.archive.org/web/20111126105426/http://ac-support.europe.umuc.edu/~meinkej/inss690/zimmerman/INSS%20690%20CC%20-%20Mobile%20Computing.htm
* Koudounas, Vasilis. Iqbal, Omar. "Mobile Computing: Past, Present, and Future" https://web.archive.org/web/20181110210750/http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_96/journal/vol4/vk5/report.html

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | title=Mobile Computing Principles: Designing and Developing Mobile Applications with UML and XML | first=Reza | last=B'Far | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-521-81733-2}}
* {{cite book | title=Ubiquitous Computing: Smart Devices, Environments and Interactions | first=Stefan | last=Poslad | publisher=Wiley | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-470-03560-3}}
* {{cite book | title=The Wireless Internet Explained | publisher=Digital Press | year=2001 | first=John | last=Rhoton | isbn=978-1-55558-257-9}}
* {{cite book | title=Mobile Computing: Technology, Applications, and Service Creation | first1=Asoke | last1=Talukder | first2=Roopa | last2=Yavagal | publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-07-147733-8}}

{{Computer sizes}}
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[[Category:Mobile computers| ]]
[[Category:Automatic identification and data capture]]
[[Category:Mobile phones]]