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{{Infobox royalty
| name        = Mithridates II<br>{{nobold|{{lang|xpr|𐭌𐭄𐭓𐭃𐭕|italic=no}}}}
| title       = [[King of Kings]]
| image       = Coin of Mithridates II of Parthia, Ray mint.jpg
| caption     = [[Ancient drachma|Drachm]] of Mithridates II wearing a bejeweled [[tiara]] of [[Media (region)|Median]] heritage. Minted at [[Rhages]] between 96-92 BC
| succession  = King of the [[Parthian Empire]]
| reign       = 124 – 91 BC
| predecessor = [[Artabanus I of Parthia|Artabanus I]]
| successor   = [[Gotarzes I]]
| dynasty     = [[Arsacid dynasty of Parthia|Arsacid dynasty]]
| father      = [[Artabanus I of Parthia|Artabanus I]] or [[Priapatius]]
| spouse      =
| issue       = [[Gotarzes I]]<br>[[Mithridates III of Parthia|Mithridates III]]
| birth_date  =
| birth_place =
| death_date  = 91 BC
| death_place =
| religion    = [[Zoroastrianism]]
}}
'''Mithridates II''' (also spelled '''Mithradates II''' or '''Mihrdad II'''; {{langx|xpr|𐭌𐭄𐭓𐭃𐭕}} ''Mihrdāt'') was king of the [[Parthian Empire]] from 124 to 91 BC. Considered one of the greatest of his dynasty to ever rule, he was known as '''Mithridates the Great''' in antiquity.

Mithridates II was crowned king after the abrupt death of his predecessor [[Artabanus I of Parthia|Artabanus I]]. Inheriting a declining empire that was reeling from military pressure in both the east and west, Mithridates II quickly stabilized the situation in Mesopotamia by gaining the allegiance of [[Characene]], and subduing the insurgent [[Elymais|Kingdom of Elymais]] and also the [[Arabs]], who had continuously raided [[Babylonia]]. Mithridates II was the first Parthian king to extend Parthian rule into the [[Caucasus]], where the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberia]], and possibly [[Caucasian Albania]] became Parthian vassal states. To the east, he defeated and conquered the nomadic tribes in [[Bactria]] who had killed both of his predecessors. [[Sakastan]] was also reconquered, which was given as a fiefdom to the [[House of Suren]]. In 114/113 BC, he seized [[Dura-Europos]] in [[Syria (region)|Syria]] from the [[Seleucids]], and by 95 BC, the northern Mesopotamian kingdoms of [[Adiabene]], [[Gordyene]], and [[Osrhoene]] had acknowledged his authority. Under Mithridates II, the Parthian Empire reached it's zenith and extended from Syria and the Caucasus to [[Central Asia]] and [[Indian subcontinent|India]]. It was under Mithridates II that the Parthian Empire for the first time established diplomatic relations with [[Roman Republic|Rome]] and [[Han dynasty|Han China]].

A champion of [[Achaemenid]] traditions, Mithridates II was determined to emphasize the association of the ruling Arsacid dynasty with the Iranian Achaemenid Empire. He was the first Parthian monarch to regularly use the title [[King of Kings]], and portray himself with an Iranian [[tiara]] on the obverse of his [[Parthian coinage|coins]], contrary to the [[Hellenistic]] [[diadem]] used by his earlier predecessors. He also replaced the ''[[omphalos]]'' on the reverse of his coins with a highbacked throne of Achaemenid origin.

==Name==
"Mithridates" is the [[Greek language|Greek]] attestation of the [[Iranian language|Iranian]] name ''Mihrdāt'', meaning "given by [[Mithra]]", the name of the ancient Iranian sun god.{{sfn|Mayor|2009|p=1}} The name itself is derived from [[Old Iranian]] ''Miθra-dāta-''.{{sfn|Schmitt|2005}} Mithra is a prominent figure in [[Zoroastrian]] sources, where he plays the role of the patron of ''[[khvarenah]]'', i.e. kingly glory.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2016|pp=97, 99–100}} Mithra played an important role under the late Iranian [[Achaemenid Empire]], and continued to grow throughout the Greek [[Seleucid]] period, where he was associated with the Greek gods [[Apollo]] or [[Helios]], or the [[Babylonian religion|Babylonian]] god [[Nabu]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2016|p=100}} The role of Mithra peaked under the Parthians, which according to the modern historian Marek Jan Olbrycht, "seems to have been due to Zoroastrian struggles against the spread of foreign faiths in the [[Hellenistic period]]."{{sfn|Olbrycht|2016|p=100}}

== Parentage ==
The identity of Mithridates II's father is uncertain. According to 2nd-century Roman historian [[Justin (historian)|Justin]], Mithridates II was a son of his predecessor, [[Artabanus I of Parthia|Artabanus I]].{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=27}} A [[cuneiform]] tablet from 119 BC, however, cites Mithridates II; "of the Gutians who killed my brother Artabanus, and I set up (troops) opposite them and fought it with them; a great killing I performed among them; except two men."{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=27}}

*Son of [[Priapatius]]: According to Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis (2019), Mithridates II was referring to Artabanus I as his brother in the cuneiform.{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=27}} She argues that Mithridates II was a son of Priapatius (also spelled Friapatak), which is also supported by an [[ostracon]] created in 91/90 BC in [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nisa]]. On the ostracon, a Parthian king, most likely Mithridates II's son [[Gotarzes I|Gotarzes]], is mentioned as "Arsaces King, grandson of Friapatak [who is] the son of the nephew of Arsaces [I]."{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=27}}
*Son of Artabanus I: Olbrycht (2010), however, suggests that Mithridates II was not Artabanus I's brother, but a son of his. He states that Mithridates II would have been a middle aged man the time of his accession, due to Priapatius dying in 176 BC.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|p=151}} According to Olbrycht, "While not impossible, it is historically unlikely since Mithradates II's natural contestants for the throne would have been the sons of [[Phraates II]] and Mithridates I."{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|p=151}} Unlike Mithridates I and Artabanus I (who were the sons of Priapatius), Mithridates II did not use the title of ''Theopatoros'' ("whose father is a god").{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|p=151}}{{sfn|Curtis|2012|p=69}} This brother named Artabanus is not referred to as king in cuneiform, and was most likely a high-ranking officer who died in war.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|p=151}}

==Early expeditions in Mesopotamia and the Caucasus==
[[Image:Fenner, Rest. Persis, Parthia, Armenia. 1835 (A).jpg|thumb|Map depicting the [[Near East]] during the [[Hellenistic era]], by Joseph Thomas (1835)]]
At the time of his succession, the Parthian Empire was reeling from military pressures in the West and East. Several humiliating defeats at the hands of eastern nomads had sapped the strength and prestige of the kingdom.{{sfn|Frye|1984|pp=212-213}} Mithridates II quickly gained the allegiance of the [[Characene]]an ruler [[Hyspaosines]], who had originally fought the Parthians, and briefly seized [[Babylon]] in 127 BC.{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|pp=111, 150–151}} Hyspaosines returned the wooden throne of [[Arsaces]]{{clarify|date=July 2022}} to Mithridates II as a gift to the god [[Bel (mythology)|Bel]].{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=117}} Mithridates II now turned his eyes on [[Elymais]], which had been originally under direct Parthian rule, but had been seized by the independent [[Elam]]ite king Pittit after Artabanus I's death.{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|pp=117–118}} Mithridates II invaded Elymais and captured [[Susa]].{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|pp=115–116}} Then he confronted Pittit in a final battle, where he defeated him and conquered Elymais.{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|pp=116–118}} Around the same time, Hyspaosines died, and the Parthian commander Sindates was appointed as the governor of Characene.{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=168}}

It was first under Mithridates II that Parthian rule extended into the [[Caucasus]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=165}} He noticed the strategic position of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]] between [[Asia Minor]], the Caucasus, and Iran.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=165}} In {{circa|120 BC}}, Mithridates II invaded Armenia and made its king [[Artavasdes I of Armenia|Artavasdes I]] acknowledge Parthian suzerainty.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=165}} Artavasdes I was forced to give the Parthians [[Tigranes the Great|Tigranes]] as a hostage, who was either his son or nephew.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=165}}{{sfn|Garsoian|2005}} Control over Armenia would remain one of the most essential objectives in Parthian policy till the end of the dynasty.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=165}} Other Caucasian kingdoms such as [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberia]] most likely also became a Parthian vassal state, and possibly also [[Caucasian Albania]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|pp=170–171}} Massive circulation of Parthian coins into Iberia, along with Armenia and Caucasian Albania, indicates that these kingdoms had been swayed by the influence of the Parthians.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=171}} According to Babylonian documents, [[Babylonia]] was constantly suffering from raids by [[Arabs]], which had agitated Mithridates II considerably.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=148}} In the spring of 119 BC, a Parthian force inflicted a defeat on the Arabs, which was heavy enough to make them stop their raids for a period.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=149}} It is unclear whether the force was led by Mithridates II or a Parthian commander.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=149}} The Parthian force most likely left for [[Media (region)|Media]] afterwards, seemingly in order to join the upcoming expedition against the nomads in the east.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=149}}

Parthian interests were also directed towards [[Syria (region)|Syria]], which had first been demanded by the Parthians after [[Phraates II]] ({{reign|132|127|era=BC}}) defeated the [[Seleucid]] king (''[[basileus]]'') [[Antiochus VII Sidetes]] ({{reign|138|129|era=BC}}) in 129 BC.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=165}} In 114/113 BC, Mithridates II captured the important Seleucid city of [[Dura-Europos]], which was situated on the [[Euphrates]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=165}} The Seleucid realm was at this time frail and entangled in ceaseless internal strifes and struggles for power against the [[Nabataeans]], various local kings, Jews, and Greek cities in Syria and [[Phoenicia]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=165}}

== Wars to the east ==
According to Justin, Mithridates II avenged the death of his "parents or ancestors" (''ultor iniuriae parentum''), which indicates that he fought and defeated the [[Tocharians]], who had killed Artabanus I and Phraates II.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|p=151}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2015|p=334}} Mithridates II also reconquered western [[Bactria]] from the [[Scythians]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|p=151}} [[Parthian coinage]] and scattered reports imply that Mithridates II ruled [[Balkh|Bactra]], Kampyrtepa, and [[Termez]], which means that he had reconquered the very lands that been conquered by his namesake [[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]] ({{reign|171|132 BC}}).{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|pp=151–152}} Control over the middle [[Amu Darya]] including [[Türkmenabat|Amul]] was vital for the Parthians, in order to thwart incursions by nomads from [[Transoxiana]], particularly from [[Sogdia]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|p=152}} Parthian coins continued to be minted in western Bactria and in the middle Amu Darya until the reign of [[Gotarzes II]] ({{reign|40|51|era=AD}}).{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|p=152}}

Nomadic invasions had also reached the eastern Parthian province of [[Drangiana]], where strong [[Saka]] dominions had been established,{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|pp=152–153}} thus giving the rise to the name [[Sistan|Sakastan]] ("land of the Saka").{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=193}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1997|pp=681–685}} These nomads had probably migrated to the area due to the pressure that Artabanus I and Mithridates II had been putting against them in the north.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|p=153}} Sometime between 124 and 115 BC, Mithridates II sent an army led by a general of the [[House of Suren]] to recapture to the region.{{sfn|Gazerani|2015|p=14}} After Sakastan was incorporated back into the Parthian realm, Mithridates II rewarded the region to the Surenid general as his fiefdom.{{sfn|Gazerani|2015|p=14}} The eastern extent of the Parthian Empire under Mithridates II reached as far as [[Arachosia]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2010|p=153}}

== Further expansions to the west, and contact with the Romans ==
Tigranes remained a hostage at the Parthian court until {{circa|96/95 BC}}, when Mithridates II released him and appointed as the king of Armenia.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=168}}{{sfn|Dąbrowa|2018|p=78}} Tigranes ceded an area called "seventy valleys" in the [[Caspiane]] to Mithridates II, either as a pledge or because Mithridates II demanded it.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|pp=165, 182 (see note 57)}} Tigranes' daughter [[Ariazate]] had also married a son of Mithridates II, which has been suggested by the modern historian Edward Dąbrowa to have taken place shortly before he ascended the Armenian throne as a guarantee of his loyalty.{{sfn|Dąbrowa|2018|p=78}} Tigranes would remain a Parthian vassal until the end of the 80s BC.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=169}} The following year, Mithridates II attacked [[Adiabene]], [[Gordyene]] and [[Osrhoene]] and conquered these [[city state]]s, shifting the western border of the Parthian realm to the Euphrates.{{sfn|Kia|2016|pp=55, 186}} There the Parthians encountered the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] for the first time. In 96 BC Mithridates II sent one of his officials, [[Orobazus]], as an envoy to [[Sulla]]. As the Romans were increasing in power and influence, the Parthians sought friendly relations with the Romans and thus wanted to reach an agreement that assured mutual respect between the two powers.{{sfn|Dignas|Winter|2007|p=12}} Negotiations followed in which Sulla apparently gained the upper hand, which made Orobazus and the Parthians look like supplicants. Orobazus would later be executed.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sulla*.html#5.4. Plutarch, ''Life of Sulla'' 5.4]</ref>{{sfn|Dignas|Winter|2007|p=12}}

== Diplomatic activity with China ==
[[File:Silk from Mawangdui 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Han dynasty|Han-dynasty]] Chinese [[silk]] from [[Mawangdui]], 2nd century BC, silk from [[History of China|China]] was perhaps the most lucrative luxury item the Parthians traded at the western end of the [[Silk Road]]{{sfn|Garthwaite|2005|p=78}}]]
In 121 BC the Chinese under [[Emperor Wu of Han]] had defeated the [[Xiongnu]] in the east and were expanding westwards in force. In [[Ferghana]] the Chinese encountered the sphere of influence of the Parthians. A Chinese delegation to the Parthian court is attested for the year 120 BC. In the following year the [[Silk Road]] was opened up to trade.{{sfn|Schippmann|1986|pp=525–536}} The strength and welfare of the empire under Mithridates II has been described by one Chinese traveler as the following:

{{quote box|width=750px|align=center|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quote="Anxi [Parthia] is situated several thousand ''[[Li (unit)|li]]'' west of the region of the Great Yuezhi. The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rices and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan [Farghana], the region containing several hundred cities of various sizes. The kingdom, which borders the Gui [Oxus River], is very large, measuring several thousand ''li'' square. Some of the inhabitants are merchants who travel by cart or boats to neighbouring countries, sometimes journeying several thousand ''li''. The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing horizontally on strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozhi [Mesopotamia] and to the north Yancai and Lixuan [Hyrcania]. Tiaozhi [Mesopotamia] is situated several thousand ''li'' west of Anxi [Parthia] and borders the western sea [the Persian Gulf]. It is hot and damp, and the people live by cultivating the fields and planting rice. In this region live great birds which lay eggs as large as pots. The people are very numerous and are ruled by many petty chiefs. The ruler of Anxi [Parthia] gives orders to these chiefs and regards them as his vassals. The people are very skillful at performing tricks that amaze the eye."|source=Sima Qian: 234–235{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=186–187}}}}

== Death and succession ==
Mithridates II's last years of rule took place in a period coined in scholarship as the "[[Parthian Dark Age]]", which refers to a period of three decades in the history of Parthian Empire starting from the death (or last years) of Mithridates II. It is referred to as a "Dark Age" due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns.<ref>{{harvnb|Shayegan|2011|pp=188–189}}; {{harvnb|Sellwood|1976|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Mørkholm|1980|p=33}}</ref> It is only with the beginning of the reign of [[Orodes II]] in {{circa|57 BC}}, that the line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced.{{sfn|Sellwood|1976|p=2}} Coins, reliefs and [[Babylonian astronomical diaries]] label [[Gotarzes I|Gotarzes]] as the son and heir of Mithridates II.{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=225}}{{sfn|Rezakhani|2013|p=770}} According to a heavily damaged relief at [[Mount Behistun|Behistun]], Gotarzes had served as "satrap of satraps" under his father.{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=225}}{{sfn|Rezakhani|2013|p=770}} After the death of Mithridates II in 91 BC, Gotarzes was proclaimed king at [[Babylon]].{{sfn|Assar|2006|p=62}}

The death of Mithridates II marks a period of decline for the Parthian empire. The political instability which followed along with weakened central authority resulted in significant territorial losses. [[Tigranes the Great|Tigranes of Armenia]] was able to capitalise on the situation and wrestled control of a strategically significant region in Armenia which had long been part of the Parthian empire. The crisis only came to an end with the ascension of [[Sinatruces of Parthia|Sinatruces]] to the Arsacid throne.<ref>{{Cite book |last=dabrowa |first=edward |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0199390427 |editor-last=Daryaee |editor-first=Touraj |pages=171 |chapter=6, THE ARSACID EMPIRE}}</ref>

== Rock relief ==
[[Image:Behistun I by Grelot (3947923635).jpg|thumb|Sketch of the rock relief portraying Mithridates II and four grandees at [[Mount Behistun]]]]
At [[Mount Behistun]] in western Iran, there is a [[rock relief]] which depicts four figures paying respect to a fifth figure.{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=197}} The relief, along with its Greek inscription, heavily damaged, was partly reconstructed by the German archaeologist [[Ernst Herzfeld]] (d. 1948), and reads the following:{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|pp=197–198}}

{{blockquote|"Kophasates, Mithrates, [...] Gotarzes the satrap of satraps, and the great king Mithradates."}}

Rahim M. Shayegan (2011), has suggested, contrary to other scholars, that the rock relief was not constructed during the reign of Mithridates II, but during that of his son and successor Gotarzes, perhaps as an attempt to stress the legitimacy of his sovereignty by portraying the prestigious status of himself and his officers during Mithridates II's kingship.{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=226}} He identifies the first figure with the Parthian satrap Kofzad;{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=198}} the second figure with the Parthian commander Mitratu, who first rose to a distinguished position under Gotarzes;{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|pp=198–200, 226}} the third figure with Gotarzes' son and heir [[Orodes I|Orodes]];{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=226}} and the fourth with Gotarzes himself, who served as "satrap of satraps" under his father.{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|pp=198, 225}}

== Imperial ideology and coinage ==
[[Image:Tetradrachm of Mithridates II of Parthia, minted at Seleucia between 120 and 109 BC.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tetradrachm]] of Mithridates II, [[Seleucia]] mint (between 120 and 109 BC)]]

Since the early 2nd-century BC, the Arsacids had begun adding obvious signals in their dynastic ideology, which emphasized their association with the heritage of the ancient [[Achaemenid Empire]]. Examples of these signs included a fictitious claim that the first Arsacid king, [[Arsaces I of Parthia|Arsaces I]] ({{reign|247|217 BC}}) was a descendant of the Achaemenid [[King of Kings]], [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] ({{reign|404|358 BC}}).{{sfn|Dąbrowa|2012|p=179}} Achaemenid titles were also assumed by the Arsacids, including the title of "King of Kings" by [[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]] ({{reign|171|132 BC}}). However, the title was only infrequently used by Mithridates I, and it was first under Mithridates II, from c. 109/8 BC onwards, that the use of the title became a regular feature.{{sfn|Dąbrowa|2012|p=179}}{{sfn|Schippmann|1986|pp=525–536}} The new title was used both on coins and engravings (attested in Greek as BAΣIΛEΥΣ BAΣIΛEΩN), and also Babylonian accounts, where it is attested as ''šar šarrāni''.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=165}} Mithridates II was more determined than his predecessors as heir and guardian of Achaemenid heritage.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=165}}
[[Image:Coin of Mithridates II of Parthia (obverse and reverse, wearing a diadem), Ray mint.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ancient drachma|Drachm]] of Mithridates II wearing a [[diadem]]]]
[[Image:Coin of Mithridates II of Parthia (obverse and reverse), Ray mint.jpg|thumb|Drachm of Mithridates II wearing a [[tiara]], minted at [[Rhages]] between 96-92 BC]]
At the start of his reign, Mithridates II briefly used the Greek title ''Soter'' ("Saviour"), which was used on his coin mints in [[Ecbatana]] and [[Rhages]].{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=29}} The reason behind his use of the title is uncertain. Olbrycht (2010) has proposed that he adopted the title due to his victory over the nomads, while Grenet (2006) has proposed that ''Soter'' could be seen as a Mithraic title from an Iranian point of view, in connection to Mithra's role as a saviour in Zoroastrianism.{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=29}}
[[Image:Coin of Ardashir I, minted in Hamadan.jpg|thumb|left|Drachm of the [[Sasanian]] king [[Ardashir I]] ({{reign|224|242|era=AD}}) wearing the same type of tiara used by Mithridates II]]
The early Arsacid monarchs are depicted on the obverse of their coins with a soft cap, known as the ''[[bashlyk]]'', which had also been worn by Achaemenid [[satrap]]s.{{sfn|Dąbrowa|2012|p=179}} From Mithridates I, the Hellenistic [[diadem]] was used by the Arsacid kings. The diadem was also used during the early reign of Mithridates II, until he later started using a tall bejewelled [[tiara]] or ''kolah'' (tall hat).<ref>{{harvnb|Dąbrowa|2012|p=179}}; {{harvnb|Frye|1984|p=217}}; {{harvnb|Curtis|2019|p=27}}</ref> The tiara was of [[Media (region)|Median]] origin; in the Achaemenid era, high ranking Median officers wore a tall, domed headdress, which was part of the Median national dress.{{sfn|Olbrycht|1997|p=40}} Media, a region in central Iran which neighboured Parthia, was an important part of the Parthian realm under Mithridates II.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=155}}

According to Justin, the [[Parthian language]] shared many features with [[Median language|Median]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=155}} The Parthians admired Median customs,{{sfn|Olbrycht|1997|p=40}} and seemingly got familiar with Achaemenid heritage through Media.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=155}} The tiara would be used by many Parthian kings, particularly in the late Parthian period.<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|pp=101–102}}; {{harvnb|Curtis|2007|p=15}}</ref> This type of tiara was also later used by the vassal kings of the Parthians, such as the [[Kings of Persis]].{{sfn|Dąbrowa|2012|p=179}}{{sfn|Sellwood|1983|p=304}} The founder of the [[Sasanian Empire]], [[Ardashir I]] ({{reign|224|242|era=AD}}), also used this tiara.{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=28}} Like Artabanus I, Mithridates II is depicted on the obverse of his coins wearing an Iranian rider garb—the [[Parthian dress|Parthian trouser-suit]].{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=27}}

The reverse of Mithridates II's coin mints also see a major chance during his reign. Since the start of the Arsacid dynasty, the reverse of the coins had depicted a seated bowman wearing a ''[[bashlyk]]'', which greatly resembled the coins of the Achaemenid satrap [[Datames]] (d. 362 BC).{{sfn|Curtis|2012|p=68}}{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=28}} The bowman was originally depicted seated on a ''[[diphros]]'', however, under Mithridates I this was changed to an ''[[omphalos]]''.{{sfn|Curtis|2012|pp=68–69}}{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=28}} [[Tetradrachm]]s minted at Seleucia and Susa under Mithridates II, including his early coin mints from central Iran and [[Merv|Marw]] in Margiana, maintained the same style.{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=28}} However, on the coins minted in Ecbatana and Rhages, a tail-like piece of fabric has been added on the back of the bowman.{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=28}} In 117–111 BC, the ''omphalos'' was replaced by a highbacked throne, which was originally used in the Achaemenid era.{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=28}} The long piece of fabric has also been removed.{{sfn|Curtis|2019|p=28}} During military assemblies and campaigns, a horse or [[gorytos]] was depicted on the reverse of his coins.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2009|p=151}}

== Assessment and legacy ==
[[Image:Map of the Parthian Empire under Mithridates II.svg|thumb|Map of the Parthian Empire under Mithridates II]]
Mithridates II is viewed favourably by both ancient and modern historians, who consider him one of the greatest and successful Parthian monarchs to ever rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=152}}; {{harvnb|Kia|2016|p=185}}</ref> Justin says the following about him;

{{Blockquote
|text="He was succeeded by his son Mithridates, to whom his achievements procured the surname of Great; for, being fired with a desire to emulate the merit of his ancestors, he was enabled by the vast powers of his mind to surpass their renown. He carried on many wars, with great bravery, against his neighbours, and added many provinces to the Parthian kingdom. He fought successfully, too, several times, against the Scythians, and avenged the injuries received from them by his forefathers."
|author=Justin
|title=XLI, 2
|source=<!-- ''Book Title'' (date) --><ref name="JUS">Justin, {{usurped|1=[https://archive.today/20120530143413/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans41.html XLI.2]}}.</ref>
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
=== Ancient works ===
*[[Strabo]], ''[[Geographica]]''.
*[[Justin (historian)|Justin]], Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus.

=== Modern works ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |first=Gholamreza F. |last=Assar |journal=Parthica |page=55-104 |title=A Revised Parthian Chronology of the Period 91–55 BC |publisher=Instituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali  |year=2006 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Assar |first=Gholamreza F. |year=2009 |title=Artabanus of Trogus Pompeius' 41st Prologue |journal=Electrum |publisher=Kraków |volume=15}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran |volume=3a |last=Bickerman |first=Elias J. |chapter=The Seleucid Period |pages=3–20}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran |volume=3a |last=Bivar |first=A.D.H. |chapter=The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids |pages=21–99}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |article=Gondophares |last=Bivar |first=A. D. H. |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gondophares |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XI, Fasc. 2 |pages=135–136 |year=2002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Brosius |first=Maria |title=The Persians: An Introduction |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |location=London & New York |isbn=0-415-32089-5}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bosworth  |first=Clifford Edmund |title=Sīstān |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Islam |edition=New |volume=9 (San–Sze) |location=Leiden, and New York |publisher=Brill |year=1997 |isbn=978-90-04-08265-6 |pages=681–685 |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-1/sistan-SIM_5452?s.num=247&s.rows=100&s.start=180 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Curtis |editor-first=Vesta Sarkhosh |editor2-last=Stewart |editor2-first=Sarah |title=The Age of the Parthians |series=Ideas of Iran, vol. 2 |year=2007 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Curtis |first=Vesta Sarkhosh |chapter=The Iranian Revival in the Parthian Period |pages=7–25 |title=The Age of the Parthians: The Ideas of Iran |volume=2 |year=2007 |publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., in association with the London Middle East Institute at SOAS and the British Museum |location=London & New York |editor-last1=Curtis |editor-first1=Vesta Sarkhosh |editor-last2=Stewart |editor-first2=Sarah |isbn=978-1-84511-406-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Curtis |first=Vesta Sarkhosh |chapter=Parthian coins: Kingship and Divine Glory |title=The Parthian Empire and its Religions |isbn=9783940598134 |date=2012 |pages=67–83 |publisher=Computus Druck Satz & Verlag |url=https://www.academia.edu/6186948 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Curtis |first1=Vesta Sarkhosh |title=From Mithradat I (c. 171-138 BCE) to Mithradat II (c. 122/1-91 BCE): the Formation of Arsacid Parthian Iconography |journal=Afarin Nameh |date=2019 |pages=25–31 |url=https://www.academia.edu/40818533}} {{free access}}
* {{cite book |title=Parthian art |year=1977 |publisher=Elek |last=Colledge |first=Malcolm A. R. |pages=1–200 |isbn=9780236400850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G0lNAAAAYAAJ&q=false }}
* {{cite journal |last=Dąbrowa |first=Edward |title=Mithradates I and the Beginning of the Ruler-cult in Parthia |journal=Electrum |date=2009 |volume=15 |pages=41–51 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1502240 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal |journal=Altertum und Gegenwart |editor-first1=Robert |editor-last1=Rollinger |editor-first2=Gundula |editor-last2=Schwinghammer |editor-first3=Brigitte |editor-last3=Truschnegg |editor-first4=Kordula |editor-last4=Schnegg |last1=Dąbrowa |first1=Edward |title=The Arsacids and their State |date=2010 |volume=XI |pages=21–52 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2348544 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dąbrowa |first=Edward |title=The Parthian Aristocracy: its Social Position and Political Activity |journal=Parthica |date=2013 |volume=15 |pages=53–62 |url=https://www.academia.edu/13465788 |url-access=registration}} 
* {{cite journal |last1=Dąbrowa |first1=Edward |title=Arsacid Dynastic Marriages |journal=Electrum |date=2018 |volume=25 |pages=73–83 |doi=10.4467/20800909EL.18.005.8925 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |first1=Edward |last1=Dąbrowa |editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |editor1-link=Touraj Daryaee |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |date=2012 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |chapter=The Arsacid Empire |pages=1–432 |isbn=978-0-19-987575-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-poAgAAQBAJ |access-date=2019-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190101051501/https://books.google.dk/books?id=K-poAgAAQBAJ&pg |archive-date=2019-01-01 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |author1-first=Beate |author1-last=Dignas |author2-first=Engelbert |author2-last=Winter |title=Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals |year=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84925-8}}
* {{cite book |title=The History of Ancient Iran |year=1984 |publisher=C.H.Beck |last=Frye |first=Richard Nelson |author-link=Richard Nelson Frye |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye/page/n20 1]–411 |isbn=9783406093975 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye |url-access=registration |quote=false. }}
* {{cite book |last=Garthwaite |first=Gene Ralph |title=The Persians |year=2005 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing, Ltd. |location=Oxford & Carlton |isbn=1-55786-860-3}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Tigran II |last=Garsoian |first=Nina |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tigran-ii |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |year=2005 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Sistani Cycle of Epics and Iran's National History: On the Margins of Historiography |year=2015 |publisher=BRILL |last=Gazerani |first=Saghi |pages=1–250 |isbn=9789004282964 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=92zsCgAAQBAJ&q=false}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |article=Nisa |last=Invernizzi |first=Antonio |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nisa |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica }}
* {{cite book |last=Katouzian |first=Homa |title=The Persians: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Iran |year=2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven & London |isbn=978-0-300-12118-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kawami |first1=Trudy S. |editor-last=Potts |editor-first=Daniel T. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Parthian and Elymaean Rock Reliefs}}
* {{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=David |author-link=David L. Kennedy |editor-given1=David L. |editor-surname1=Kennedy |editor-given2=David |editor-surname2=Braund |chapter=Parthia and Rome: eastern perspectives |pages=67–90 |title=The Roman Army in the East |year=1996 |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=Cushing Malloy Inc., Journal of Roman Archaeology: Supplementary Series Number Eighteen |isbn=1-887829-18-0}}
* {{cite encyclopedia  |last=Hansman |first=John F.  |article=Elymais |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elymais |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 4 |pages=373–376 |year=1998 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kia |first1=Mehrdad |title=The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1610693912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B5BHDAAAQBAJ&q=false}}
* {{cite book  |last=Mathiesen |first=Hans Erik |title=Sculpture in the Parthian Empire |year=1992 |publisher=Aarhus University Press |pages=1–231 |isbn=9788772883113 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OszVAAAAMAAJ&q=false }}
* {{cite book |last=Mayor |first=Adrienne |title=The Poison King: The Life and Legend of Mithradates, Rome's Deadliest Enemy |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691150260 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKnFZa4LNjQC |pages=1–448}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mørkholm |first=Otto |year=1980 |title=The Parthian Coinage of Seleucia on the Tigris, c. 90-55 B.C. |journal=The Numismatic Chronicle |publisher=Royal Numismatic Society |volume=20 |pages=33–47 |jstor=42667078 }} {{Registration required}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nabel |first1=Jake |title=Arsacids, Romans and Local Elites: Cross-Cultural Interactions of the Parthian Empire |editor-first1=Jason M. |editor-last1=Schlude |editor-first2=Benjamin B. |editor-last2=Rubin |chapter=The Seleucids Imprisoned: Arsacid-Roman Hostage Submission and Its Hellenistic Precedents |year=2017 |pages=25–50 |url=https://www.academia.edu/37449655 |url-access=registration}} 
* {{cite journal  |last=Olbrycht |first=Marek Jan |journal=Notae Numismaticae |title=Parthian King's tiara - Numismatic evidence and some aspects of Arsacid political ideology |date=1997 |volume=2 |pages=27–61 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1493021 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Olbrycht |first=Marek Jan |url=https://www.academia.edu/865473 |editor1-first=Jakob Munk |editor1-last=Højte |year=2009 |chapter=Mithridates VI Eupator and Iran |title=Mithridates VI and the Pontic Kingdom |publisher=Aarhus University Press |series=Black Sea Studies |volume=9 |issn=1903-4873 |isbn=978-8779344433 |pages=163–190}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Olbrycht |first1=Marek Jan |title=The early reign of Mithradates II the Great in Parthia |date=2010 |volume=1 |pages=144–158 |journal=Anabasis. Studia Classica et Orientalia |url=https://www.academia.edu/1492984 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite conference |last=Olbrycht |first=Marek Jan |date=2015 |title=Arsacid Iran and the Nomads of Central Asia – Ways of Cultural Transfer |doi=10.6084/m9.figshare.9746519.v1 |location=Bonn |conference=Bonn Contributions to Asian Archaeology |publisher=Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn |volume=7 |url=https://www.academia.edu/12173945 |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Olbrycht |first1=Marek Jan |journal=Anabasis. Studia Classica et Orientalia |title=The Sacral Kingship of the early Arsacids I. Fire Cult and Kingly Glory |date=2016 |pages=91–106 |url=https://www.academia.edu/33754166 |url-access=registration}} 
* {{cite book |last=Pourshariati |first=Parvaneh |title=Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran |location=London and New York |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84511-645-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-xtAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rezakhani |first1=Khodadad |author-link1=Khodadad Rezakhani |editor-last=Potts |editor-first=Daniel T. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Arsacid, Elymaean, and Persid Coinage}}
* {{cite book |last=Rezakhani |first=Khodadad |title=ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity |year=2017 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press  |chapter=East Iran in Late Antiquity |pages=1–256 |isbn=9781474400305 |jstor=10.3366/j.ctt1g04zr8 }} {{registration required}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Schippmann |first=K. |article=Arsacids ii. The Arsacid dynasty |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arsacids-ii |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5 |pages=525–536 |year=1986 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |title=Personal Names, Iranian iv. Parthian Period |author-link=Rüdiger Schmitt |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/personal-names-iranian-iv-parthian |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |year=2005 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sellwood |first=David |year=1976 |title=The Drachms of the Parthian "Dark Age" |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=2–25 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00132988 |jstor=25203669 |s2cid=161619682 }} {{Registration required}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran |last=Sellwood |first=David |volume=3a |chapter=Minor States in Southern Iran |pages=299–322}}
* {{cite book |last=Shayegan |first=M. Rahim  |title=Arsacids and Sasanians: Political Ideology in Post-Hellenistic and Late Antique Persia |year=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=1–539 |isbn=9780521766418 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_gcyC8l80MC&q=false }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sinisi |first1=Fabrizio |editor1-last=Metcalf |editor1-first=William E. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195305746 |chapter=The Coinage of the Parthians}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Overtoom |first=Nikolaus Leo |date=2019 |title=A Reconsideration of Mithridates II's Early Reign: A Savior Restores the Eastern Frontier of the Parthian Empire |url=http://digital.casalini.it/10.19272/201903501003 |journal=Parthica |issue=21 |doi=10.19272/201903501003}}
{{refend}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Arsacid Empire|Arsacid dynasty]]||||91 BC}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Artabanus I of Parthia|Artabanus I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Parthian monarchs|King of the Parthian Empire]]|years=124–91 BC}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Gotarzes I]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Parthian kings}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mithridates 02 Of Parthia}}
[[Category:91 BC deaths]]
[[Category:2nd-century BC monarchs in Asia]]
[[Category:1st-century BC Parthian monarchs]]
[[Category:2nd-century BC births]]
[[Category:2nd-century BC Iranian people]]
[[Category:2nd-century BC Parthian monarchs]]