View source for Missoula floods

{{short description|Heavy floods of the last ice age}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox weather event
| image      = Wpdms nasa topo missoula floods.jpg
| image_size = 
| alt        = <!--(short description of image per [[WP:ALT]])-->
| caption    = [[Glacial Lake Columbia]] (west) and [[Glacial Lake Missoula]] (east) are shown south of the [[Cordilleran ice sheet]]. The areas inundated in the Columbia and Missoula floods are shown in red.
| duration   = Between 15,000 and 13,000 years ago
| cause      = Ice dam ruptures
}}{{Infobox weather event/Storm
| type = Flood
}}{{Infobox weather event/Effects
| total damages = 
| injuries = 
| fatalities = 
| peoples affected = 
| missing = 
| houses-destroyed = 
| areas = The current states of:<br /> [[Idaho]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], and [[Oregon]]
}}{{Infobox weather event/Footer
}}
The '''Missoula floods''' (also known as the '''Spokane floods''', the '''Bretz floods''', or '''Bretz's floods''') were a series of cataclysmic [[glacial lake outburst flood|glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs)]] that swept periodically across the area that would become [[Washington (state)|Eastern Washington]], [[Idaho|Northern Idaho]] and [[Oregon|Northern Oregon]], and down the [[Columbia River Gorge]] at the end of the last [[ice age]]. These floods were the result of periodic sudden ruptures of the ice dam on the [[Clark Fork River]] that created [[Glacial Lake Missoula]]. After each ice dam rupture, the waters of the lake would rush down the Clark Fork and the [[Columbia River]], flooding much of eastern Washington and the [[Willamette Valley]] in western [[Oregon]]. After the lake drained, the ice would reform, creating glacial Lake Missoula again.

== Early flood stories and postulates ==
Indigenous North-American Flood Stories have been passed on for millennia and may have been inspired by firsthand witnesses of the ancient megafloods.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morning Owl (Umatilla) |first=Thomas |date=2025-09-11 |title=Indigenous Flood Stories From 14000 years-ago |url=https://iafi.org/indigenous-flood-stories-from-14000-years-ago/ |access-date=2025-09-11 |website=Ice Age Floods Institute}}</ref> The [[Kalapuya]] people described an "atswin" (flood) in the story of "''Panther, coyote, whale’s daughter, the flood, obtaining the fire''".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacobs |first=Melville |date=1945 |title=Kalapuya texts. Part I.Santiam Kalapuya ethnologic texts |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89058381260&seq=11 |journal=University of Washington Publications in Anthropology |volume=11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=G. Lewis |first=David |date=2017-04-08 |title=Kalapuyan Eyewitnesses to the Megaflood in the Willamette Valley |url=https://ndnhistoryresearch.com/2017/04/08/kalapuyan-eyewitnesses-to-the-megaflood-in-the-willamette-valley/ |access-date=2025-09-11 |website=The Quartux Journal by David G. Lewis PhD}}</ref> Evidence also comes from local topographic naming. The [[Sahaptin]] name given to the [[Rattlesnake Mountain (Benton County, Washington)#History|Rattlesnake Ridge]] near [[Hanford, Washington|Hanford]] is "Laliik," which translates as "''stands above the water.''" Yet, there is no water around Rattlesnake Ridge today.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tate |first=Cassandra |date=2008-03-26 |title=Ice Age Floods in Washington, a HistoryLink Essay |url=https://www.historylink.org/file/8449 |access-date=2025-09-11 |website=HistoryLink}}</ref> 

Other early explorers, military, local teachers and scientists had from the beginning ascribed the [[Channeled Scablands|Scablands]] to extensive flows of water. Probably the two most germane to the flood story are the 1882 expedition of Lt. Thomas William Symons ([[United States Army Corps of Engineers|U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]]) for naming [[Lake Lewis|glacial Lake Lewis]] and the 1885 explorations of [[Thomas_Chrowder_Chamberlin|T.C. Chamberlin]] for identifying the source of the floodwater as glacial Lake Missoula. In March 1917, Thomas Bonser wrote an article for the [[The Spokesman-Review|''The Spokesman-Review'']] about pre-historic [[Spokane, Washington|Spokane]], in which he accurately described what is now called [[Glacial Lake Columbia]]. In 1910, [[Joseph_Pardee| J. Pardee]] published a paper that identified [[Glacial Lake Missoula]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kiefer |first=Dean |last2=Sola |first2=Richard |date=2023-10-01 |title=Welcome to Our World, Professor Bretz, Spokane and the Inland Empire Ice Age Floods Controversy, 1920–1930 |url=https://www.geology.cwu.edu/facstaff/nick/gFLOODS/2023_Sola_WelcomeBretz.pdf |journal=The Pacific Northwesterner |publisher=Gray Dog Press |publication-place=Spokane, Washington |volume=67 |issue=2 |issn=0030-882X}}</ref> 

[[Thomas Large]], [[Alonzo Pearl Troth]], Thomas Bonser, Joseph McMacken, and others conducted field work in and around Spokane that led to a deeper understanding of the local [[geology]] and [[paleobotany]]. Their work made the previous existence of a giant lake in that area widely known not only to scientists, but also to the general public. Thomas Large reported in 1922 his own observations regarding glaciations and possible floods in [[Science_(journal)|Science]] and gave the hypothetical lake the name "Lake Spokane".

== Flood estimates ==
These floods have been researched since the 1920s. During the last [[deglaciation]] that followed the end of the [[Last Glacial Maximum]], geologists estimate that a cycle of flooding and reformation of the lake lasted an average of 55 years and that the floods occurred dozens of times over the 2,000 years between 15,000 and 13,000 years ago. [[U.S. Geological Survey]] hydrologist Jim O'Connor and [[Spain]]'s [[Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales]] scientist Gerardo Benito have found evidence of at least twenty-five massive floods, the largest discharging about 10 cubic kilometers per hour (2.7 million m³/s, 13 times that of the [[Amazon River]]).<ref name="hill">{{cite news|url=http://www.oregonlive.com/O/relationships/index.ssf?/base/living/1212706534232180.xml&coll=7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804005511/http://www.oregonlive.com/O/relationships/index.ssf?%2Fbase%2Fliving%2F1212706534232180.xml&coll=7 |archive-date=2008-08-04 |title=Science writer Richard Hill gives a brief geologic history of the Columbia River Gorge |access-date=2008-06-15 |work=The Oregonian  }}</ref><ref name=Lehnigk>{{cite journal|last1=Lehnigk|first1=KE|last2=Larsen|first2=IJ|year=2022|title=Pleistocene megaflood discharge in Grand Coulee, Channeled Scabland, USA|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|volume=127|issue=1 |article-number=e2021JF006135|doi=10.1029/2021JF006135|bibcode=2022JGRF..12706135L |s2cid=245545657 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Alternate estimates for the peak flow rate of the largest flood range up to 17 cubic kilometers per hour.<ref name=Bjornstad>{{cite book | last =Bjornstad | first =Bruce N. | title =On the trail of the Ice Age floods: a geological field guide to the mid-Columbia basin / Bruce Bjornstad. | publisher =Keokee Books | date =c. 2006 | location =Sandpoint, Idaho | page =2 | isbn = 978-1-879628-27-4}}</ref> The maximum flow speed approached 36 meters/second (130&nbsp;km/h or 80&nbsp;mph).<ref name=Bjornstad/>

Within the [[Columbia River drainage basin]], detailed investigation of the Missoula floods' [[glaciofluvial deposits]], informally known as the ''Hanford formation'', has documented the presence of [[Middle Pleistocene|Middle]] and [[Early Pleistocene]] Missoula flood deposits within the Othello Channels, Columbia River Gorge, [[Channeled Scabland]], Quincy Basin, Pasco Basin, and the [[Walla Walla Valley]]. Based on the presence of multiple [[interglacial]] [[calcrete]]s interbedded with flood deposits, [[magnetostratigraphy]], [[optically stimulated luminescence]] dating, and [[unconformity]] truncated [[clastic dike]]s, it has been estimated that the oldest of the [[Pleistocene]] Missoula floods happened before 1.5 million years ago. Because of the fragmentary nature of older glaciofluvial deposits, which have been largely removed by subsequent Missoula floods, within the Hanford formation, the exact number of older Missoula floods, which are known as ''ancient cataclysmic floods'', that occurred during the Pleistocene cannot be estimated with any confidence.<ref name="Medley2012a">Medley, E. (2012) ''Ancient Cataclysmic Floods in the Pacific Northwest: Ancestors to the Missoula Floods.'' Unpublished Masters thesis, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon. 174 pp.</ref><ref name="Spencerothers2012a">Spencer, P. K., and M. A. Jaffee (2002) ''Pre-Late Wisconsinan Glacial Outburst Floods in Southeastern Washington—The Indirect Record.'' Washington Geology. vol. 30, no. 1/2, pp. 9–16.</ref>

==Flood hypothesis proposed==
[[File:Giant ripple marks.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Giant ripple marks at Markle Pass near [[Camas Hot Springs]], Montana, U.S. View towards the northwest.]]
[[Geologist]] [[J Harlen Bretz]] first recognized evidence of the catastrophic floods, which he called the ''Spokane floods'', in the 1920s. He was researching the Channeled Scablands in [[Eastern Washington]], the [[Columbia Gorge]], and the [[Willamette Valley]] of [[Oregon]]. Beginning In the summer of 1922, Bretz conducted field research on the [[Columbia River Plateau]] for the next seven years. He had been interested in unusual [[erosion]] features in the area since 1910 after seeing a newly published [[topographic]] map of the [[Dry Falls|Potholes Cataract]]. Bretz coined the term [[Channeled Scablands]] in 1923 to refer to the area near the [[Grand Coulee]], where massive erosion had cut through [[basalt]] deposits.  Bretz published a paper in 1923 arguing that the Channeled Scablands in Eastern Washington were caused by massive flooding in the distant past.

Bretz's view, which was seen as arguing for a [[Catastrophism|catastrophic]] explanation of the geology, ran against the prevailing view of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]], and Bretz's views were initially disregarded.  The [[Geological Society of America|Geological Society of Washington, D.C.]], invited the young Bretz to present his previously published research at a January 12, 1927, meeting where several other geologists presented competing theories.  Another geologist at the meeting, [[Joseph Pardee|J.T. Pardee]], had worked with Bretz and had evidence of an ancient [[Proglacial lake|glacial lake]] that lent credence to Bretz's theories.  Bretz defended his theories, which kicked off an acrimonious 40-year debate over the origin of the Scablands. Both Pardee and Bretz continued their research over the next 30 years, collecting and analyzing evidence that led them to identify [[Lake Missoula]] as the source of the Spokane flood and creator of the channeled scablands.<ref name=Bretz1923>{{cite journal|first=J Harlen|last=Bretz|year=1923|title=The Channeled Scabland of the Columbia Plateau|journal=Journal of Geology|volume=31|pages=617–649|doi=10.1086/623053|issue=8|bibcode = 1923JG.....31..617B |s2cid=129657556}}</ref><ref name=Bretz1925>{{cite journal|first=J Harlen|last=Bretz|year=1925|title=The Spokane flood beyond the Channeled Scablands|journal=Journal of Geology|volume=33|pages=97–115, 236–259|doi=10.1086/623179|issue=2|bibcode = 1925JG.....33...97B |s2cid=140554172}}</ref>

After Pardee studied the canyon of the [[Flathead River]], he estimated that flood waters above {{convert|45|mph}} would be required to roll the largest of the boulders moved by the flood.  He estimated the water flow was {{convert|9|mi3/h|km3/h}}, more than the combined flow of every river in the world.<ref name = "Alt">{{cite book | first = David | last = Alt |author-link=David Alt|author2=Hundman, Donald W. | title = Northwest Exposures: A Geologic History of the Northwest | publisher = Mountain Press | pages=381–390 | year = 1995 | isbn = 978-0-87842-323-1}}</ref>  More recent estimates place the flow rate at ''ten times'' the flow of all current rivers combined.<ref name=Bjornstad/>

The Missoula floods have also been referred to as the ''Bretz floods'' in honor of Bretz.<ref name="Allen" />

==Flood initiation==
[[File:Map missoula floods.gif|thumb|upright=1.4|{{legend|#00CEFF|Cordilleran ice sheet}}
{{legend|#FFFF00|maximum extent of Glacial Lake Missoula (eastern) and Glacial Lake Columbia (western)}}
{{legend|#FFCE00|areas swept by Missoula and Columbia floods}}]]
The [[Cordilleran ice sheet]] formed a glacial dam across the [[Clark Fork River|Clark Fork]] valley, creating a large lake just south of modern-day [[Sandpoint, Idaho|Sandpoint]]. Repeated [[Dam failure|failures of this dam]] triggered [[jökulhlaup]]s, a type of glacial [[outburst flood]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Allen |first1=John Eliot |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jeTESR-vvJ4C&q=dam&pg=PR11 |title=Cataclysms on the Columbia: The Great Missoula Floods |last2=Burns |first2=Marjorie |last3=Burns |first3=Scott |date=2009 |publisher=Ooligan Press |isbn=978-1-932010-31-2 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=105}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=O'Connor |first1=Jim E. |last2=Baker |first2=Victor R. |last3=Waitt |first3=Richard B. |last4=Smith |first4=Larry N. |last5=Cannon |first5=Charles M. |last6=George |first6=David L. |last7=Denlinger |first7=Roger P. |date=2020-09-01 |title=The Missoula and Bonneville floods—A review of ice-age megafloods in the Columbia River basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825220302270 |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=208 |article-number=103181 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103181 |issn=0012-8252}}</ref>{{Rp|page=1}} The exact cause of these failures is disputed. ''Cataclysms on the Columbia: The Great Missoula Floods'' suggests that the ice dam may have been floated by the lake, allowing water to flow underneath and disintegrate the dam.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=105}} A 2020 review article found that either overtopping or tunneling, possibly accompanied by [[thermal erosion]], caused the dam to fail.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=30}}

==Flood events==
As the water emerged from the Columbia River gorge, it backed up again at the {{Convert|1|mi|km|1}} wide narrows near [[Kalama, Washington]]. Some temporary lakes rose to an elevation of more than {{Convert|400|ft|m|-1|abbr=on}}, flooding the Willamette Valley to [[Eugene, Oregon]] and beyond. Iceberg-rafted [[glacial erratic]]s and erosion features are evidence of these events. Lake-bottom [[sediment]]s deposited by the floods have contributed to the agricultural richness of the Willamette and Columbia Valleys. Glacial deposits overlaid with centuries of windblown sediments ([[loess]]) have scattered steep, southerly sloping dunes throughout the Columbia Valley, ideal conditions for orchard and vineyard development at higher latitudes.

After analysis and controversy, geologists now believe that there were 40 or more separate floods, although the exact source of the water is still being debated. The peak flow of the floods is estimated to be 27 cubic kilometers per hour (6.5 cubic miles per hour).<ref name=Lehnigk/> The maximum flow speed approached 36 meters/second (130&nbsp;km/h or 80&nbsp;mph).<ref name=Bjornstad /> Up to 1.9×10<sup>19</sup> joules of potential energy were released by each flood (the equivalent of 4,500 [[TNT equivalent|megatons of TNT]]). For comparison, this is 90 times more powerful than the most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated, the 50-megaton "[[Tsar Bomba]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/30-october-1961-the-tsar-bomba|title=30 October 1961 - the Tsar Bomba: CTBTO Preparatory Commission}}</ref><ref name="Allen"/> The cumulative effect of the floods was to excavate {{convert|210|km3}} of loess, sediment, and basalt from the Channeled Scablands of eastern Washington and to transport it downstream.<ref name="Allen">{{cite book|last=Allen|first=John Eliot|author2=Marjorie Burns |author2-link=Marjorie Burns |author3=Scott Burns |title=Cataclysms on the Columbia: The Great Missoula Floods|publisher=Ooligan Press|location=Portland, Or.|year=2009|edition=Rev. 2nd|isbn=978-1-932010-31-2}}</ref>{{update inline|date=October 2022}}

===Multiple flood hypothesis===
[[File:Dry Falls WA.jpg|thumb|right|During the ice age floods, [[Dry Falls]] was under {{convert|300|ft|m}} of water approaching at a speed of {{convert|65|mph}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/iceagefloods/d.htm|publisher=NPS|title=Ice Age Floods Study of Alternatives Background|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611183150/http://www.nps.gov/iceagefloods/d.htm|archive-date=2015-06-11}}</ref>]]
The multiple flood hypothesis was first proposed by R.B. Waitt Jr. in 1980.  Waitt argued for a sequence of 40 or more floods.<ref name=Waitt80>{{cite journal|last=Waitt|first=R.B. Jr|year=1980|title=About 40 last-glacial Lake Missoula jökulhlaups through southern Washington|journal=Journal of Geology|volume=88|pages=653–679|doi=10.1086/628553|issue=6|bibcode = 1980JG.....88..653W |s2cid=129144773}}</ref><ref name=Waitt84>{{cite journal|last=Waitt|first=R.B. Jr|year=1984|title=Periodic jökulhlaups from Pleistocene Glacial Lake Missoula—New evidence from varved sediment in northern Idaho and Washington|journal=Quaternary Research|volume=22|issue=1|pages=46–58|doi=10.1016/0033-5894(84)90005-X|bibcode = 1984QuRes..22...46W |s2cid=128700879 }}</ref><ref name=Waitt85>{{cite journal|last=Waitt|first=R.B. Jr|year=1985|title=Case for periodic, colossal jökulhlaups from Pleistocene glacial Lake Missoula|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|volume=96|pages=1271–1286|bibcode=1985GSAB...96.1271W|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1985)96<1271:CFPCJF>2.0.CO;2|issue=10}}</ref> Waitt's proposal was based mainly on analysis from glacial lake bottom deposits in Ninemile Creek and the flood deposits in Burlingame Canyon. His most compelling argument for separate floods was that the [[Touchet Formation|Touchet bed]] deposits from two successive floods were found to be separated by two layers of volcanic ash ([[tephra]]), with the ash separated by a fine layer of windblown dust deposits, located in a thin layer between sediment layers ten [[rhythmite]]s below the top of the Touchet beds. The two layers of volcanic ash are separated by {{convert|1|-|10|cm|in|1}} of airborne nonvolcanic silt. The tephra is [[Mount St. Helens]] ash that fell in Eastern Washington. By analogy, since there were 40 layers with comparable characteristics at Burlingame Canyon, Waitt argued they all could be considered to have similar separation in deposition time.<ref name=Waitt85/>

===Controversy over the number and source of floods===
The controversy about whether the Channeled Scabland landforms were formed mainly by multiple periodic floods or by a single grand-scale cataclysmic flood from late Pleistocene Glacial Lake Missoula or an unidentified Canadian source continued through 1999.<ref name=Shaw1999>{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=J|last2=Munro-Stasiuk|first2=M|last3=Sawyer|first3=B|last4=Beaney|first4=C |author5=Lesemann, J.-E. |author6=Musacchio, A. |author7=Rains, B. |author8=Young, R.R. |year=1999|title=The Channeled Scabland: Back to Bretz?|journal=Geology|volume=27|pages=605–608|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0605:TCSBTB>2.3.CO;2|issue=7|bibcode = 1999Geo....27..605S }}</ref>  Shaw's team of geologists reviewed the sedimentary sequences of the Touchet beds and concluded that the sequences do not automatically imply multiple floods separated by decades or centuries. Rather, they proposed that sedimentation in the Glacial Lake Missoula basin resulted from [[jökulhlaup]]s draining into Lake Missoula from British Columbia to the north.  Further, Shaw's team proposed the scabland flooding might have partially originated from an enormous subglacial reservoir that extended over much of central British Columbia, particularly including the [[Rocky Mountain Trench]], which may have discharged by several paths, including one through Lake Missoula. This discharge, if occurring concurrently with the breach of the Lake Missoula ice dam, would have provided significantly larger volumes of water.  Further, Shaw and the team proposed that the rhythmic Touchet beds result from multiple pulses or surges within a larger flood.<ref name=Shaw1999/>
[[File:Glacial lake missoula high water mark rock 4200 ft.jpg|thumb|Glacial Lake Missoula high-water mark, {{convert|4200|ft|sigfig=3}}, near Missoula, MT]]
In 2000, a team led by Komatsu simulated the floods numerically with a 3-dimensional hydraulic model. They based the Glacial Lake Missoula discharge rate on the rate predicted for the [[Spokane Valley]]–[[Rathdrum Prairie]] immediately downstream of Glacial Lake Missoula, for which several previous estimates had placed the maximum discharge of 17 × 10<sup>6</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/s and the total amount of water discharged equal to the maximum estimated volume of Lake Missoula (2184&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>). Neglecting erosion effects, their simulated water flow was based on modern-day topography. Their major findings were that the calculated water depth in each flooded location except for the Spokane Valley–Rathdrum Prairie was shallower than the field evidence showed. For example, their calculated water depth at the Pasco Basin–Wallula Gap transition zone is about 190 m, significantly less than the 280–300 m flood depth indicated by high-water marks. They concluded that a flood of ~10<sup>6</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/s could not have made the observed high-water marks.<ref name= Komatsu>{{cite journal|first1=G|last1=Komatsu|first2=H|last2=Miyamoto|first3=K|last3=Ito|first4=H|last4=Tosaka|first5=T|last5=Tokunaga|title=The Channeled Scabland: Back to Bretz?: Comment and Reply|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<573:TCSBTB>2.0.CO;2|journal=Geology|date=June 2000|volume=28|pages=573–574|issue=6|bibcode = 2000Geo....28..573K }}</ref>

In a comment on the Komatsu analysis, Brian Atwater and colleagues observed substantial evidence for multiple large floods, including mud cracks and animal burrows in lower layers, which were filled by sediment from later floods. Further, evidence for multiple flood flows up sidearms of Glacial Lake Columbia spread over many centuries has been found.  They also pointed out that the discharge point from Lake Columbia varied with time, originally flowing across the Waterville Plateau into Moses Coulee, but later, when the Okanagan lobe blocked that route, eroding the Grand Coulee to discharge there as a substantially lower outlet. The Komatsu analysis does not evaluate the impact of the considerable erosion observed in this basin during the flood or floods. However, the assumption that flood hydraulics can be modeled using modern-day topography is an area that warrants further consideration. Earlier narrower constrictions at places such as [[Wallula Gap]] and through the Columbia Gorge would be expected to produce higher flow resistance and correspondingly higher floods.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Brian F.|last1=Atwater|first2=Gary A.|last2=Smith|first3=Richard B.|last3=Waitt|title=The Channeled Scabland: Back to Bretz?: Comment and Reply: COMMENT|journal=Geology|date=June 2000|volume=28|page=574|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<576:TCSBTB>2.0.CO;2|issue=6|bibcode = 2000Geo....28..574A }}</ref>

===The current understanding===
The dating for Waitt's proposed separation of layers into sequential floods has been supported by subsequent [[paleomagnetism]] studies, which support a 30–40 year interval between depositions of Mount St. Helens' ash, and hence flood events, but do not preclude an up to 60-year interval.<ref name="Clague">{{Cite journal |last1=Clague |first1=John J. |last2=Barendregt |first2=Rene |last3=Enkin |first3=Randolph J. |last4=Foit |first4=Franklin F. Jr. |date=March 2003 |title=Paleomagnetic and tephra evidence for tens of Missoula floods in southern Washington |journal=Geology |publisher=The Geological Society of America |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=247–250 |bibcode=2003Geo....31..247C |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0247:PATEFT>2.0.CO;2}}</ref>  Offshore deposits on the bed of the Pacific at the mouth of the Columbia River include 120 meters of material deposited over a several thousand-year period corresponding to multiple scabland floods seen in the Touchet Beds.  Based on Waitt's identification of 40 floods, this would give an average separation between floods of 50 years.<ref name=Brunner>{{Cite journal  | last = Brunner  | first = Charlotte A. |author2=Normark, William R. |author3=Zuffa, Gian G. |author4=Serra, Francesca   | title = Deep-sea sedimentary record of the late Wisconsin cataclysmic floods from the Columbia River  | journal = Geology  | volume = 27  | issue =   5| pages = 463–466  | year = 1999  | doi =   10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0463:DSSROT>2.3.CO;2   |bibcode = 1999Geo....27..463B }}</ref>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Giant current ripples}}
* {{annotated link|Glacial lake outburst flood}}
* {{annotated link|Bonneville flood}}
* {{annotated link|Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail}}
* {{annotated link|Pendant bar}}
* {{annotated link|Rhythmite}} 
* {{annotated link|Varve}}
* [[Floods in the United States before 1900]] - Overview of all ancient floods in the United States

==References==
{{Reflist|32em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Soennichsen|first=John|title=Bretz's Flood: The Remarkable Story of a Rebel Geologist and the World's Greatest Flood|publisher=Sasquatch Books|location=Seattle, Wa.|year=2008|isbn= 978-1-57061-505-4}}
*[[David Alt|Alt, David]] (2001)  ''Glacial Lake Missoula and Its Humongous Floods'' (Mountain Press, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0878424153}}).
*{{cite book |author=Norman B. Smyers and Roy M. Breckenridge |chapter=Glacial Lake Missoula, Clark Fork ice dam, and the floods outburst area: Northern Idaho and western Montana |editor=T. W. Swanson |title=Western Cordillera and adjacent areas |series=Geological Society of America Field Guide |volume=4 |year=2003 |quote=Bretz's ideas for such large-scale flooding were viewed as a challenge to the uniformitarian principles then ruling the science of geology (p. 2)}}
*{{cite book|last=Carson|first=Robert J.|author2=Michael E. Denny |author3=Catherine E. Dickson |author4=Lawrence L. Dodd |author5=G. Thomas Edwards |title=Where the Great River Bends:A natural and human history of the Columbia at Wallula|publisher=Keokee Books|location=Sandpoint, Id.|year=2008|isbn= 978-1-879628-32-8}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
* USGS Circular 1254 [https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2004/circ1254/pdf/circ1254.pdf The World's Largest Floods, Past and Present: Their Causes and Magnitudes]
* [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]'s [[Nova (American TV program)|NOVA (TV series)]]: [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/megaflood/ Mystery of the Megaflood]
* [https://iafi.org/ Ice Age Floods Institute (IAFI)]
* {{cite web
 |url=http://hugefloods.com/
 |title=Discover the Ice Age Floods
 |last=Foster
 |first=Tom
 |website=HUGEfloods.com
 }}
* {{cite news
|last=Zenter
|first=Nick
|title=Dating the Ice Age Floods
|work=Central Washington University, Washington
|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3wKOVZKimwg
|date=2023-01-05
}}
* {{cite news
|last=Rojas-Burke
|first=Joe
|title=Geologists find a way to simulate the great Missoula floods
|work=The Oregonian
|url=http://www.oregonlive.com/news/index.ssf/2010/02/geologists_find_a_way_to_simul.html
|date=2010-02-20
}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=2do_AAAAIAAJ&dq=channeled+scabland+nummedal&pg=PA1 The channeled scabland]: a guide to the geomorphology of the Columbia Basin, Washington : prepared for the Comparative Planetary Geology Field Conference held in the [[Columbia River Drainage Basin|Columbia Basin]], June 5–8, 1978 / sponsored by Planetary Geology Program, Office of Space Science, National Aeronautics and Space Administration; edited by Victor R. Baker and Dag Nummedal.
* [https://www.nps.gov/iceagefloods/index.htm National Park Service: Ice Age Floods]
* [http://video.ksps.org/video/1476678922 Sculpted by Floods: The Northwest's Ice Age Legacy (KSPS Documentaries)]\
{{Ice Age Floods}}
{{Columbia River}}

[[Category:Floods in Oregon]]
[[Category:Floods in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Geology of Montana]]
[[Category:Geology of Oregon]]
[[Category:Geology of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Columbia River Gorge]]
[[Category:Megafloods]]
[[Category:Glacial landforms]]