View source for Mindanao

{{Short description|Island in the Philippines}}
{{for-multi|the river|Rio Grande de Mindanao|the 2019 film|Mindanao (film)|the old sultanate|Sultanate of Maguindanao|other uses|Mindanao (disambiguation)}}
{{distinguish|Mendanau Island}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Philippine English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox islands
|name = Mindanao
|image_name = File:Mindanao Sentinel-2 MSI 2019 cloudless composite.jpg
|image_caption = Composite satellite image of Mindanao captured by [[Sentinel-2]] in 2019
|native_name = {{ubl|{{native name|mdh|Pulu nu Mindanaw}}|{{native name|mrw|Polo o Mindanao}}|{{native name|tsg|Pu sin Mindanaw}}|{{native name|mno|Pu'yù to Mindanao}}|{{native name|syb|Pulu' ni Mindanaw}}}}
| sobriquet = Land of Promise <ref>{{Cite web | title=MINDANAO: The Land of Promise, Holding a Key to Environmental Defense Worldwide, by Em Butler {{!}} Sierra Club | url=https://www.sierraclub.org/redwood/napa/blog/2022/03/mindanao-land-promise-holding-key-environmental-defense-worldwide-liyang | access-date=2025-08-12 | website=www.sierraclub.org}}</ref>
|location = Philippines
| map              = Philippines
| map_alt          = 
| map_width        = 
| map_caption      = Location within the Philippines
| map_relief       = yes
| label            = 
| label_position   = 
|coordinates      = {{coord|8|00|N|125|00|E|display=inline,title}}
| etymology        = Land of the Lakes <ref name="mainit"/>
|archipelago = [[Philippine]]
|waterbody        = {{unbulleted list | [[Bohol Sea]] | [[Celebes Sea]] | [[Philippine Sea]] | [[Sulu Sea]] | [[Surigao Strait]] }}
|total_islands = 
|major_islands = {{hlist | '''Mindanao''' | [[Basilan]] | [[Jolo]] | [[Tawi-Tawi Island|Tawi-Tawi]] | {{nowrap|[[Bucas Grande]]}} | [[Dinagat Island|Dinagat]] | [[Siargao]] | [[Samal Island|Samal]] | [[Camiguin]] }}
|area_km2 = 97530
|area_footnotes = <ref name="unep">{{Cite web |title=Island Directory Tables |url=http://islands.unep.ch/Tiarea.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20151201081219/http://islands.unep.ch/Tiarea.htm |archive-date=December 1, 2015 |access-date=October 10, 2017 |website=UN System-Wide Earthwatch Web Site}}</ref>
|rank = 19th (Global)
|highest_mount = [[Mount Apo]]
|elevation_m = 2,954
| image_flag              = 
<!-- | flag_size               = 120x80px -->
| image_seal              = {{PH wikidata|image_seal}}
<!-- | seal_size               = 100x80px -->
| nickname                = 
|country = [[Philippines]]
|country_admin_divisions_title = Regions
|country_admin_divisions = {{unbulleted list | [[Zamboanga Peninsula|Region 9 – Zamboanga Peninsula]] | [[Northern Mindanao|Region 10 – Northern Mindanao]] | [[Davao Region|Region 11 – Davao Region]] | [[Soccsksargen|Region 12 – Soccsksargen]] | [[Caraga|Region 13 – Caraga Region]] | [[Bangsamoro|Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao]] }}
|country_admin_divisions_title_1 = Provinces
|country_admin_divisions_1 = {{Collapsible list
 |title = 
 |frame_style = border:none; padding: 0;
 |list_style = text-align:left;display:none;
 |bullets = on;
 |1 = [[Agusan del Norte]]
 |2 = [[Agusan del Sur]]
 |3 = [[Bukidnon]]
 |4 = [[Cotabato]]
 |5 = [[Davao del Norte]]
 |6 = [[Davao de Oro]]
 |7 = [[Davao del Sur]]
 |8 = [[Davao Occidental]]
 |9 = [[Davao Oriental]]
 |10 = [[Lanao del Norte]]
 |11 = [[Lanao del Sur]]
 |12 = [[Maguindanao del Norte]]
 |13 = [[Maguindanao del Sur]]
 |14 = [[Misamis Occidental]]
 |15 = [[Misamis Oriental]]
 |16 = [[Sarangani]]
 |17 = [[South Cotabato]]
 |18 = [[Sultan Kudarat]]
 |19 = [[Surigao del Norte]]
 |20 = [[Surigao del Sur]]
 |21 = [[Zamboanga del Norte]]
 |22 = [[Zamboanga del Sur]]
 |23 = [[Zamboanga Sibugay]]
 |24 =  Outlying island provinces {{bulleted list | ''[[Basilan]]'' | ''[[Camiguin]]'' | ''[[Dinagat Islands]]'' | ''[[Sulu]]'' | ''[[Tawi-Tawi]]'' }}
 }}
|country_largest_city = [[Davao City]]
|country_largest_city_population =  1,848,947
|population = 27,384,138 (2024) (Mindanao island group)<!-- total of the 6 regions --><!-- total of 6 regions including Basilan, Camiguin, Dinagat, Sulu, & Tawi-Tawi -->
|population_as_of = 
|population_footnotes = <ref name="NSO">{{Citation |title=Population and Annual Growth Rates for The Philippines and Its Regions, Provinces, and Highly Urbanized Cities |url=https://www.census.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/pressrelease/Population%20and%20Annual%20Growth%20Rates%20for%20The%20Philippines%20and%20Its%20Regions%2C%20Provinces%2C%20and%20Highly%20Urbanized%20Cities%20Based%20on%201990%2C%202000%2C%20and%202010%20Censuses.pdf |work=2010 Census and Housing Population |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928012059/http://www.census.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/pressrelease/Population%20and%20Annual%20Growth%20Rates%20for%20The%20Philippines%20and%20Its%20Regions%2C%20Provinces%2C%20and%20Highly%20Urbanized%20Cities%20Based%20on%201990%2C%202000%2C%20and%202010%20Censuses.pdf |publisher=National Statistics Office |access-date=August 15, 2014 |archive-date=September 28, 2013 |mode=cs1 }}</ref>
|density_km2 = 243
|demonym = Mindanaoan <br/> Mindanawon <br/> Mindanese (''colloquial'') <ref>{{Cite web | title=Mindanese, Davanese and the joke of Mindanao separatism - VERA Files | url=https://verafiles.org/articles/mindanese-davanese-and-the-joke-of-mindanao-separatism | access-date=2025-08-12 | website=verafiles.org}}</ref>
|ethnic_groups = {{Collapsible list
 |title = 
 |frame_style = border:none; padding: 0;
 |list_style = text-align:left;display:none;
 |bullets = on;
 |1 = [[Visayan people|Visayan]] {{hlist | ([[Cebuano people|Cebuano]] | [[Hiligaynon people|Hiligaynon]] | [[Boholano people|Boholano]] | [[Surigaonon people|Surigaonon]] | [[Butuanon people|Butuanon]] | [[Davaoeño people|Davaoeño]] | [[Waray people|Waray]] | [[Karay-a people|Karay-a]]) }}
 |2 = [[Moro people|Moro]] {{hlist | ([[Banguingui people|Banguingui]] | [[Iranun people|Iranun]] | [[Maguindanao people|Maguindanao]] | [[Maranao people|Maranao]] | [[Tausug people|Tausug]] | [[Sama-Bajau peoples|Sama-Bajau]] | [[Sangirese people|Sangirese]] | [[Yakan people|Yakan]]) }}
 |3 = [[Lumad peoples|Lumad]] {{hlist | ([[Blaan people|Blaan]] | [[Lumad peoples#Bukidnon|Bukidnon]] |[[Subanon people|Subanon]] | [[Kamayo]] | [[Cotabato Manobo language|Manobo/Bagobo]] | [[Lumad peoples#Mandaya|Mandaya]] | [[Lumad peoples#Mansaka|Mansaka]] | [[Tasaday]] | [[Tboli people|Tboli]] )}}
 |4 = [[Negrito]] ([[Lumad peoples#Mamanwa|Mamanwa]])
 |5 = [[Ilocano people|Ilocano]]
 |6 = [[Zamboangueño people|Zamboangueño / Zamboangueño Chavacano]]
 }}
}}

'''Mindanao''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Mindanao.ogg|ˌ|m|ɪ|n|d|ə|ˈ|n|aʊ}} {{respell|MIN|də|NOW}}) is the [[List of islands of the Philippines|second-largest island]] in the [[Philippines]], after [[Luzon]], and [[List of islands by population|seventh-most populous island in the world.]] Located in the southern region of the [[archipelago]], the island is part of an island group of the same name that also includes its adjacent islands, notably the [[Sulu Archipelago]]. According to the 2020 census, Mindanao had a population of 26,252,442, while the entire island group had an estimated population of 27,384,138 as of 2024.

Mindanao is divided into six administrative regions: the [[Zamboanga Peninsula]], [[Northern Mindanao]], the [[Caraga]] region, the [[Davao Region|Davao region]], [[Soccsksargen]], and the autonomous region of [[Bangsamoro]]. According to the 2020 census, [[Davao City]] is the most populous city on the island, with 1,776,949 people, followed by [[Zamboanga City]] (pop. 977,234), [[General Santos]] (pop. 722,059), [[Butuan]] (pop. 372,910), and [[Cotabato City]] (pop. 325,079).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population and Housing |url=https://psa.gov.ph/statistics/census/population-and-housing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312215850/https://psa.gov.ph/statistics/census/population-and-housing |archive-date=March 12, 2017 |access-date=March 15, 2017 |website=Philippine Statistics Authority}}</ref> About 70% of residents identify as Christian and 24% as Muslim.<ref name=":1" />{{Update inline|date=December 2020|reason=}} Mindanao is considered the major [[breadbasket|Bread Basket]] of the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite news |date=October 15, 2015 |title=Fruits of Peace |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21674840-struggling-violence-and-investment-mindanao-fruits-peace |url-status=live |access-date=October 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701161446/http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21674840-struggling-violence-and-investment-mindanao-fruits-peace |archive-date=July 1, 2017}}</ref><ref name="investvine">{{Cite news |last=Calderon |first=Justin |date=April 22, 2013 |title=Unearthed Gem |work=Investvine |url=http://investvine.com/unearthed-gem-of-minda/ |access-date=April 29, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226084529/http://investvine.com/unearthed-gem-of-minda/ |archive-date=December 26, 2018}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The name ''Mindanao'' is derived from a compound word in the [[Maguindanao language]]: ''min'', a past tense verb prefix, and ''danao'', meaning 'lake'. Together, they translate to 'land of where the lakes are found'. This name is also associated to the [[Maguindanao people|Maguindanaon]] people, where the [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]] once held significant influence and where lakes with varying depths are also common among the provinces of Mindanao.<ref name="mainit">{{Cite web | url=http://lib.mainit.org/400/1/THE-MONOSYLLABIC-ft10162017-2.pdf | title=The monosyllabic root - AO in Mindanao languages | website=""}}</ref>

==History==
===Prehistory===

[[File:Filippine, provincia di agusan, immagine hindu, statuetta in oro massiccio, xiii secolo.jpg|thumb|right|The 21-karat gold [[Agusan image]] statue (900–950 CE) discovered in 1917 on the banks of the [[Wawa River (Agusan del Sur)|Wawa River]] near [[Esperanza, Agusan del Sur]]]]

[[File:Krieger 1926 Philippine ethnic weapons Plate 20.png|thumb|A 1926 photograph of Bagobo (Manobo) warriors]]

Archaeological findings on the island point to evidence of human activity dating back about ten thousand years. Around 1500 BC, [[Austronesian people]] spread throughout the Philippines.

The [[Subanen people|Subanon]] are believed to have settled in the [[Zamboanga Peninsula]] during the [[Neolithic]] era c. 4500–2000 BC.{{clarify|date=June 2015}}<!--What's the reason for this date range that is substantially different from 10,000 BC?--><ref name="Subanon History">{{Cite web |title=The History of Subanon since the Neolithic Era or Stone Age |url=http://subanon.net/the-history-of-Subanon-since-the-Neolithic-Era-or-stone-age |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109153806/http://subanon.net/the-history-of-Subanon-since-the-Neolithic-Era-or-stone-age |archive-date=November 9, 2013 |access-date=November 8, 2013 |website=Subanon Territories}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2021}} Evidence of stone tools in [[Zamboanga del Norte]] may indicate a late [[Neolithic]] presence. Ceramic burial jars, both unglazed and glazed, Chinese [[celadon]]s, gold ornaments, beads, and bracelets have been found in caves. Many of the ceramic objects are from the [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] and [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] periods. Evidently, there was a long history of trade between the Subanon and the Chinese.

===Rajahnates and Hindu-Buddhism===
[[File:Spanish map of Mindanao.jpg|thumb|An old Spanish map of Mindanao island.]]

In the [[History of the Philippines (900–1521)|classic epoch]] of Philippine history (900 AD onwards), the people of Mindanao were heavily exposed to [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] influence and beliefs from Indonesia and Malaysia. Indianized [[abugida]] scripts such as [[Kawi alphabet|Kawi]] and [[baybayin]] were introduced from Java and an extinct intermediate from Sulawesi or Borneo respectively. Cultural icons of the [[sarong]] (known as ''[[malong]]'' or ''patadyong''), the ''pudong'' [[turban]], [[silk]], and [[batik]] and [[ikat]] weaving and dyeing methods were introduced. Artifacts found from this era include a golden [[kinnara]], a [[Agusan image|golden image believed by some to be a Tara]], and a [[Ganesha]] pendant. These cultural traits passed from Mindanao into the [[Visayas]] and [[Luzon]], but were subsequently lost or heavily modified after the Spanish arrival in the 16th century.

Hindu-Buddhist cultural influence took root in the coastal settlements, syncretizing with indigenous [[animist]] beliefs and customs among the tribes of the interior. The [[Rajahnate of Butuan|Butuan Rajahnate]], a Hinduized kingdom mentioned in Chinese records as a tributary state in the 10th century, was concentrated along the northeastern coast of [[Butuan Bay]].<ref name="slate">{{Cite web |last=Koerner |first=Brendan I. |date=January 28, 2005 |title=How Islam got to the Philippines |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2112795/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907221645/http://www.slate.com/id/2112795/ |archive-date=September 7, 2011 |access-date=October 4, 2009 |website=Slate}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=April 2020}} The Rajahnate of [[Sanmalan]] in Zamboanga, was also in Mindanao. The ''[[Darangen]]'' epic of the Maranao people harkens back to this era as the most complete local version of the ''[[Ramayana]]''. The Maguindanao at this time also had strong Hindu beliefs, evidenced by the Ladya Lawana (Rajah [[Ravana]]) epic saga that survives to the present, albeit highly Islamized from the 17th century onward.

===Sultanates and Islam===
{{more citations needed section|date=August 2020}}

[[File:Moro Sultanates (Philippines).png|thumb|Approximate historical extent of the Muslim sultanates of [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]], [[Sultanate of Maguindanao|Maguindanao]] and Lanao in the 19th century]]

The spread of Islam in the Philippines began in the 14th century, mostly through the influence of Muslim merchants from the western [[Malay Archipelago]]. The first [[mosque]] in the Philippines was built in the mid-14th century in the town of [[Simunul]], [[Tawi-Tawi]].<ref name="slate" /> Around the 16th century, the Muslim sultanates of [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]], [[Confederate States of Lanao|Lanao]] and [[Sultanate of Maguindanao|Maguindanao]] were established from formerly Hindu-Buddhist rajahnates.

As Islam colonised Mindanao, the natives of the sultanates had to either convert to Islam or pay tribute to their new Muslim rulers. The largest of the Muslim polities in mainland Mindanao was the [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]], which controlled the southern floodplains of the [[Rio Grande de Mindanao]] and most of the coastal area of [[Illana Bay]], [[Moro Gulf]], [[Sarangani Bay]] and [[Davao Gulf]]. The name Mindanao was derived from this sultanate. But most of Mindanao remained animist, especially the [[Lumad people]] in the interior. Most of the northern, eastern, and southern coastal regions inhabited by [[Visayans]] ([[Surigaonon people|Surigaonon]] and [[Butuanon people|Butuanon]]) and other groups were later converted to Christianity by the Spanish. Mindanao was then embroiled between a conflict with the Boholano (Visayan) [[Dapitan Kingdom]] and the Moluccan [[Sultanate of Ternate]]. Dapitan which was originally at Bohol was destroyed by an expeditionary force from the Ternate Sultanate and Dapitenyos were forced to relocate to Northern Mindanao where they waged war against the Sultanate of Lanao and established a new Dapitan there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Catubig |first=Jonathan B. |date=2003 |title=Dapitan Kingdom: A Historical Study on the Bisayan Migration and Settlement in Mindanao, circa 1563 |url=https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=5227 |journal=The Journal of History |volume=49 |issue=1–4 |page=144 |quote=The Ternatan king planned a retaliatory attack against the Boholanos. He succeeded with his plans by covertly sending his twenty ''joangas'' to Bohol one by one deceitfully saying that "they are traders attending only to the sale of their goods"}}</ref> Mindanaoans then spread out of Mindanao across Southeast Asia, Historian William Henry Scott, quoting the Portuguese manuscript Summa Orientalis, noted that [[Mottama]] in [[Burma]] (Myanmar) had a large presence of merchants from Mindanao.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=William Henry |date=1989 |title=The Mediterranean Connection |url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1122/6410 |journal=Philippine Studies |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=131–144|doi=10.13185/2244-1638.1337 }} Quoting from; Cortes 30, Suma, pp. 376–77, and 362.</ref>

===Spanish colonization and Christianity===
{{See also|Spanish–Moro conflict}}
[[File:Christian Filipinos under Spanish army in Mindanao in their battle against the Moro Muslim, circa 1887.jpg|thumb|[[Christianity in the Philippines|Christian]] [[Filipinos]], who served under the Spanish Army, searching for [[Moro people|Moro]] rebels during the [[Spanish–Moro conflict]], c. 1887. The insurgency in Mindanao can be traced to the early 16th century.]]
[[File:Two Spanish missionaries baptise a Moro convert to Roman Catholic, circa 1890.jpg|thumb|Two Spanish missionaries [[baptism|baptizing]] a Moro convert to [[Catholicism]], circa 1890.]]
In 1521 Antonio Pigafetta wrote an account of reaching 'Maingdano.' He was with Magellan on the first circumnavigation of the globe and sailing for the king of Spain.<ref>Magellan's Voyage, Antonio Pigafetta. Chapter XXXIV</ref>

On February 2, 1543, [[Ruy López de Villalobos]] was the first Spaniard to reach Mindanao.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ruy Lopez de Villalobos Begun His Expedition to the Philippines |url=https://kahimyang.com/kauswagan/articles/721/today-in-philippine-history-november-1-1542-ruy-lopez-de-villalobos-started-his-expedition-to-the-philippines |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705132421/https://kahimyang.com/kauswagan/articles/721/today-in-philippine-history-november-1-1542-ruy-lopez-de-villalobos-started-his-expedition-to-the-philippines |archive-date=July 5, 2017 |access-date=July 11, 2017 |website=The Kahimyang Project|date=November 2011 }}</ref> He called the island ''"Caesarea Caroli"'' after Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (and I of Spain). Shortly after Spain's colonization of Cebu, it moved on to colonize the [[Caraga]] region in northeast Mindanao and discovered significant Muslim presence on the island. Over time a number of tribes in Mindanao converted to Catholicism and built settlements and forts throughout the coastal regions. These settlements endured despite attacks from neighboring Muslim sultanates. The most heavily fortified of them, apart from a short period in 1662 when Spain sent soldiers from the city to Manila after a threat of invasion from the Chinese general [[Koxinga]], was [[Zamboanga City]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Zamboanga City History |url=https://www.zamboanga.com/history/history_zamboanga.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604104713/http://www.zamboanga.com/history/history_zamboanga.htm |archive-date=June 4, 2017 |access-date=July 11, 2017 |website=Zamboanga.com}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|certain=y|date=August 2020}} which was settled by soldiers from Peru and Mexico.<ref name="Peru">[http://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm "SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF THE CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS, AND CHRONICLE OF THE RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST. AUGUSTINE"] (Zamboanga City History)
"He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reënforcements of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom."</ref> The sultanates resisted Spanish pressure and attempts to convert them to Christianity during this period.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abubakar |first=Carmen A. |date=September 1, 2003 |title=Mindanao: A Miniature History |url=https://mondediplo.com/2003/09/05abubakar |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930070806/https://mondediplo.com/2003/09/05abubakar |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |access-date=September 16, 2020 |website=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |language=en}}</ref> The [[Sultanate of Ternate]] of the Maluku Islands formed a close alliance with the sultanates of Mindanao, especially [[Sultanate of Maguindanao|Maguindanao]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sordilla |first=Shane Patrick |title=Maguindanao and Ternate Connection and Disconnection During the Age of European Colonization: An Overview |url=https://www.academia.edu/38617032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411182827/https://www.academia.edu/38617032/MAGUINDANAO_AND_TERNATE_CONNECTION_AND_DISCONNECTION_DURING_THE_AGE_OF_EUROPEAN_COLONIZATION_AN_OVERVIEW |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |via=Academia.edu}}</ref> Ternate regularly sent military reinforcements to Mindanao to assist the local sultanates in their war against Spanish-controlled Manila.<ref name="GuerreroNakpil2003">{{Cite web |last=Nakpil |first=Carmen Guerrero |date=October 29, 2003 |title=Carmen Nakpil: Manila Under the Muslims |url=http://www.newsflash.org/2003/05/ht/ht003845.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304015113/http://www.newsflash.org/2003/05/ht/ht003845.htm |archive-date=March 4, 2009 |access-date=December 5, 2008 |website=Philippine Headline News Online}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2021}}

By the late 18th century Spain had geographic dominance over the island, having established settlements and forts in most of Mindanao, including [[Zamboanga City]] and [[Misamis Occidental]] to the northwest, [[Iligan|Iligan City]], [[Misamis Oriental]], [[Bukidnon]], and [[Camiguin#Spanish colonial era|Camiguin Island]] to the north, [[Surigao City|Surigao]] and Agusan in the [[Caraga#History|Caraga]] region to the east, and [[Davao City|Davao]] in the island's gulf coast. Spain continued to engage in battles with Muslim sultanates until the end of the 19th century.<ref name=":0" />

At the same time as the Philippine revolution against Spain, the [[Republic of Zamboanga]] rose as a revolutionary state in Mindanao before it was absorbed by the oncoming Americans.

===American occupation and Philippine Commonwealth===
{{See also|Moro Rebellion}}
In the [[Treaty of Paris in 1898]] Spain sold the entire Philippine archipelago to the United States for $20 million. The [[Treaty of Washington (1900)|1900 Treaty of Washington]] and the [[Convention Between the United States and Great Britain (1930)|1930 Convention Between the United States and Great Britain]] clarified the borders between Mindanao and Borneo.

In early 1900s the Commonwealth government (led by Americans) encouraged citizens from Luzon and Visayas to migrate to Mindanao. Consisting mostly of [[Ilocano people|Ilocanos]], Cebuanos, and [[Hiligaynon people|Ilonggos]]. Settlers streaming into [[Soccsksargen]] led to the displacement of the [[Blaan people|Blaan]] and [[Tboli people|Tboli]] tribes.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

===World War II===
In April 1942 Mindanao, along with the rest of the Philippines, officially entered [[World War II]] after [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] soldiers invaded key cities in the islands.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chen |first=C. Peter |date=2006 |title=Invasion of the Philippine Islands |work=World War II Database |url=http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=46 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717140040/http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=46 |archive-date=July 17, 2017}}</ref> Many towns and cities were burned to the ground in Mindanao, most notably Davao City, Zamboanga City, Lanao, Cagayan de Oro, Iligan City, and Butuan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=During the Japanese Period |url=http://www.iligan.gov.ph/about-iligan/history/during-the-japanese-period/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711003942/http://www.iligan.gov.ph/about-iligan/history/during-the-japanese-period/ |archive-date=July 11, 2017 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |website=Iligan City Government|date=November 22, 2012 }}</ref> In the months of April and May 1942, Japanese forces defeated US troops commanded by [[William F. Sharp]] and [[Guy Fort]], in a battle that started at [[Malabang, Lanao del Sur|Malabang]] (a town close to [[Lanao del Sur|Gandamatu Macadar, Lanao]]) and ended close to the town of [[Ganassi, Lanao del Sur|Ganassi, Lanao]]. Davao City was among the earliest to be occupied by the invading Japanese forces. They immediately fortified the city as a bastion of the Japanese defense system.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}

Davao City was subjected by the returning forces of Gen. [[Douglas MacArthur]] to constant bombing before the American Liberation Forces landed in [[Leyte]] in October 1944.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Schmidt |first=Larry |title=American Involvement in the Filipino Resistance Movement on Mindanao During the Japanese Occupation, 1942–1945 |date=1982 |degree=Master's |publisher=U.S. Army Command and General Staff College |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/b068659.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=May 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508043005/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/b068659.pdf}}</ref> Filipino soldiers and local [[Wendell Fertig|guerrilla]] fighters were actively fighting Japanese forces until liberation at the conclusion of the [[Battle of Mindanao]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lee |first=Clark |date=April 3, 1942 |title=Most of Philippines Still Free of Invading Japanese |page=7 |work=St. Joseph Gazette |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=rNZeAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BFMNAAAAIBAJ&pg=1233,4394025&hl=en |via=news.google.com}}</ref>

=== Postwar era and Philippine independence ===
Mindanao was peaceful and increasingly progressive in the postwar period, including the 1950s and the mid-1960s. Ethnic tensions were minimal, and there was essentially no presence of secessionists groups in Mindanao.<ref name="MiclatinArguillas">{{Cite book |last=Miclat |first=Gus |title=Turning Rage Into Courage: Mindanao Under Martial Law |date=2002 |publisher=MindaNews Publications, Mindanao News and Information Cooperative Center |editor-last=Arguillas |editor-first=Carolyn O. |chapter=Our Lives Were Never the Same Again |oclc=644320116}}</ref>

=== Marcos era (1965–1986) ===
{{main|Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|Ilaga|Jabidah massacre|Moro conflict}}
Under [[Ferdinand Marcos]]'s administration, Christian groups began to settle in Mindanao, displacing many locals. The population boom resulted in conflicts as the original owners sought their ancestral land domains.<ref>See {{Cite book |last=Francia |first=Luis H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwQoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT202 |title=History of the Philippines: From Indios Bravos to Filipinos |date=2013 |publisher=Overlook Press |isbn=978-1-4683-1545-5 |location=New York}}</ref><ref>For an in-depth survey of indigenous peoples and forced land seizures in the Philippines, see {{Cite web |last=Eder |first=James F. |date=June 1994 |title=Indigenous Peoples, Ancestral Lands and Human Rights in the Philippines |url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/indigenous-peoples-ancestral-lands-and-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222221421/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/indigenous-peoples-ancestral-lands-and-human-rights |archive-date=December 22, 2018 |website=Cultural Survival Quarterly}}</ref>

The [[Presidency of Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos administration]] encouraged new settlers who had emigrated to Mindanao to form a militia, which was eventually called the [[Ilaga]]. Anecdotal evidence states that the Ilaga often committed human rights abuses by targeting the [[Moro people|Moro]] and [[Lumad]] people, as well as attempting to seize additional territory. It resulted in a lingering animosity between Moro and Christian communities. Mistrust and a cycle of violence are still felt today due to the creation of the Ilaga.<ref name="Case">{{Citation |title=The Bangsamoro Struggle for Self-Determintation: A Case Study |url=http://manoa.hawaii.edu/ccpv/assets/docs/CCPV%20-%20The%20Bangsamoro%20Struggle%20for%20Self-Determination%20-%20A%20Case%20Study%20-%20By%20Caecilia%20Noble.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215025250/http://manoa.hawaii.edu/ccpv/assets/docs/CCPV%20-%20The%20Bangsamoro%20Struggle%20for%20Self-Determination%20-%20A%20Case%20Study%20-%20By%20Caecilia%20Noble.pdf |access-date=September 25, 2020 |archive-date=February 15, 2017 |mode=cs1 |url-status=live |via=manoa.hawaii.edu}}</ref><ref name="Mackerras 2003">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mi6DAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA143 |title=Ethnicity in Asia |date=2004 |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |isbn=0-203-38046-0 |editor-last=Mackerras |editor-first=Colin |location=London |page=143}}</ref>

The [[Jabidah massacre]] in 1968 is commonly cited as the major flashpoint that ignited the Moro insurgency, and the ensuing ethnic tensions led to the formation of secessionist movements,<ref>{{Cite book |last=George |first=T. J. S. |title=Revolt in Mindanao: The Rise of Islam in Philippine Politics |date=1980 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-580429-5 |location=Kuala Lumpur |oclc=6569089}}</ref> such as the [[Muslim Independence Movement]] and the [[Bangsamoro Liberation Organization]]. These movements were largely political in nature, but the prohibition of political parties after Marcos' 1972 declaration of Martial Law led to the founding and dominance of armed groups such as the [[Moro National Liberation Front]] (MNLF), and the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]] (MILF).<ref name="Mackerras 2003" /> Ethnic conflicts continued to escalate, leading to incidents like the [[Manili massacre|1971 Manili massacre]], the [[Pata Island massacre]], and the [[Palimbang massacre]].<ref name="Mackerras 2003" />

Additionally, an economic crisis in late 1969 led to social unrest throughout the country, and violent crackdowns on protests led to the radicalization of many students,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rodis |first=Rodel |date=January 30, 2015 |title=Remembering the First Quarter Storm |work=Inquirer.net |url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/118130/remembering-the-first-quarter-storm |url-status=live |access-date=September 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131131959/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/118130/remembering-the-first-quarter-storm/ |archive-date=January 31, 2015}}</ref> with some joining the [[New People's Army]], bringing the  [[New People's Army rebellion]] to Mindanao for the first time.<ref name="MiclatinArguillas" />

Marcos' declaration led to the shuttering of press outlets – television stations, national newspapers, weekly magazines, community newspapers, and radio stations – throughout the country, including in Mindanao.<ref name="GazetteMLInfographic">{{cite web |url=http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph:80/featured/infographic-day-marcos-declared-martial-law-september-23-1972/ |title=Infographic: The day Marcos declared Martial Law |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911040256/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/infographic-day-marcos-declared-martial-law-september-23-1972/ |archive-date=September 11, 2017  |access-date=October 26, 2018 }}</ref> The remaining years of the Marcos dictatorship led to the killings of many Mindanao journalists, with prominent examples being [[Alex Orcullo]] of ''Mindanao Currents'' and ''Mindaweek'',<ref name="BantayogProfileOrcullo">{{Cite news |url=http://www.bantayog.org/orcullo-alexander-l/ |title=ORCULLO, Alexander L. – Bantayog ng mga Bayani |date=March 6, 2016 |work=Bantayog ng mga Bayani |access-date=October 31, 2018 |language=en-US |archive-date=November 1, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101015419/http://www.bantayog.org/orcullo-alexander-l/  }}</ref><ref name="HowieSeverino20170225">{{Cite video |title=iWitness: Sino si Alex Orcullo? At Ano ang Kontribusyon niya sa People Power sa Davao? |date=February 25, 2017 |last=Severino |first=Howie |type=TV Documentary |language=Filipino|publisher=[[GMA News and Public Affairs]]}}</ref> and [[Jacobo Amatong]] of the ''Mindanao Observer''.<ref name="BantayogProfileAmatong">{{Cite web |date=October 11, 2015 |title=MARTYRS & HEROES: Amatong, Jacobo S. |url=http://www.bantayog.org/amatong-jacobo-s/ |access-date=March 4, 2021 |website=Bantayog ng mga Bayani |language=en-US |archive-date=June 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616021217/https://www.bantayog.org/amatong-jacobo-s/  }}</ref><ref name="Maslog1993">{{Cite book |last=Maslog |first=Crispin C. |title=The rise and fall of Philippine community newspapers |publisher=Published by the Philippine Press Institute with funding from Konrad Adenauer Foundation |year=1993 |isbn=971-8703-09-8 |location=Intramuros, Manila |oclc=29830136}}</ref>

=== Fifth Republic (1986–present) ===
{{Update section|date=October 2019}}
In 1989, the [[Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao]] (ARMM) was established, constituted by several provinces in Western Mindanao.

In March 2000, President [[Joseph Estrada]] declared an "All Out War" against the MILF after it committed a series of terrorist attacks on government buildings, civilians, and foreigners. A number of livelihood intervention projects, from organisations such as [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]] and the Emergency Livelihood Assistance Program (ELAP), aided in the reconstruction of areas affected by constant battles on the island.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Santillan |first=Karina R. |date=2015 |title=Livelihoods for Women in Mindanao: A Post-Conflict Reconstruction Approach |journal=[[Asian Journal of Women's Studies]] |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=19–39 |doi=10.1080/12259276.2015.1029232 |s2cid=153206038}}</ref>

In December 2009, President [[Gloria Macapagal Arroyo]] officially placed [[Maguindanao]] under a state of martial law following the [[Maguindanao massacre]].

On September 9, 2013, an [[Zamboanga City crisis|MNLF faction attempted to raise the flag]] of a self-proclaimed Bangsamoro Republik at [[Zamboanga City Hall]] in an armed incursion into parts of the city.

On January 25, 2015, [[Mamasapano clash|a shootout took place]] during a police operation by the Special Action Force (SAF) of the Philippine National Police (PNP) in Tukanalipao, Mamasapano, Maguindanao. The operation, codenamed Oplan Exodus, was intended to capture or kill wanted Malaysian terrorist and bomb-maker Zulkifli Abdhir and other Malaysian terrorists or high-ranking members of the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF).

[[File:Lanao sultans.jpg|thumb|Lanao sultans making an open letter to Duterte urging for the quick resolution of the Marawi crisis]]
In May 2017, President [[Rodrigo Duterte]] declared martial law on the entire island group of Mindanao following the [[Marawi crisis|Marawi siege]] by the [[Maute Group|Maute]] terrorist group.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 24, 2017 |title=Duterte Declares Martial Law in Mindanao, Cuts Short Russia Trip Moscow, Russia |url=https://pcoo.gov.ph/duterte-declares-martial-law-in-mindanao-cuts-short-russia-trip%E2%80%A8%E2%80%A8-moscow-russia/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124062454/https://pcoo.gov.ph/duterte-declares-martial-law-in-mindanao-cuts-short-russia-trip%E2%80%A8%E2%80%A8-moscow-russia/ |archive-date=January 24, 2020 |access-date=August 5, 2020 |website=Presidential Communications Operations Office}}</ref> More than 180,000 people were forced to evacuate [[Marawi|Marawi City]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Unson |first=John |date=June 13, 2017 |title=ARMM: More than 183,500 Displaced by Marawi Crisis |work=Philstar.com |url=http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/06/13/1709614/armm-more-183500-displaced-marawi-crisis |access-date=July 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711080219/http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/06/13/1709614/armm-more-183500-displaced-marawi-crisis |archive-date=July 11, 2017}}</ref> Around 165 security forces and 47 residents were confirmed killed in the battle, although Marawi residents believe the number of civilians killed was far higher. The official death toll in the five-month conflict is 1,109, most of which were members of a militant alliance which drew fighters from radical factions of domestic Islamist groups.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Morales |first=Neil Jerome |date=May 23, 2018 |title=A Year After Siege, Marawi Families Seek Closure |work=ABS-CBN News |agency=Reuters |url=https://www.abs-cbn.com/news/05/23/18/a-year-after-siege-marawi-families-seek-closure |access-date=August 5, 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180523180447/https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/05/23/18/a-year-after-siege-marawi-families-seek-closure |archive-date=May 23, 2018}}</ref>

In 2019, the [[Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao]] was established, replacing the former ARMM.

In 2024, former President [[Rodrigo Duterte]] called for Mindanao to secede from the Philippines,<ref>{{Cite news |last= |date=2024-02-05 |title=Philippines says it is ready to use force to quell secession attempts as Duterte row deepens |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/05/philippines-secession-attempts-force-mindanao-president-ferdinand-marcos-jr-alliance |access-date=2024-02-08 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> reviving the movement started by congressman [[Pantaleon Alvarez]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Panganiban-Perez |first1=Tina |title=Alvarez 'thanks' Romualdez over renewed calls for Mindanao independence |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/topstories/nation/895976/alvarez-thanks-romualdez-over-renewed-calls-for-mindanao-independence/story/ |access-date=31 January 2024 |work=GMA News |date=31 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{See also|Economy of the Philippines}}
{{more citations needed section|date=September 2013}}

[[File:CAG Skyline Jan 2018.jpg|thumb|[[Cagayan de Oro]] skyline in 2018]]

Mindanao's economy accounts for 14% of the country's gross domestic product. The region grew 4.9% in 2016 against Luzon's 5.5% and Visayas' 9.1%.

Agriculture, forestry and fishing make up more than 40% of Mindanao's market, being the country's largest supplier of major crops such as pineapples and bananas.<ref name="Mindanao fold">{{Cite web |last=Tubayan |first=Elijah Joseph C. |date=January 7, 2018 |title=Bringing Mindanao Into the Fold |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/bringing-mindanao-fold/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119230757/https://www.bworldonline.com/bringing-mindanao-fold/ |archive-date=January 19, 2019 |access-date=January 19, 2019 |website=BusinessWorld}}</ref>

There is one defined growth corridor in the island, namely [[Metro Davao]]. Other growth centers are: Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, Zamboanga City, Cotabato City, and Pagadian City.<ref name="Mindanao fold"/>

Being the top-performing economy in Mindanao, [[Davao Region]] has the 5th-biggest economy in the country and the second-fastest-growing economy next to Cordillera Autonomous Region.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Alama |first=Rudolph Ian |date=May 10, 2018 |title=Davao Region Surprises with Historic 10.9% GRDP Growth in 2017 |work=Philippine Information Agency |url=https://pia.gov.ph/news/articles/1007686 |access-date=September 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915230030/https://pia.gov.ph/news/articles/1007686 |archive-date=September 15, 2018}}</ref> While the region's economy is predominantly agri-based, it is now developing into a center for agro-industrial business, trade and tourism. Its competitive advantage is in agri-industry as its products, papayas, mangoes, bananas, pineapples, fresh asparagus, flowers, and fish products are exported internationally. The region can be a vital link to markets in other parts of Mindanao, [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]] and parts of [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Davao |url=https://reserbasyon.info/%e6%9c%aa%e5%88%86%e9%a1%9e/davao.html  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120043107/https://reserbasyon.info/%e6%9c%aa%e5%88%86%e9%a1%9e/davao.html |archive-date=January 20, 2019 |access-date=January 19, 2019 |url-status=usurped |website=Reserbasyon}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2021}}

There is also a growing call center sector in the region, mostly centered in [[Davao City]].

=== Upcoming developments ===
Some 2,130 government-led infrastructure projects worth P547.9 billion have also been lined up for Mindanao until 2022.

NEDA official said that 68% of that budget will be allotted for the transportation sector, while 16% will go to water resources, and 6% to social infrastructure.

Of this amount, 18 infrastructure projects have been identified as "flagship projects", five of them have already been approved by President Rodrigo Duterte.

The projects include the [[Philippine peso|₱]]35.26 billion Tagum-Davao-Digos Segment of the [[Mindanao Railway]], the ₱40.57 billion Davao airport, the ₱14.62 billion Laguindingan airport, the ₱4.86 billion Panguil Bay Bridge Project, and the ₱5.44 billion Malitubog-Maridagao Irrigation Project, Phase II.

Projects in the pipeline are the second and third phases of the Mindanao Railway; the Agus-Pulangi plant rehabilitation; the Davao expressway; the Zamboanga Fish Port Complex rehabilitation; the Balo-i Plains Flood Control Project; Asbang Small Reservoir Irrigation Project; the Ambal Simuay Sub-Basin of the Mindanao River Basin Flood Control and River Protection Project; as well as the Road Network Development Project in Conflict-Affected Areas in Mindanao project.<ref name="Mindanao fold" />
=== Air transport ===
[[Francisco Bangoy International Airport]] serves as the main gateway to Mindanao, it is the busiest airport on the island and the [[List of the busiest airports in the Philippines|third busiest]] in the [[Philippines]] in 2022.

[[Laguindingan Airport]] is the second-busiest airport along with [[Zamboanga International Airport]] as third-busiest in the island. 

There are also smaller airports across Mindanao such as [[Bancasi Airport]], [[General Santos International Airport]], [[Labo Airport]], [[Sayak Airport]] and [[Surigao Airport]].

==Administrative divisions==
{{Further|Political divisions of Mindanao}}

The island consists of six [[Regions of the Philippines|administrative regions]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philippine Standard Geographic Code (PSGC) – Regions |url=https://psa.gov.ph/classification/psgc/?q=psgc/regions |access-date=December 27, 2021 |website=Philippine Statistics Authority}}</ref> 23 [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]], and 30 [[Cities of the Philippines|cities]] (28 provinces and 33 cities if [[Island groups of the Philippines|associated islands]] are included).

[[Sulu]] is not part of any region after the [[Supreme Court of the Philippines|Supreme Court]] declared its inclusion in Bangsamoro unconsitutional as the majority of its residents voted against it during the [[2019 Bangsamoro autonomy plebiscite|2019 plebiscite]].<ref>{{cite news |title=SC affirms Bangsamoro Organic Law; rules Sulu not part of BARMM |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1232948 |access-date=10 September 2024 |work=Philippine News Agency |date=9 September 2024}}</ref> 

{{toptextcells}}
{| class="wikitable sortable toptextcells" style="margin:auto;text-align:center;width:100%;font-size:95%;"
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
! scope="col" | Location
! scope="col" | Region<br />{{small|(designation)}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|Population|Population and national share (as of 2020)}}<br />{{small|(2020)}}{{PH census|2020|d}}
! scope="col" | Area{{efn-lr|name=Area}}<ref name="PSA-NSCB-ProvinceList">{{Cite web |title=PSGC Interactive; List of Provinces |url=http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listprov.asp  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507180158/http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listprov.asp |archive-date=May 7, 2016 |access-date=April 3, 2016 |website=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]]}}</ref><ref name="PSA-CitiesList">{{Cite web |title=PSGC Interactive; List of Cities |url=http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listcity.asp  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508193801/http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listcity.asp |archive-date=May 8, 2016 |access-date=April 7, 2016 |website=Philippine Statistics Authority}}</ref>
! scope="col" | Density
! scope="col" | Regional<br />center<br/>{{small|(capital region)}}
! scope="col" style="width:14em;text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | {{center|[[List of primary local government units of the Philippines|Component LGUs]]}}{{unbulleted list | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | {{Color box|#FDFDFD|border=darkgray}} {{small|Province}} | {{Color box|#FDFDFD|border=darkgray}} {{small|''{{font|Independent city|css=font-weight:normal;}}''}} | {{Color box|#FDFDFD|{{font|∗|css=font-weight:normal;}}|border=darkgray}} {{small|[[Island groups of the Philippines|Associated island]]}}{{efn-lr|name=Islands}}}}
|-
! scope="row" style="width:8em;" data-sort-value="1" | [[File:Ph fil zamboanga peninsula.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting the Zamboanga Peninsula]]
| style="font-weight:bold;" | [[Zamboanga Peninsula|Zamboanga<br />Peninsula]]<br />{{small|(Region IX)}}
| 3,875,376<br />(''{{percentage|3,407,353|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|17056.73|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|3,407,353/17,056.73|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[Pagadian City]]
| {{Collapsible list
 |title        = 5
 | frame_style = border:none;
 | title_style = font-weight:normal;text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;background-color:#F5F5F5;
 | list_style  = text-align:left;font-size:90%;line-height:1.20em;white-space:nowrap;
 | bullets     = on;
 | 1           = ''[[Isabela, Basilan|Isabela City]]''*{{efn-lr|name=cc}}
 | 2           = ''[[Zamboanga City]]''{{efn-lr|name=huc}}
 | 3           = '''[[Zamboanga del Norte]]'''
 | 4           = '''[[Zamboanga del Sur]]'''
 | 5           = '''[[Zamboanga Sibugay]]'''
 }}
|-
! scope="row" style="width:8em;" data-sort-value="2" | [[File:Ph fil northern mindanao.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting Northern Mindanao]]
| style="font-weight:bold;" | [[Northern Mindanao|Northern<br />Mindanao]]<br />{{small|(Region X)}}
| 5,022,768<br />(''{{percentage|5,022,768|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|20496.02|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|5022768/20,496.02|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[Cagayan de Oro]]
| {{Collapsible list
 | title       = 7
 | frame_style = border:none;
 | title_style = font-weight:normal;text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;background-color:#F5F5F5;
 | list_style  = text-align:left;font-size:90%;line-height:1.20em;white-space:nowrap;
 | bullets     = on;
 | 1           = '''[[Bukidnon]]'''
 | 2           = ''[[Cagayan de Oro]]''{{efn-lr|name=huc}}
 | 3           = '''[[Camiguin]]'''*
 | 4           = ''[[Iligan]]''{{efn-lr|name=huc}}
 | 5           = '''[[Lanao del Norte]]'''
 | 6           = '''[[Misamis Occidental]]'''
 | 7           = '''[[Misamis Oriental]]'''
 }}
|-
! scope="row" style="width:8em;" data-sort-value="6" | [[File:Ph fil davao region.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting Davao Region]]
| style="font-weight:bold;" | [[Davao Region]]<br />{{small|(Region XI)}}
| 5,243,536<br />(''{{percentage|5,243,536|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|20357.42|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|5243536/20,357.42|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| '''[[Davao City]]'''
| {{Collapsible list
 | title       = 6
 | frame_style = border:none;
 | title_style = font-weight:normal;text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;background-color:#F5F5F5;
 | list_style  = text-align:left;font-size:90%;line-height:1.20em;white-space:nowrap;
 | bullets     = on;
 | 1           = '''[[Davao de Oro]]'''
 | 2           = ''[[Davao City]]''{{efn-lr|name=huc}}
 | 3           = '''[[Davao del Norte]]'''
 | 4           = '''[[Davao del Sur]]'''
 | 5           = '''[[Davao Oriental]]'''
 | 6           = '''[[Davao Occidental]]'''
 }}
|-
! scope="row" style="width:8em;" data-sort-value="5" | [[File:Ph fil soccsksargen.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting Soccsksargen]]
| style="font-weight:bold;" | [[Soccsksargen]]<br />{{small|(Region XII)}}
| 4,360,974<br />(''{{percentage|4,360,974|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|22513.30|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|4,360,974/22,513.30|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[Koronadal]]
| {{Collapsible list
 | title       = 6
 | frame_style = border:none;
 | title_style = font-weight:normal;text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;background-color:#F5F5F5;
 | list_style  = text-align:left;font-size:90%;line-height:1.20em;white-space:nowrap;
 | bullets     = on;
 | 1           = '''[[Cotabato|Cotabato (North)]]'''
 | 2           = ''[[General Santos]]''{{efn-lr|name=huc}}
 | 3           = '''[[Sarangani]]'''
 | 4           = '''[[South Cotabato]]'''
 | 5           = '''[[Sultan Kudarat]]'''
 }}
|-
! scope="row" style="width:8em;" data-sort-value="3" | [[File:Ph fil caraga.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting the Caraga Region]]
| style="font-weight:bold;" | [[Caraga|Caraga Region]]<br />{{small|(Region XIII)}}
| 2,804,788<br />(''{{percentage|2,804,788|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|21478.35|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|2,804,788/21,478.35|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[Butuan]]
| {{Collapsible list
 | title       = 6
 | frame_style = border:none;
 | title_style = font-weight:normal;text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;background-color:#F5F5F5;
 | list_style  = text-align:left;font-size:90%;line-height:1.20em;white-space:nowrap;
 | bullets     = on;
 | 1           = '''[[Agusan del Norte]]'''
 | 2           = '''[[Agusan del Sur]]'''
 | 3           = ''[[Butuan]]''{{efn-lr|name=huc}}
 | 4           = '''[[Dinagat Islands]]'''*
 | 5           = '''[[Surigao del Norte]]'''
 | 6           = '''[[Surigao del Sur]]'''
 }}
|-
! scope="row" style="width:8em;" data-sort-value="4" | [[File:Ph fil barmm.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao]]
| style="font-weight:bold;" | [[Bangsamoro| Bangsamoro Autonomous Region<br />in Muslim<br />Mindanao]]<br />{{small|(BARMM)}}
| 4,944,800<br />(''{{percentage|4,944,800|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|12535.79|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|4,944,800/12,535.79|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[Cotabato City]] 
| {{Collapsible list
 | title       = 6
 | frame_style = border:none;
 | title_style = font-weight:normal;text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;background-color:#F5F5F5;
 | list_style  = text-align:left;font-size:90%;line-height:1.20em;white-space:nowrap;
 | bullets     = on;
 | 1           = '''[[Basilan]]'''*<br />{{small|(''excluding Isabela City'')}}
 | 2           = ''[[Cotabato City]]''{{efn-lr|name=icc}}
 | 3           = '''[[Lanao del Sur]]'''
 | 4           = '''[[Maguindanao del Norte]]'''
 | 5           = '''[[Maguindanao del Sur]]'''
 | 6           = '''[[Tawi-Tawi]]'''*
 }}
|-class="sortbottom" style="text-align:left;background-color:#F2F2F2;"
| colspan="7" |
;Table notes
{{notelist-lr|30em|refs=
{{efn-lr|name=Area|Land area figures are the sum of each region's component provinces (and/or independent cities), derived from the National Statistical Coordination Board ([[Philippine Statistics Authority]]) official website.}}
{{efn-lr|name=Islands|The provinces of [[Basilan]], [[Camiguin]], [[Dinagat Islands]], [[Sulu]], and [[Tawi-Tawi]] are separate islands and/or island groups themselves, but are included under the [[Island groups of the Philippines|island group of Mindanao]].}}
{{efn-lr|name=cc|A component city, part of the province of Basilan, but whose regional services are provided by the offices of Region IX.}}
{{efn-lr|name=icc|An [[Cities of the Philippines#Classification|independent component city]], not under the jurisdiction of any provincial government.}}
{{efn-lr|name=huc|A [[Cities of the Philippines#Classification|highly urbanized city]], independent from any province}}
}}
|}

{{Mindanao labelled map}}

===Largest cities and municipalities in Mindanao===
The list of largest cities and municipalities in Mindanao in terms of population is shown in the table below.
{{Largest cities and municipalities in Mindanao|class=info}}

==Geography==
[[File:Carte_topographique_de_Mindanao.svg|thumb|Geofeatures map of Mindanao]]
Mindanao is the second-largest [[island]] in the Philippines at {{convert|97530|km2}},<ref name="unep" /> and is the [[List of islands by population|seventh-most populous island in the world]]. The island is mountainous, and is home to [[Mount Apo]], the highest mountain in the country. Mindanao is surrounded by four seas: the [[Sulu Sea]] to the west,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hogan |first=C. Michael |date=August 29, 2011 |title=Sulu Sea |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Sulu_Sea?topic=49523 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504162440/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Sulu_Sea?topic=49523 |archive-date=May 4, 2012 |website=The Encyclopedia of Earth}}</ref> the [[Philippine Sea]] to the east, the [[Celebes Sea]] to the south, and the [[Bohol Sea|Mindanao Sea]] to the north.

The island itself is part of an [[Island groups of the Philippines|island group]] of the same name, which consists of the mainland, the [[Sulu Archipelago]] and the outlying islands of [[Camiguin]], [[Dinagat Island|Dinagat]], [[Siargao]], and [[Samal, Davao del Norte|Samal]].

=== Mountains ===
[[File:Foggy Morning At Panimahawa Ridge.jpg|thumb|Mountains in the province of [[Bukidnon]]]]
The mountains of Mindanao can be grouped into ten ranges, including both complex structural mountains and volcanoes. The structural mountains on the extreme eastern and western portions of the island show broad exposures of [[Mesozoic]] rock, and Ultrabasic rocks at the surface in many places along the east coast. Other parts of the island consist mainly of [[Cenozoic]] and [[Quaternary]] volcanic or sedimentary rocks.

In the eastern portion of the island, from [[Bilas Point]] in [[Surigao del Norte]] to [[Cape San Agustin]] in [[Davao Oriental]], is a range of complex mountains known in their northern portion as the [[Diwata Mountains]]. This range is low and rolling in its central portion. A proposed road connecting [[Bislig]] on the east coast with the [[Agusan River]] would pass through {{Convert|16|km|sp=us}} of broad saddle across the mountains at a maximum elevation of less than {{Convert|250|m|sp=us}}; while the existing east–west road from [[Lianga, Surigao del Sur|Lianga]], {{convert|48|km|abbr=on}} north of [[Bislig]], reaches a maximum elevation of only {{Convert|450|m|abbr=on}}. The Diwata Mountains, north of these low points, are considerably higher and more rugged, reaching an elevation of {{Convert|2012|m|abbr=on}} in [[Mount Hilong-Hilong]], {{convert|17|mi|km}} along the eastern portion of [[Cabadbaran]]. The southern portion of this range is broader and even more rugged than the northern section. In [[Davao Oriental]], several peaks rise above {{Convert|2600.|m|abbr=on}} and one mountain rises to {{Convert|2910.|m|abbr=on}}.

[[File:Tuktok ng Pilipinas.jpg|thumb|[[Mt. Apo]], the highest peak in the Philippines]]

The east-facing coastal regions of Davao and Surigao del Sur are marked by a series of small coastal lowlands separated from each other by rugged forelands which extend to the water's edge. Offshore are numerous [[coral reefs]] and tiny [[islets]]. This remote and forbidding coast is made doubly difficult to access during the months from October to March by the heavy surf driven before the northeast trade winds. A few miles offshore is found the [[Philippine Deep]]. This ocean trench, reaching measured depths of {{convert|34696|ft|m}}, is the third-deepest trench, (after the [[Mariana Trench]] and [[Tonga Trench]]) on the earth's surface.

A second north–south mountain range extends from [[Talisayan, Misamis Oriental|Talisayan]] in the north, to [[Tinaca Point]] in the southernmost point of Mindanao. This mountain range runs along the western borders of the [[Agusan del Norte]], [[Agusan del Sur]], and [[Davao Region|Davao]] provinces. This range is mainly structural in origin, but it also contains at least three active volcano peaks. The central and northern portions of this range contain several peaks between {{Convert|2000|and|2600|m|abbr=on}}, and here the belt of mountains is about {{convert|30|mi|km}} across.

West of [[Davao City]] stand two inactive volcanoes: [[Mount Talomo]] at {{Convert|2893|m|sp=us}}, and [[Mount Apo]] at {{Convert|2964|m|abbr=on}}. Mount Apo is the highest point in the Philippines. South of Mount Apo, this central mountain belt is somewhat lower than it is to the north, with peaks averaging only {{Convert|1100|to|1800|m|abbr=on}}.

In Western Mindanao, a range of complex structural mountains forms the long, hand-like [[Zamboanga Peninsula (geographical region)|Zamboanga Peninsula]]. These mountains, reaching heights of only {{convert|1200|m|abbr=off|sp=us}}, are not as high as the other structural belts in Mindanao. There are several places in the Zamboanga Mountains where small inter-mountain basins have been created, with some potential for future agricultural development. The northeastern end of this range is marked by the twin peaks of the now-extinct volcano, [[Mount Malindang]], that towers over [[Ozamiz]] at a height of {{Convert|2425|m|abbr=on}}. Mount Dapia is the highest mountain in the Zamboanga Peninsula, reaching a height of {{convert|2617|m|abbr=on}}. [[Batorampon Point]] is the highest mountain of the southernmost end of the peninsula, reaching a height of only {{convert|1335|m|abbr=on}}; it is located in the boundary of [[Zamboanga City]].

A series of volcanic mountains is located within the vicinity of [[Lake Lanao]] forming a broad arc through the [[Lanao del Sur]], [[Cotabato]] and [[Bukidnon]] provinces. At least six of the twenty odd peaks in this area are active and several stand in semi-isolation. The [[Butig Peaks]], with their four crater lakes, are easily seen from [[Cotabato]]. [[Mount Ragang]], an active volcano cone reaching {{Convert|2815|m|abbr=on}}, is the most isolated, while the greatest height is reached by [[Mount Kitanglad]] at {{Convert|2889|m|abbr=on}}.

[[File:Philippinen mindanao boot ph06p73.jpg|thumb|Mindanao coast]]

In [[South Cotabato]], is another range of volcanic mountains, this time paralleling the coast. These mountains have a maximum extent of {{convert|110|mi|km}} from northwest to southeast and measures some {{convert|30|mi|km}} across. One of the well-known mountains here is [[Mount Parker (Cotabato)|Mount Parker]], whose almost circular [[volcanic crater lake|crater lake]] measures a mile-and-a-quarter in diameter and lies {{Convert|300|m|abbr=on}} below its {{Convert|2040|m|abbr=on}} summit. [[Mount Matutum]] is a protected area and is considered one of the major landmarks in the [[South Cotabato]] province.

=== Plateaus ===
Another important physiographic division of Mindanao is the series of upland plateaus in the [[Bukidnon]] and [[Lanao del Sur]] provinces. These [[plateau]]s are rather extensive and almost surround several [[volcanoes]] in this area. The plateaus are made up of basaltic lava flows inter-bedded with volcanic ash and tuff. Near their edges, the plateaus are cut by deep [[canyons]], and at several points waterfalls drop down to the narrow coastal plain. These falls hold considerable promise for development of hydroelectric energy. Indeed, one such site at [[Maria Cristina Falls]] has already become a major producer. The rolling plateaus lie at an elevation averaging 700 meters above sea level, and offer relief from the often oppressive heat of the coastal lowlands.

=== Lakes and waterfalls ===
[[Lake Lanao]] occupies a large portion of one such plateau in [[Lanao del Sur]]. This lake is the largest lake in Mindanao and the second largest in the country; it is roughly triangular in shape with an {{convert|18|mi|km|adj=mid|-long}} base, having a surface at 780 meters above sea level, and is rimmed on the east, south, and west by a series of peaks reaching 2,300 meters.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} [[Marawi City]], at the northern tip of the lake, is bisected by the [[Agus River]], that feeds the [[Maria Cristina Falls]].

Another of Mindanao's waterfall sites is located in Malabang, {{convert|15|mi|km}} south of [[Lake Lanao]]. Here the Jose Abad Santos Falls present one of the nation's scenic wonders at the gateway to a 200-hectare national park development.

The Limunsudan Falls, with an approximate height of {{convert|800|ft|m|abbr=on}}, is the highest waterfall in the Philippines; it is located in [[Iligan City]].

=== Valleys, rivers, and plains ===
[[File:Rio Grande de Mindanao (Cotabato City).jpg|thumb|[[Rio Grande de Mindanao]]]]
Mindanao contains two large lowland areas in the valleys of the [[Agusan River]] in Agusan, and the [[Rio Grande de Mindanao]] in [[Cotabato City]].

There is some indication that the Agusan Valley occupies a broad syncline between the central mountains and the east-coast mountains. This valley measures {{convert|110|mi|km}} from south to north and varies from {{convert|20|to|30|mi|km}} in width. {{convert|35|mi|km}} north of the head of [[Davao Gulf]] lies the watershed between the Agusan and the tributaries of the Libuganon River, which flows to the gulf. The elevation of this divide is well under {{Convert|200|m|abbr=on}}, indicating the almost continuous nature of the lowland from the [[Bohol Sea|Mindanao Sea]] on the north to [[Davao Gulf]].

The [[Rio Grande de Mindanao]] and its main tributaries, the Catisan and the [[Pulangi River|Pulangi]], form a valley with a maximum length of {{convert|120|mi|km}} and a width which varies from {{convert|12|mi|km}} at the river mouth to about {{convert|60|mi|km}} in central [[Cotabato]]. The southern extensions of this Cotabato Valley extend uninterrupted across a {{Convert|350|m|sp=us|adj=on}} [[drainage divide|watershed]] from [[Illana Bay]] on the northwest to [[Sarangani Bay]] on the southeast.

Other lowlands of a coastal nature are to be found in various parts of Mindanao. Many of these are tiny isolated pockets, along the northwest coast of [[Zamboanga Peninsula|Zamboanga]]. In other areas such as the Davao Plain, these coastal lowlands are {{Convert|16|km|abbr=on}} wide and several times in length.

From [[Dipolog]], eastward along the northern coast of Mindanao approaching [[Butuan]], extends a rolling coastal plain of varying width. In [[Misamis Occidental]], the now dormant [[Mount Malindang]] has created a lowland averaging {{Convert|13|km|abbr=on}} in width. Shallow [[Panguil Bay]] divides this province from [[Lanao del Norte]], and is bordered by low-lying, poorly drained lowlands and extensive mangroves. In [[Misamis Oriental]], the plain is narrower and in places whittle into rugged capes that reach the sea. East of [[Cagayan de Oro]], a rugged peninsula extends into the [[Bohol Sea|Mindanao Sea]].

=== Climate change ===
[[Climate change]] is expected to have adverse effects on Mindanao's population, environment, and agriculture.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 3, 2017 |title=Climate change affects Mindanao: Environment advocate |url=https://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/118550/climate-change-affects-mindanao-environment-advocate- |access-date=March 29, 2022 |website=Sunstar |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate change is a threat multiplier for the forcibly displaced in Mindanao |url=https://www.unhcr.org/ph/24073-jul2021-enews-mindanao.html |access-date=March 29, 2022 |website=UNHCR Philippines |language=en}}</ref> Mindanao is already experiencing [[Effects of climate change|severe climate events]] attributed to changes in the Earth's temperature. These climate events include typhoons such as [[Tropical Storm Washi|Typhoon Washi]], [[Typhoon Bopha]] and [[Typhoon Rai]] as of December 2021. Those storms had severe impact on the island of Mindanao.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mordeno |first=H. Marcos C. |date=August 10, 2021 |title=Climate change closer to irreversible tipping points – IPCC |url=https://www.mindanews.com/top-stories/2021/08/climate-change-closer-to-irreversible-tipping-points-ipcc/ |access-date=March 29, 2022 |website=MindaNews |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Demographics==
In 2017, Mindanao had a population of over 25 million. This represented 22 percent of the entire population of the country.<ref name="honshu2">{{Cite book |last=Boquet |first=Yves |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 |title=The Philippine Archipelago |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn= 978-3-319-51926-5 |location=Cham, Switzerland |page=16}}</ref>

===Ethnicity and culture===
{{Main|Culture of the Philippines|Music of the Philippines|Kulintang}}
[[File:Indak Boy Kadayawan Festival 1.jpg|thumb|''I-indak sa kadalanan'' or the street dancing competition, part of [[Kadayawan Festival]] celebration in [[Davao City]]]]
[[File:Chinatown Davao City.jpg|thumb|Davao City's [[Chinatown]]]]
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Region
! rowspan="2" |Province
! colspan="2" |Major ethnic groups
|-
! '''Indigenous'''
! '''Non-indigenous'''
|-
| rowspan="4" |'''[[Zamboanga Peninsula]]'''||{{flag|Sulu}}|| [[sama-Bajau people|Sama-Bajaw]], [[tausug people|Tausug]]
| [[cebuano people|Cebuano]], [[Zamboangueño people|Chavacano]]
|-
|{{flag|Zamboanga del Sur}}||[[Iranun people|Iranun]], [[Maguindanao people|Maguindanaon]], [[Maranao people|Maranao]], Sama-Bajaw, [[Subanon people|Subanen]], [[Tausug people|Tausug]], [[Yakan people|Yakan]]
| [[Bicolano people|Bicolano]], Cebuano, Chavacano, [[Chinese Filipino|Chinese]], [[Hiligaynon people|Hiligaynon]], [[Ilocano people|Ilocano]], [[Kapampangan people|Kapampangan]], [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]]
|-
|{{flag|Zamboanga Sibugay}}|| Maguindanaon, Subanen, Tausug
| Chavacano, Cebuano, Ilocano
|-
|{{flag|Zamboanga del Norte}}||Maguindanaon, Sama-Bajaw, Subanen, Tausug
| Chavacano, Cebuano
|-
| rowspan="5" |'''[[Northern Mindanao]]'''||{{flag|Misamis Occidental}}|| Subanen
| Cebuano
|-
|{{flag|Lanao del Norte}}||[[Lumad#Higaonon|Higaonon]], Maranao, Subanen
|  
|-
|{{flag|Misamis Oriental}}|| Higaonon, Maranao
| 
|-
|{{flag|Camiguin}}||[[Lumad#Kamigin|Kamigin Manobo]]
| 
|-
|{{flag|Bukidnon}}||[[Higaonon]], Iranun, Maguindanaon, Maranao, [[Matigsalug]], [[Lumad#Talaandig|Talaandig]]
| 
|-
| rowspan="5" |'''[[Davao Region]]'''||{{flag|Davao del Sur}}||[[Lumad#Manobo|Ata Manobo]], [[Lumad#Bagobo|Bagobo Klata]], [[Lumad#Bagobo|Bagobo Tagabawa]], Iranun, [[Kalagan people|Kagan]], Maguindanaon, Maranao, Matigsalug, [[Lumad#Bagobo|Obu Manuvu]], [[Sama-Bajau people|Sama-Bajaw]], [[Tausug people|Tausug]]
| Cebuano, Chinese, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Indian, Kapampangan, Tagalog
|-
|{{flag|Davao del Norte}}||[[Manobo people|Ata]], [[Lumad#Manobo|Dibabawon]], Kagan, Maguindanaon, [[Lumad#Mandaya|Mandaya]], [[Lumad#Manobo|Mangguangan]], [[Lumad#Mansaka|Mansaka]], [[Sama-Bajau people|Sama-Bajaw]] 
| Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
|-
|{{flag|Davao de Oro}}|| Ata Manobo, Dibabawon, Kagan, Mandaya, Mangguangan, Mansaka
| Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
|-
|{{flag|Davao Oriental}}||[[Lumad#Manobo|Manobo]], Kagan, Mandaya, Mansaka
| Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
|-
|{{flag|Davao Occidental}}||[[Blaan people|Blaan]], [[Lumad#Tagakaulo|Tagakaulo]], Manobo, [[Sangirese people|Sangil]]
| Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
|-
| rowspan="4" |'''[[Soccsksargen]]'''||{{flag|Cotabato}}||[[Lumad#Bagobo|Bagobo Tagabawa]], Iranun, Maguindanaon, Manobo, [[Lumad#Tagakaulo|Tagakaulo]]
| Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, [[Karay-a people|Karay-a]], Tagalog, Waray
|-
|{{flag|Sarangani}}|| Blaan, Maguindanaon, Tagakaulo, [[Tboli people|Tboli]]
| Cebuano, Hiligaynon, [[Ilocano people|Ilocano]], Tagalog, Waray
|-
|{{flag|South Cotabato}}|| Blaan, Maguindanaon, Tboli
| Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Karay-a, Kapampangan, Tagalog, Waray
|-
|{{flag|Sultan Kudarat}}|| Blaan, Maguindanaon, Manobo, [[Teduray people|Teduray]]
| Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Karay-a, Kapampangan, Tagalog
|-
| rowspan="5" |'''[[BARMM]]'''||{{flag|Maguindanao del Norte}}|| Iranun, Maguindanaon, Teduray
| Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
|-
|{{flag|Maguindanao del Sur}}||[[Lumad#Manobo|Ilianen Manobo]], Maguindanaon, Teduray
| Hiligaynon, Ilocano, [[Karay-a people|Karay-a]], Tagalog
|-
|{{flag|Lanao del Sur}}|| Iranun, Maranao
| Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
|-
|{{flag|Basilan}}||[[Sama-Bajau people|Sama-Bajaw]], [[Tausug people|Tausug]], [[Yakan people|Yakan]]
| Chavacano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano
|-
|{{flag|Tawi-tawi}}|| Sama-Bajaw, Tausug
| Cebuano
|-
| rowspan="5" |'''[[Caraga]]'''||{{flag|Agusan del Norte}}||[[Lumad#Manobo|Agusan Manobo]], Higaonon, [[Lumad#Mamanwa|Mamanwa]]
| [[Butuanon people|Butuanon]], Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, [[Surigaonon people|Surigaonon]], Tagalog
|-
|{{flag|Agusan del Sur}}||Bagobo, Agusan Manobo, Higaonon, Mamanwa
| Bicolano, Butuanon, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog
|-
|{{flag|Surigao del Norte}}|| Mandaya, Agusan Manobo, Mamanwa, [[Lumad#Mansaka|Mansaka]]
| Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Waray
|-
|{{flag|Surigao del Sur}}|| Mandaya, Agusan Manobo
| Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Waray
|-
|{{flag|Dinagat Islands}}||
| Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Waray
|-
|}
An American census conducted in the early 1900s noted that the island was inhabited by people "greatly divided in origin, temperament and religion".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://en.Wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student's_Reference_Work/Mindanao |title=The New Student's Reference Work |chapter=Mindanao |date= 1914 |publisher=F. E. Compton and Company |location=Chicago |via=Wikisource}}</ref> Evidence of the island's cultural diversity can be seen in the buildings and ruins of old Spanish settlements in the northwestern peninsula that span eastwards to the southern gulf coast, the site of the ancient [[Rajahnate of Butuan]] in the northeast region ([[Caraga]]), the sultanates in the southwest ([[Sultanate of Sulu]], Sultanate of Lanao, [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]]), a number of Buddhist and Taoist temples, and the numerous indigenous tribes.

Today around 25.8 percent of the household population in Mindanao classified themselves as Cebuanos. Other ethnic groups included Bisaya/Binisaya (18.4%), Hiligaynon/Ilonggo (8.2%), Maguindanaon (5.5%), and Maranao (5.4%). The remaining 36.6 percent belonged to other ethnic groups, including individuals from Luzon and the Lumad people (indigenous peoples of Mindanao). Cebuano registered the highest proportion of ethnic group in Northern Mindanao and Davao Region with 35.59 percent and 37.76 percent, respectively. In Soccsksargen, it was Hiligaynon/Ilonggo (31.58%), Binisaya/Bisaya (33.10%) in Zamboanga Peninsula, Maranao (26.40%) in BARMM, and Surigaonon (25.67%) in Caraga.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=June 8, 2005 |title=Mindanao Comprised About 24 Percent of the Philippines' Total Population |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/mindanao-comprised-about-24-percent-philippines-total-population |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510115319/https://psa.gov.ph/content/mindanao-comprised-about-24-percent-philippines-total-population |archive-date=May 10, 2019 |access-date=June 24, 2017 |website=Philippine Statistics Authority}}</ref>

Like elsewhere, assimilation from one ethnic group into another is not uncommon in Mindanao. Over the last decades, many Christian migrants from Luzon and Lumad tribes on the island integrated and assimilated into the majority Cebuano-speaking society in Mindanao (Hiligaynon-speaking in the case of Soccsksargen). They identified themselves as Visayans as a result of learning to speak Cebuano or Hiligaynon fluently from their Cebuano or Hiligaynon neighbors. Despite this, many of them still know and retain their non-Visayan roots and some speak their ancestors' language fluently as their second or third language since Mindanao is a melting pot of cultures as a result of southward migration from Luzon and Visayas since the 20th century. Descendants of these migrant Luzon ethnic groups and Lumads, especially newer generations (as Mindanao-born natives), now speak Cebuano or Hiligaynon fluently as their main language with little or no knowledge of their ancestors' native tongues at the time of their southward journey to Mindanao and Lumads developed contact with Cebuano and Hiligaynon speakers. Because the island's inhabitants converted to Christianity and assimilated into the Christian communities, it cannot be always determined whether or not the residents were of indigenous Mindanaoan heritage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Galay-David |first=Karlo Antonio |title=We Who Seek to Settle Problematizing the Mindanao Settler Identity |url=https://www.academia.edu/35306614| journal= Davao Today| date=September–December 2017| via= academia.edu}}</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{See also|Languages of the Philippines|Philippine languages}}
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2020}}

Dozens of languages are spoken in Mindanao; among them, [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]], [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]], [[Maguindanao language|Maguindanaon]], [[Maranao language|Maranao]], [[Surigaonon language|Surigaonon]], [[Tausug language|Tausug]], and [[Chavacano]] are most widely spoken. Of the seven aforementioned regional languages, Cebuano (often referred to as ''Bisaya'') has the largest number of speakers, being spoken throughout Northern Mindanao (except the southern parts of [[Lanao del Norte]]), the Davao region, the western half of the Caraga region (as well as the city of [[Bislig]] and the municipalities surrounding it in [[Surigao del Sur]]), the entirety of the Zamboanga Peninsula (with the exception of Zamboanga City), and southern Soccsksargen.

Hiligaynon is the main language of Soccsksargen, where majority of the inhabitants are of ethnic Hiligaynon stock. [[Maguindanao language|Maguindanaon]], [[Manobo language|Manobo]], [[Tboli language|Tboli]] and [[Blaan language|Blaan]] are the indigenous languages spoken in Soccsksargen. [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]], a native language of the Luzon [[Ilocano people|ethnic group of the same name]], is also spoken in some areas in Soccsksargen, where they also share residency with Hiligaynons. Surigaonon is spoken in the eastern half of the Caraga region, mainly by the eponymous Surigaonons. Tausug is widely spoken specifically in the Sulu Archipelago, which comprises the provinces of [[Basilan]], [[Sulu]], and [[Tawi-Tawi]], with a sizeable community of speakers residing in Zamboanga City.

Maranao and Maguindanaon are the dominant languages of the eastern territories of the Bangsamoro, respectively, with the former being spoken in [[Lanao del Sur]] as well as the southern areas of Lanao del Norte, and the latter in the eponymous provinces of [[Maguindanao del Norte]] and [[Maguindanao del Sur]] and also in adjacent areas which are part of Soccsksargen. Chavacano is the native language of Zamboanga City and is also the lingua franca of Basilan; it is also spoken in the southernmost fringes of [[Zamboanga Sibugay]]. It is also spoken, albeit as a minority language, in [[Cotabato City]] and Davao City, where dialects of it, respectively, exist, namely Cotabateño and Castellano Abakay, both of which evolved from the variant of the language spoken in Zamboanga City.

[[Philippine English|English]] and [[Filipino language|Filipino]] are also widely understood and spoken, with the former being highly utilized in business and academia, and the latter being used to communicate with visitors from Luzon and other parts of Visayas. Filipino is also the main lingua franca of Cotabato City and in BARMM as a whole.

===Religion===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Mindanao (2020)<ref name="PSA-PIF2020">{{cite journal |title=Religious Affiliation in the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing) | date=February 22, 2023 |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/religious-affiliation-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing |access-date=March 25, 2023 | website= psa.gov.ph |publisher=Philippine Statistics Authority |location=Quezon City, Philippines }}</ref>
|label1 = [[Catholicism]]
|value1 = 41.00
|color1 = DarkBlue
|label2 = [[Islam]]
|value2 = 30.39
|color2 = Green
|label3 = [[Pentecostal]]
|value3 = 5.34
|color3 = #82eefd
|label4 = [[Iglesia ni Cristo]]
|value4 = 5.4
|color4 = DodgerBlue
|label5 = [[Aglipayan]]
|value5 = 2.16
|color5 = SkyBlue
|label6 = Other/Unknown Christians
|value6 = 11.31
|color6 = Blue
|label7 = Other/None
|value7 = 4.6
|color7 = Deeppink
}}
[[Christianity in the Philippines|Christianity]] is the dominant religious affiliation in Mindanao with 43% of the household population, the majority of which are adherents of [[Catholic Church in the Philippines|Catholicism]]; [[Islam in the Philippines|Islam]] comprised 32.39%,<ref name="PSA">{{Cite web |date=July 26, 2017 |title=Muslim Population in Mindanao (Based on POPCEN 2015) |url=http://rssoarmm.psa.gov.ph/release/54739/factsheet/muslim-population-in-mindanao-%28based-on-popcen-2015%29 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190504160119/http://rssoarmm.psa.gov.ph/release/54739/factsheet/muslim-population-in-mindanao-(based-on-popcen-2015) |archive-date=May 4, 2019 |access-date=August 31, 2018 |website= psa.gov.ph | publisher=Philippine Statistics Authority}}</ref> and other religions were Pentecostal (5.34%), [[Aglipayan]] (2.16%), and [[Iglesia ni Cristo]] (5.2%).<ref name=":1" />

== Tourism ==
Major tourist spots are scattered throughout Mindanao, consisting mostly of beach resorts, scuba diving resorts, surfing, museums, nature parks, mountain climbing, and river rafting. [[Siargao]], best known for its surfing tower in Cloud 9, also has caves, pools, waterfalls, and lagoons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Things to Do in Siargao Island |url=https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attractions-g674645-Activities-Siargao_Island_Surigao_del_Norte_Province_Mindanao.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519121229/https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attractions-g674645-Activities-Siargao_Island_Surigao_del_Norte_Province_Mindanao.html |archive-date=May 19, 2018 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |website=Tripadvisor}}</ref> There are archaeological sites, historical ruins, and museums in [[Butuan]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 28, 2015 |title=12 Places to Explore in Butuan City |url=http://www.angelotheexplorer.com/2015/06/12-places-to-explore-in-butuan-city.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727090513/http://www.angelotheexplorer.com/2015/06/12-places-to-explore-in-butuan-city.html |archive-date=July 27, 2017 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |website=Angelo The Explorer}}</ref> White Island is a popular tourist spot in [[Camiguin]]. The Duka Bay<ref>{{Cite web |title=[Home page] |url=http://www.dukabayresort.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706131310/http://www.dukabayresort.com/ |archive-date=July 6, 2017 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |website=Duka Bay Resort}}</ref> and the Matangale<ref>{{Cite web |title=[Home page] |url=http://www.mantangale.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702060442/http://www.mantangale.com/ |archive-date=July 2, 2017 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |website=Matangale Alibuag}}</ref> dive resorts in [[Misamis Oriental]] offer glass bottomed boat rides and scuba diving lessons. [[Cagayan de Oro]] has beach resorts, the Mapawa Nature Park, white water rafting and kayaking, museums, and historical landmarks.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tourism |url=https://cagayandeoro.gov.ph/about-cdo/tourism/tourist-spots  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701090237/http://www.cagayandeoro.gov.ph/about-cdo/tourism/tourist-spots |archive-date=July 1, 2017 |website=Cagayan de Oro}}</ref> Ziplining is the main attraction at the Dahilayan Adventure Park and rock wall climbing at Kiokong in [[Bukidnon]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=[Home page] |url=http://dahilayanadventurepark.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708021440/http://dahilayanadventurepark.com/ |archive-date=July 8, 2017 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |website=Dahilayan Adventure Park}}</ref> [[Iligan|Iligan City]] has the Maria Cristina Falls, Tinago Falls, nature parks, beaches, and historical landmarks.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Places to See |url=http://www.iligan.gov.ph/about-iligan/places-to-see/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170719182304/http://www.iligan.gov.ph/about-iligan/places-to-see/ |archive-date=July 19, 2017 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |website=Iligan City Government}}</ref> There are parks, historical buildings, the Vinta Ride at Paseo del Mar, boat villages, 11 Islands (commonly called as ''Onçe Islas''), 17th-century [[Fort Pilar]] Shrine and Museum and the world-renowned [[Great Santa Cruz Island|''Pink Sand Beach'']] of Sta. Cruz in [[Zamboanga City]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 3, 2017 |title=Things to do in Zamboanga City |url=http://www.thepinaysolobackpacker.com/zamboanga-city-tourist-spots/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170726164937/http://www.thepinaysolobackpacker.com/zamboanga-city-tourist-spots/ |archive-date=July 26, 2017 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |website=The Pinay Solo Backpacker}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2021}} There are festivals, fireworks, and the Beras Bird Sanctuary in [[Tacurong|Takurong City]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Attractions |url=http://www.tacurong.gov.ph/destinations/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729034700/http://www.tacurong.gov.ph/destinations/ |archive-date=July 29, 2017 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |website=Official Website of the City Government of Tacurong}}</ref> [[Davao Region|Davao]] has [[Mount Apo|Mt Apo]], parks, museums, beaches, historical landmarks, and scuba diving resorts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 50 Must-visit Tourist Destinations in Davao City |url=https://wayph.com/top-50-tourist-destinations-in-davao-city  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519054342/https://wayph.com/top-50-tourist-destinations-in-davao-city |archive-date=May 19, 2017 |access-date=July 12, 2017 |website=WayPH.com}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2021}}

==Energy==
{{Update|section|date=July 2017}}

Many areas in Mindanao suffer rotating 12-hour blackouts due to the island's woefully inadequate power supply.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Colina |first=Antonio L. IV |date=January 26, 2016 |title=DLPC Eyeing Other Power Sources as Dry Spell Worsens |work=MindaNews |url=http://www.mindanews.com/top-stories/2016/01/dlpc-eyeing-other-power-sources-as-dry-spell-worsens/ |url-status=live |access-date=October 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010160747/http://www.mindanews.com/top-stories/2016/01/dlpc-eyeing-other-power-sources-as-dry-spell-worsens/ |archive-date=October 10, 2017}}</ref> The island is forecast to continue suffering from a 200-megawatt power deficit until 2015, when the private sector begins to operate new capacity. [[Aboitiz Equity Ventures]], a publicly listed holdings company, has committed to supplying 1,200 megawatts through a coal-fired plant on the border of Davao City and Davao del Sur that is slated for operation by 2018.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite news |last=Calderon |first=Justin |date=March 12, 2013 |title=Mindanao to Face Higher Power Prices |work=Investvine |url=http://www.investvine.com/mindanao-to-face-higher-power-prices/ |url-status=live |access-date=March 13, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315042419/http://investvine.com/mindanao-to-face-higher-power-prices/ |archive-date=March 15, 2013}}</ref> The [[Agus-Pulangui]] hydropower complex, which supplies more than half of Mindanao's power supply, is currently producing only 635 megawatts of its 982 megawatt capacity due to the heavy siltation of the rivers that power the complex. [[Zamboanga City]], an urbanized center in southwest Mindanao, is expected to begin experience daily three-hour brownouts due to the [[National Power Corporation]]'s decision to reduce power supply in the city by 10 megawatts.<ref name=power1/>

The [[Manila Electric Company]] (Meralco), the largest power distributor in the Philippines, and [[Global Business Power Corp]] (GBPC), also a major provider, have announced plans to enter Mindanao for the first time to establish solutions for the power problems within the island.<ref name="power1">{{Cite news |last=Calderon |first=Justin |date=January 30, 2013 |title=Mindanao Power Problem Close to Solution |publisher=Investvine |url=http://investvine.com/mindanao-power-problem-close-to-solution/ |url-status=live |access-date=February 11, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131220625/http://investvine.com/mindanao-power-problem-close-to-solution/ |archive-date=January 31, 2013}}</ref>

== Major annual events  ==
* Mindanao Film Festival (Established in 2003)<ref>{{Cite news |date=July 14, 2020 |title=Despite Pandemic, Mindanao Film Festival Will Push Thru This Year |work=MumbaiNews.net |agency=Philippine Information Agency |url=https://www.mumbainews.net/news/265762115/despite-pandemic-mindanao-film-festival-will-push-thru-this-year |url-status=live |access-date=December 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226192155/https://www.mumbainews.net/news/265762115/despite-pandemic-mindanao-film-festival-will-push-thru-this-year |archive-date=December 26, 2021}}</ref>
* [[Kadayawan Festival]]
* [[Kaamulan Festival]]
* [[Higalaay Festival]] (formerly known as ''Kagay-an Festival and'' ''Higalaay Kagay-an Festival'')
* Christmas Symbols Festival
* Bangsamoro Short Film Festival
* Shariff Kabunsuan Festival (Cotabato City, Maguindanao del Norte)
* Timpuyog Festival (Kiamba, Sarangani)
* Timpuyog Festival (Lambayong, Sultan Kudarat)
* Halad Festival
* P'gsalabuk Festival
* Kinabayo Festival

==See also==
{{Portal|Philippines|Islands|Geography}}
* [[Geography of the Philippines]]
* [[Island groups of the Philippines]]
* [[List of islands in the Philippines]]
* [[Luzon]]
* [[Visayas]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=yes|d=yes|commonscat=yes}}
* {{OSM relation|4098808}}
* [http://www.minda.gov.ph/ Mindanao Development Authority Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916125130/http://minda.gov.ph/ |date=September 16, 2017 }}

{{Islands of the Philippines}}
{{World's largest islands}}
{{Philippines administrative divisions}}
{{Principal Geographical Divisions of the Philippines}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mindanao| ]]
[[Category:Island groups of the Philippines]]
[[Category:Islands of the Philippines]]