View source for Millau Viaduct

{{Short description|Cable-stayed bridge in Occitanie, France}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox bridge
| bridge_name = Millau Viaduct
| native_name = {{nobold|{{native name|fr|Viaduc de Millau}}}}
| native_name_lang = 
| image = [[File:ViaducdeMillau.jpg|260px]]
| image_size = 
| alt = 
| caption = A view of the Millau Viaduct in 2005
| official_name = '''{{lang|fr|Viaduc de Millau}}'''
| other_name = 
| carries = 4 lanes of the [[A75 autoroute]]
| crosses = [[Gorge]] [[valley]] of the river [[Tarn (river)|Tarn]]
| locale = [[Millau]]-[[Creissels]], [[Aveyron]], [[France]]
| owner = 
| maint = [[Eiffage|Compagnie Eiffage du Viaduc de Millau]]<ref name=structurae>{{Structurae|access-date=12 September 2018}}</ref>
| id = 
| designer = [[Norman Foster|Norman Foster]], architect<ref name=structurae/><br />
[[Michel Virlogeux|Dr Michel Virlogeux]], structural engineer<ref name=structurae/>
| engineering = 
| design = Multiple-span [[Cable-stayed bridge|cable-stayed]] [[viaduct]] [[Autoroutes of France|motorway]] [[bridge]]<ref name=structurae/>
| material = [[Concrete]], [[steel]]
| length = {{convert|2460|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=structurae/>
| width = {{convert|32.05|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=structurae/>
| height = {{convert|343|m|abbr=on}} (max pylon above ground)<ref name=structurae/><ref name=BBC-Dec2004/>
| mainspan = {{convert|342|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=structurae/>
| spans = {{convert|204|m|abbr=on}},<br />6×{{convert|342|m|abbr=on}},<br />{{convert|204|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="Buonomo, Servant, Virlogeux, Cremer, De Ville De Goyet, Del Forno">{{cite conference |last1=Buonomo |first1=M. |last2=Servant |first2=Claude |last3=Virlogeux |first3=Michel |last4=Cremer |first4=Jean-Marie |last5=De Ville De Goyet |first5=V. |last6=Del Forno |first6=J.-Y. |url=http://people.bath.ac.uk/jjo20/bh09/Papers/design.pdf |title=The design and the construction of the Millau Viaduct |date=23{{ndash}}25 June 2004 |conference=Steel bridges extend structural limits |location=Millau, France |pages=1–18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219200253/https://people.bath.ac.uk/jjo20/bh09/Papers/design.pdf |archive-date=19 February 2018 }}</ref>
| pierswater = 
| load = 
| clearance = 
| below = {{convert|270|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=structurae/><ref name=BBC-May2004>{{cite web|url=http://news.BBC.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3759307.stm|title=France 'completes' tallest bridge|website=news.BBC.co.uk|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=29 May 2004|access-date=2 May 2017}}</ref>
| life = 120 years
| builder = [[Eiffage|Compagnie Eiffage du Viaduc de Millau]]<ref name=structurae/><ref name=BBC-Dec2004/><ref name=BBC-May2004/><ref name=BBC-Nov2003>{{cite news |author=Chris Bockman |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3237329.stm |title=France builds world's tallest bridge |location=Millau |work=[[BBC News Online]] |date=4 November 2003 |access-date=2 May 2017 }}</ref>
| fabricator = 
| begin = {{Start date and age|2001|10|16|df=y}}<ref name=structurae/>
| complete = 
| cost = {{Euro|394 million|link=yes}}<ref name=BBC-Dec2004>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4091813.stm |title=France shows off tallest bridge |work=[[BBC News Online]] |date=14 December 2004 |access-date=2 May 2017 }}</ref>
| inaugurated = {{Start date and age|2004|12|14|df=y}}<ref name=structurae/>
| open = 16 December 2004, at 9:00<ref name=structurae/>
| toll = from {{Euro|8.30}}
| traffic = 
| preceded = 
| followed = 
| heritage = 
| replaces = 
| coordinates = {{Coord|44|04|46|N|03|01|20|E|region:FR_type:landmark|display=title,inline}}
| references = 
}}

The '''Millau Viaduct''' ({{langx|fr|Viaduc de Millau}} {{IPA|fr|vja.dyk də mi.jo|}}) is a multispan [[cable-stayed bridge]] completed in 2004 across the [[Canyon|gorge]] [[valley]] of the [[Tarn (river)|Tarn]] near (west of) [[Millau]] in the [[Aveyron]] department in the [[Occitania (administrative region)|Occitanie]] Region, in [[Southern France]]. The design team was led by engineer [[Michel Virlogeux]] and [[English people|English]] architect [[Norman Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank|Norman Foster]].<ref name=BBC-Dec2004/><ref name=BBC-May2004/><ref name=BBC-Nov2003/> Until late 2025, it stood as the [[List of tallest bridges|tallest bridge in the world]] for over two decades, having a structural height of {{convert|343|m}}.<ref name=structurae/>

The Millau Viaduct is part of the [[A75 autoroute|A75]]<ref name=BBC-Nov2003/>–[[A71 autoroute]] axis from [[Paris]] to [[Béziers]] and [[Montpellier]]. The cost of construction was approximately {{Euro|394 million|link=yes}} ({{GB£|345 million|link=yes}}).<ref name=BBC-Dec2004/> It was built over three years, formally inaugurated on 14 December 2004,<ref name=structurae/><ref name=BBC-Dec2004/> and opened to traffic two days later on 16 December.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.LeViaducdeMillau.com/en_index.php#/construction-du-Viaduc/|title=Millau Viaduct - construction|website=LeViaducdeMillau.com|access-date=14 June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708175157/http://www.leviaducdemillau.com/en_index.php#/construction-du-Viaduc/|archive-date=8 July 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The bridge has been consistently ranked as one of the greatest engineering achievements of modern times, and received the 2006 [[Outstanding Structure Award]] from the [[International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The 10 greatest engineering feats of the decade|url=http://www.ConstructionWeekOnline.com/article-8024-the-10-greatest-engineering-feats-of-the-decade/#.UTgH0xwoYys|website=ConstructionWeekOnline.com|date=12 April 2010|access-date=7 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=10 greatest modern day engineering marvels of the world|url=http://WonderfulEngineering.com/10-greatest-modern-day-engineering-marvels-of-the-world/|website=WonderfulEngineering.com|date=8 May 2014|access-date=2 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Top 10 modern engineering marvels in the world|url=http://www.IveyEngineering.com/modern-engineering-marvels/|work=IveyEngineering.com|date=10 November 2011|access-date=2 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iabse.org/association/awards/ostrac/Millau.php|title=Millau Viaduct, France|website=iabse.org|date=13 September 2006|access-date=27 December 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701212957/http://www.iabse.org/association/awards/ostrac/Millau.php|archive-date=1 July 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==History==
In the 1980s, high levels of road traffic near [[Millau]] in the [[Tarn (river)|Tarn]] valley were causing congestion, especially in the summer due to holiday traffic on the route from [[Paris]] to [[Spain]]. A method of bypassing Millau had long been considered, not only to ease the flow and reduce journey times for long-distance traffic, but also to improve the quality of access to Millau for its local businesses and residents. One of the solutions considered was the construction of a road bridge to span the river and gorge valley.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/pop_ups/03/europe_the_millau_bridge/html/2.stm|title=The Millau Bridge, page 2 |website=news.BBC.co.uk |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> The first plans for a bridge were discussed in 1987 by CETE, and by October 1991 the decision was made to build a high crossing of the Tarn by a structure of around {{convert|2500|m}} in length. During 1993–1994, the [[Government of France|government]] consulted with seven [[architect]]s and eight [[structural engineer]]s. During 1995–1996, a second definition study was made by five associated architect groups and structural engineers. In January 1995, the government issued a declaration of public interest to solicit design approaches for a competition.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.LegiFrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000551657 |title=Décret du 10 janvier 1995 |website=LegiFrance.gouv.fr |language=fr |quote=déclarant d'utilité publique les travaux de construction des sections de [[A75 autoroute|l'autoroute A 75]] comprises entre le [[Engayresque]] et [[Lasparets]] (mise aux normes autoroutières du P.R. 23,520 au P.R. 26,580), entre Lasparets et La Cavalerie Sud (du P.R. 26,580 au P.R. 66,820) y compris les voies de raccordement à [[Saint-Germain-Lembron|Saint-Germain]] (R.D. 911), à la Côte rouge (R.D. 999) et à La Cavalerie (R.N. 9), de l'échangeur d'Engayresque, des aires de repos, de la section de route à créer pour assurer la continuité de l'itinéraire de substitution d'Engayresque à Lasparets ainsi que des mesures d'accompagnement sur cet itinéraire à [[Aguessac]] et à [[Millau]], classant dans la catégorie des autoroutes l'ensemble de la voie comprise entre l'échangeur d'Engayresque et La Cavalerie Sud (du P.R. 22,700 au P.R. 66,820) dans le département de l'[[Aveyron]] et portant mise en compatibilité des plans d'occupation des sols des communes d'Aguessac, Millau, [[Creissels]] et [[Saint-Georges-de-Luzençon]]}}</ref>

In July 1996 the jury decided in favour of a [[Cable-stayed bridge|cable-stayed]] design with multiple spans, as proposed by the SODETEG consortium led by [[Michel Virlogeux]], [[Norman Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank|Norman Foster]] and [[Arcadis]].<ref>[https://issuu.com/arcadisuk/docs/tp21388_arcadis_bridges_web issuu.com] "ARCADIS BRIDGES, connecting communïties</ref><ref>[https://www.bruggenstichting.nl/images/bruggen2004/mrt-Millau.pdf bruggenstichting.nl] "''Een technisch hoogstandje bij Millau''"</ref> The decision to proceed by grant of contract was made in May 1998; then in June 2000, the contest for the construction contract was launched, open to four consortia. In March 2001, [[Eiffage]] established the subsidiary Compagnie Eiffage du Viaduc de Millau (CEVM), and was declared winner of the contest and awarded the prime contract in August.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.LegiFrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000224773|title=Décret 2001-923 du 8 octobre 2001 approuvant la convention de concession passée entre l'Etat et la Compagnie EIFFAGE du viaduc de Millau pour le financement, la conception, la construction, l'exploitation et l'entretien du viaduc de Millau et le cahier des charges annexé à cette convention|language=fr|website=LegiFrance.gouv.fr|access-date=15 November 2010}}</ref><ref name=structurae/>

===Possible routes===
[[File:Projets A75 autour de Millau.jpg|thumb|The four proposed routes for the new [[A75 autoroute]] around [[Millau]]]]
In initial studies, four potential options were examined:{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
# Great Eastern ({{langx|fr|grand Est}}) (<span style=background:#ffa>yellow route</span>) – passing east of Millau and crossing the valleys of the Tarn and [[Dourbie]] on two very high and long bridges (spans of {{convert|800|and|1000|m|ft|disp=or}}) whose construction was acknowledged to be problematic.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} This option would have allowed access to Millau only from the [[Larzac]] plateau, using the long and tortuous descent from [[La Cavalerie]]. Although this option was shorter and better suited to through-traffic, it did not satisfactorily serve the needs of Millau and its area.
# Great Western ({{langx|fr|grand Ouest}}) (<span style="color:#fff; background:#000">black route</span>) – longer than the eastern option by {{convert|12|km|mi}}, following the Cernon valley. Technically easier (requiring four viaducts), this solution was judged to have negative impacts on the environment, in particular on the picturesque villages of [[Peyre, Aveyron|Peyre]] and Saint-Georges-de-Luzençon.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} It was more expensive than the preceding option, and served the region badly.
# Near RN9 ({{langx|fr|proche de la RN9}}) (<span style=background:#F88>red route</span>) – would have served the town of Millau well, but presented technical difficulties,{{clarify|date=April 2017}} and would have had a strong impact on existing or planned structures.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
# Intermediate ({{langx|fr|médiane}}), west of Millau (<span style=background:#9AF>blue route</span>) – was supported by local opinion, but presented geological difficulties, notably on the question of crossing the valley of the Tarn. Expert investigation concluded that these obstacles were not insurmountable.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

The fourth option was selected by [[ministerial decree]] on 28 June 1989.<ref name="autogenerated4">''Le viaduc de Millau : un ouvrage exceptionnel initié par le ministère de l'équipement'', op. cit., p.4</ref> It envisioned two possibilities:
# the high solution, envisaging a {{convert|2500|m|ft|adj=mid|-long}} viaduct more than {{convert|200|m|ft}} above the river;
# the low solution, descending into the valley and crossing the river on a {{convert|200|m|ft|adj=mid|-long}} bridge, then a viaduct of {{convert|2300|m|ft}}, extended by a tunnel on the [[Larzac]] side.

After long construction studies by the Ministry of Public Works, the low solution was abandoned because it would have intersected the [[water table]], had a negative impact on the town, cost more, and lengthened the driving distance. The choice of the 'high' solution was decided by ministerial decree on 29 October 1991.<ref name="autogenerated4"/>

After the choice of the high viaduct, five teams of architects and researchers worked on a technical solution. The concept and design for the bridge was devised by French designer and structural engineer Michel Virlogeux. He worked with the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] engineering firm Arcadis, responsible for the [[structural engineering]] of the bridge.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ARCADIS.nl/Pers/archive/Pages/ARCADIStekendevoorhoogstebrugterwereld.aspx |title=ARCADIS tekende voor hoogste brug ter wereld |website=ARCADIS.nl |publisher=[[Arcadis NV|ARCADIS NV]]|date=2004-12-13 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119154613/http://www.arcadis.nl/Pers/archive/Pages/ARCADIStekendevoorhoogstebrugterwereld.aspx |archive-date=2008-11-19 |access-date=17 October 2015}}</ref>

===Choosing the definitive route===
[[File:Millau tracé.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of the proposed route before construction of the bridge]]
The 'high solution' required the construction of a {{convert|2500|m|ft|adj=mid|-long}} [[viaduct]]. From 1991 to 1993, the structures division of Sétra, directed by  Virlogeux, carried out preliminary studies, and examined the feasibility of a single structure spanning the valley. Taking into account technical, architectural, and financial issues, the Administration of Roads opened the question for competition among structural engineers and architects to widen the search for realistic designs. By July 1993, seventeen structural engineers and thirty-eight architects applied as candidates for the preliminary studies. With the assistance of a multidisciplinary commission, the Administration of Roads selected eight structural engineers for a technical study, and seven architects for the architectural study.

===Choice of technical design===
Simultaneously, a school of international experts representing a wide spectrum of expertise (technical, architectural, and landscape), chaired by Jean-François Coste, was established to clarify the choices that had to be made. In February 1995, on the basis of proposals of the architects and structural engineers, and with support of the school of experts, five general designs were identified.<ref name="Coste">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://cnrsm.fr/g01_dp/viaduc_millau_apk_44/01_greish/05_revue_travaux_trace_incidence.pdf#page=7 |title=Revue Travaux |chapter=Le viaduc de Millau - Des procédures novatrices exceptionnel |trans-chapter=The Millau Viaduct - Exceptional innovative procedures |language=fr |last1=Coste |first1=Jean-François |publisher= |date=February 2005 |volume=816 |issn=0041-1906 |pages=20–26 |access-date=3 October 2025}}</ref>

The competition was relaunched: five combinations of architects and structural engineers, drawn from the best candidates of the first phase, were formed; each was to conduct in-depth studies of one of the general designs. On 15 July 1996, [[Bernard Pons]], minister of Public Works, announced the decision of the jury, which was constituted of elected artists and experts, and chaired by Christian Leyrit, the director of highways. The solution of a multiple-span [[viaduct]] [[cable-stayed bridge]], presented by the structural engineering group Sogelerg, Europe Etudes Gecti and Serf, and the architects [[Foster + Partners]] was declared the best.<ref name="Coste"/>

Detailed studies were carried out by the successful consortium, steered by the highways authority until mid-1998. After undergoing [[Wind tunnel|wind tunnel tests]], the shape of the road deck was altered, and detailed corrections were made to the design of the [[Tower#Transportation support|pylons]]. When the details were eventually finalised, the whole design was approved in late 1998.<ref name="Coste"/>

===Contractors===
[[File:Viaduc-Millau Pile-P2 Eiffel.svg|thumb|The P2 pier of the [[Viaduct]] is the tallest structure in France, 13&nbsp;m taller than the 330-metre [[Eiffel Tower]].]]
Once the Ministry of Public Works had taken the decision to offer the construction and operation of the viaduct as a grant of contract, an international call for tenders was issued in 1999. Five consortia tendered:{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
# Compagnie Eiffage du Viaduc de Millau (CEVM), a new subsidiary created by [[Eiffage]];
# a consortium led by the Spanish company [[Grupo ACS|Dragados]], with [[Skanska]], [[Sweden]], and Bec, France;
# Société du Viaduc de Millau, including the French companies ASF, Egis Projects, GTM Construction, [[Bouygues|Bouygues Travaux Publics]], SGE, CDC Projets, Tofinso, and the Italian company Autostrade;
# a consortium led by Générale Routière, with Via GTI (France) and [[Cintra]], Nesco, [[Acciona]], and [[Ferrovial|Ferrovial Agroman]] ([[Spain]]).

[[Pier]]s were built with [[Lafarge (company)|Lafarge]] high performance concrete.

The Compagnie Eiffage du Viaduc de Millau, working with the architect [[Norman Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank|Norman Foster]], was successful in obtaining the tender.<ref name=structurae/> Because the government had already taken the design work to an advanced stage, the technical uncertainties were considerably reduced. A further advantage of this process was to make negotiating the contract easier, reducing public expense, and speeding up construction, while minimising such design work as remained for the contractor.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

All the member companies of the [[Eiffage]] group had some role in the construction work. The construction consortium was made up of the Eiffage TP company for the concrete part, the [[Eiffel company]] for the steel roadway ([[Gustave Eiffel]] built the [[Garabit viaduct]] in 1884, a railway bridge in the neighbouring [[Cantal]] ''[[département in France|département]]''), and the [[Enerpac]] company<ref name=Enerpac>{{cite web|url=http://www.Enerpac.com/html/Projects/Millau/Millau_Closed.html|title=Final hydraulic launch successfully closes last gap in the Millau Viaduct in the south of France|website=Enerpac.com|publisher=[[Enerpac]], [[Actuant Corporation]]|date=28 May 2004|access-date=20 April 2017}}</ref> for the roadway's hydraulic supports. The engineering group [[Société d'études techniques et économiques|Setec]] has authority in the project, with [[SNCF]] engineering having partial control.{{clarify|date=April 2017}} Appia (company) was responsible for the job of the [[Road surface#Bituminous surface|bituminous road surface]] on the bridge deck, and Forclum ([[:fr:Forclum|fr]]) for electrical installations. Management was handled by Eiffage Concessions.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

The only other business that had a notable role on the building site was [[Freyssinet]], a subsidiary of the [[Vinci Group]] specialising in [[prestressing]]. It installed the cable stays and put them under tension, while the prestress division of Eiffage was responsible for prestressing the pillar heads.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

The steel road deck, and the hydraulic action of the road deck were designed by the [[Wallonia|Walloon]] engineering firm [[Greisch]] from [[Liège]], [[Belgium]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.Greisch.com/domaine/ponts_haubanes-en.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711125755/http://www.greisch.com/domaine/ponts_haubanes-en.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 July 2011|title=Cable-stayed bridges, by Greisch|website=Greisch.com|publisher=[[Greisch]]|access-date=15 November 2010}}</ref> also an [[information and communication technologies]] (ICT) company of the Walloon Region.<ref>{{cite web|author=Matagne Didier |url=http://vigie.awt.be/vigie2/detailsoc.xsql?idsoc=10516&f_texte=Greisch&f_critrech=B&orig=trouvesoc&f_place=&certif=&lg=en |title=Database of ICT companies in the Walloon Region |website=Vigie.awt.be |access-date=15 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706132707/http://vigie.awt.be/vigie2/detailsoc.xsql?idsoc=10516&f_texte=Greisch&f_critrech=B&orig=trouvesoc&f_place=&certif=&lg=en |archive-date=6 July 2011 }}</ref> They carried out the general calculations and the resistance calculations for winds of up to {{convert|225|km/h|lk=on}}. They also applied the launching technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.RTBF.be/ma-terre/actualites/une-histoire-hors-du-commun-pour-un-ouvrage-exceptionnel/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120908200930/http://www.rtbf.be/ma-terre/actualites/une-histoire-hors-du-commun-pour-un-ouvrage-exceptionnel/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-09-08|title=The art of cable-stayed bridges on the Meuse and all over Europe|website=RTBF.be|publisher=RTBF|language=fr|quote=This French-language video illustrates the launching technique}}</ref>

The sliding shutter technology for the bridge piers came from [[PERI GmbH|PERI]].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

===Costs and resources===
The bridge's construction cost up to {{Euro|394 million}},<ref name=BBC-Dec2004/> with a toll plaza {{convert|6|km|mi}} north of the viaduct, costing an additional {{Euro|20 million|link=yes}}. The builders, [[Eiffage]], financed the construction in return for a concession to collect the tolls for 75 years,<ref name=BBC-Dec2004/><ref name=BBC-May2004/> until 2080. However, if the concession yields high revenues, the French government can assume control of the bridge as early as 2044.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

The project required about {{convert|127000|m3|cuyd|lk=on}} of [[concrete]], {{convert|19000|tonne|short ton|lk=on}} of steel for the reinforced concrete, and {{convert|5000|tonne|short ton}} of pre-stressed steel for the cables and shrouds. The builder claims that the lifetime of the bridge will be at least 120&nbsp;years.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

===Opposition===
Numerous organisations opposed the project, including the [[World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF), [[France Nature Environnement]], the national federation of motorway users, and Environmental Action. Opponents advanced several arguments:{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* The westernmost route would be better, longer by {{convert|3|km}}, but a third of the cost with its three more conventional structures.
* The objective of the viaduct would not be achieved; because of the toll, the viaduct would be little used, and the project would not solve Millau's congestion problems.
* The project would never break even; toll income would never amortise the initial investment, and the contractor would have to be supported by subsidies.
* The technical difficulties were too great, and the bridge would be dangerous and unsustainable; the pylons, sitting on the [[shale]] of the Tarn Valley, would not support the structure adequately.
* The viaduct represented a detour, reducing the number of visitors passing through Millau and slowing its economy.

==Construction==
[[File:Millau Viaduct construction south.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The northern half of the road deck being slowly launched across the pylons, as seen from the west in early 2004]]
Two weeks after the laying of the first stone on 14 December 2001, workers started digging deep shafts for the pilings. Each pylon is supported  by four concrete pilings.  Each piling is {{convert|15|m|ft}} deep and {{convert|5|m|ft}} in diameter, assuring the stability of the pylons. At the top of the pilings a large footing was poured, {{convert|3|–|5|m|0}} in thickness,to reinforce the strength of the pilings. The {{convert|2000|m3|cuyd}} of concrete necessary for the footings was poured at the same time as pilings.

In March 2002, the pylons emerged from the ground. The speed of construction then rapidly increased. Every three days, each pylon increased in height by {{convert|4|m|ft}}. This performance was mainly due to [[Climbing formwork|sliding shuttering]]. Thanks to a system of shoe anchorages and fixed rails in the heart of the pylons, a new layer of concrete could be poured every 20 minutes.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

===Launching===
The bridge road deck was constructed on plateaus at both ends of the viaduct, and pushed onto the pylons using [[bridge launching]] techniques.
Each half of the assembled road deck was pushed lengthwise from the plateaus to the pylons, passing across one pylon to the next.
During the launching, the road deck was also supported by eight temporary towers, which were removed near the end of construction.
In addition to hydraulic jacks on each plateau pushing the road decks, each pylon was topped with a mechanism on top of each pylon that also pushed the deck.
This mechanism consisted of a computer-controlled pair of wedges under the deck manipulated  by hydraulics.
The upper and lower wedge of each pair pointed in opposite directions.
The wedges were hydraulically operated, and moved repeatedly in the following sequence:

# The lower wedge slides under the upper wedge, raising it to the roadway above, and then forcing the upper wedge still higher to lift the roadway
# Both wedges move forward together, advancing the roadway a short distance
# The lower wedge retracts from under the upper wedge, lowering the roadway and allowing the upper wedge to drop away from the roadway; the lower wedge then moves back all the way to its starting position. There is now a linear distance between the two wedges equal to the distance forward the roadway has just moved.
# The upper wedge moves backward, placing it further back along the roadway, adjacent to the front tip of the lower wedge and ready to repeat the cycle and advance the roadway by another increment.

The launching advanced the road deck at {{convert|600|mm|in}} per cycle which was roughly four minutes long.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJWblykm9Tc |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/wJWblykm9Tc |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live|title=Launching the Millau Viaduct's Bridge Deck Sections &#124; Enerpac Heavy Lifting Technology|date=5 September 2012 |via=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>https://acivengstudent.com/2019/09/06/millau-viaduct-bridge/ {{Dead link|date=March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DlbTNJ0AU1Y |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/DlbTNJ0AU1Y |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live|title=Assembling the World's Tallest Bridge|date=2 April 2016 |via=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The mast pieces were driven over the new road deck lying down horizontally. The pieces were joined to form the one complete mast, still lying horizontally. The mast was then tilted upwards, as one piece, at one time in a tricky operation. In this way, each mast was erected on top of the corresponding concrete pylon. The stays connecting the masts and the deck were then installed, and the bridge was tensioned overall, and weight tested. After this, the temporary pylons could be removed.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

===Timeline===
* 16 October 2001: work begins
* 14 December 2001: laying of the first stone
* January 2002: laying pier foundations
* March 2002: start of work on the pier support C8
* June 2002: support C8 completed, start of work on piers
* July 2002: start of work on the foundations of temporary, height adjustable roadway supports
* August 2002: start of work on pier support C0
* September 2002: assembly of roadway begins
* November 2002: first piers complete
* 25–26 February 2003: laying of first pieces of roadway
* November 2003: completion of the last piers (piers P2 at {{convert|245|m|ft}} and P3 at {{convert|221|m|ft}} are the highest piers in the world)
* 28 May 2004: the pieces of roadway are several centimetres apart, their juncture to be accomplished within two weeks
* 2nd half of 2004: installation of the pylons and shrouds, removal of the temporary roadway supports
* 14 December 2004: official inauguration<ref name=BBC-Dec2004/>
* 16 December 2004: opening of the viaduct, ahead of schedule
* 10 January 2005: initial planned opening date
{{Panorama
|image = Panorama Viadukt von Millau 2004 A75 Viaduc Viaduct 2460 m lang max 343 m Dep Aveyron Frankreich France - Foto Wolfgang Pehlemann DSC08281.jpg
|height = 200
|caption = Panorama of the Millau Viaduct
}}
{{clear}}
===Construction records===
The construction of the Millau Viaduct broke several records:{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* A mega-structure bridge constructed several hundred meters above ground, without any loss of life throughout the three year construction period (First stone laid on 14 December 2001, Official inauguration on 14 December 2004).
* The highest pylons in the world: pylons P2 and P3, {{convert|244.96|m|ftin}} and {{convert|221.05|m|ftin}} in height respectively, broke the French record previously held by the [[Tulle]] Viaduct ({{convert|150|m|ft|disp=or}}) and [[Verrières, Aveyron|Verrières]] [[Verrières Viaduct|Viaduct]] ({{convert|141|m|ft|disp=or}}), and the world record previously held by the [[Kochertalbrücke|Kochertal Viaduct]] (Germany), which is {{convert|181|m|ft}} at its highest;
* The highest bridge tower in the world: the mast atop pylon P2 peaks at {{convert|343|m|ft}};
* The highest road bridge deck in Europe, {{convert|270|m|ft}} above the [[Tarn (river)|Tarn]] at its highest point; it is nearly twice as tall as the previous tallest vehicular bridges in Europe, the [[Europabrücke]] in [[Austria]] and the [[Italia Viaduct]] in [[Italy]].

Since opening in 2004, the deck height of Millau has been surpassed by several suspension bridges in China, including [[Sidu River Bridge]], [[Baling River Bridge]], and two spans ([[Beipan River Guanxing Highway Bridge]] and [[Beipan River Hukun Expressway Bridge]]) over the Beipan River. In 2012, Mexico's [[Baluarte Bridge]] surpassed Millau as the world's highest cable-stayed bridge. The [[Royal Gorge Bridge|Royal Gorge suspension bridge]] in the U.S. state of Colorado is also higher, with a bridge deck approximately {{convert|291|m|ft}} over the [[Arkansas River]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/royal-gorge-bridge|title=Royal Gorge Bridge|website=Atlas Obscura}}</ref>

==Location==
[[File:Creissels et Viaduct de Millau.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|The Millau Viaduct and the town of [[Creissels]]]]
The Millau Viaduct is on the territory of the [[communes of France|communes]] of [[Millau]] and [[Creissels]], France, in the ''[[departments of France|département]]'' of [[Aveyron]]. Before the bridge was constructed, traffic had to descend into the [[Tarn (river)|Tarn]] valley and pass along the [[route nationale]] [[Route nationale 9|N9]] near the town of Millau, causing much traffic congestion at the beginning and end of the July and August [[holiday season]]. The bridge now traverses the Tarn valley above its lowest point, linking two [[limestone]] [[plateaus]], the Causse du [[Larzac]] and the Causse Rouge, and is inside the perimeter of the [[Grands Causses]] regional natural park.

The Millau Viaduct forms the last link of the existing [[E11 A75 autoroute|A75]] [[Autoroutes of France|autoroute]]<ref name=BBC-Nov2003/> (known as "la Méridienne"), from [[Clermont-Ferrand]] to [[Béziers]]. The A75, with the A10 and A71, provides a continuous high-speed route south from [[Paris]] through [[Clermont-Ferrand]] to the [[Languedoc]] region, thence to [[Spain]], considerably reducing the cost and time of vehicle traffic travelling along this route. Many tourists heading to southern [[France]] and [[Spain]] follow this route because it is direct and without [[toll road|tolls]] for the {{convert|340|km|mi}} between Clermont-Ferrand and Béziers, except for the bridge.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

The [[Eiffage]] group, which constructed the Viaduct also operates it, under a government contract, which allows the company to collect tolls for up to 75 years.<ref name=BBC-Dec2004/><ref name=BBC-Nov2003/> As of 2025, the [[toll bridge]] costs {{Euro|11.20}} for light automobiles (or {{Euro|13.90}} during the peak season of 15 June to 15 September).<ref name=TollRates>{{cite web |url=https://www.leviaducdemillau.com/en/getting-around/toll-charges |title=Toll charges – Getting around |publisher=Compagnie Eiffage du Viaduc de Millau |access-date=19 August 2018 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
{{Panorama
|image = Viaduc de Millau 1.jpg
|height = 200
|caption = The Millau Viaduct, and the town of [[Millau]] on the right
}}

==Structure==
===Pylons and abutments===
Each of the seven pylons<ref name=BBC-Nov2003/> is supported by four deep shafts, {{convert|15|m|ft|lk=on}} deep and {{convert|5|m|ft}} in diameter.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:1em auto; width:600px; text-align:center"
|+heights of the piers
!P1!!P2!!P3!!P4!!P5!!P6!!P7
|-
|{{convert|94.501|m|ftin|1|abbr=on}}
|{{convert|244.96|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|{{convert|221.05|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|{{convert|144.21|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|{{convert|136.42|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|{{convert|111.94|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|{{convert|77.56|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|}
[[File:Viaduc de Millau (7).jpg|thumb|A pylon under construction]]

The [[abutment]]s are concrete structures that provide anchorage for the road deck to the ground in the [[Causse du Larzac]] and the Causse Rouge.

===Road deck===
The metallic road deck, which appears very light despite its total mass of around {{convert|36000|tonne|short ton|lk=on}}, is {{convert|2460|m|ft}} long and {{convert|32|m|ftin}} wide. It comprises eight [[span (engineering)|spans]]. The six central spans measure {{convert|342|m|ft}}, and the two outer spans are {{convert|204|m|ft}}. These are composed of 173 central box beams, the spinal column of the construction, onto which the lateral floors and the lateral box beams were [[welding|welded]]. The central box beams have a {{convert|4|m|ftin}} cross-section, and a length of {{convert|15|–|22|m }} for a total weight of {{convert|90|metric ton|short ton|lk=on}}. The deck has an inverse [[airfoil]] shape, providing negative lift in strong wind conditions.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

===Masts===
The seven masts, each {{convert|87|m|ft|lk=on}} high, and weighing around {{convert|700|tonne|ton|lk=on}}, are set on top of the concrete pylons. Between each of them, eleven stays (steel cables) are anchored, providing support for the road deck.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

===Cable stays===
Each mast of the Viaduct is equipped with a monoaxial layer of eleven pairs of cable-stays; laid face to face. Depending on their length, the cable stays were made of 55 to 91 high tensile [[steel]] cables, or strands, themselves formed of seven strands of steel (a central strand with six intertwined strands). Each strand has triple protection against [[corrosion]] ([[galvanisation]], a coating of petroleum wax, and an extruded [[polyethylene]] sheath). The exterior envelope of the stays is itself coated along its entire length with a double helical weatherstrip. The idea is to avoid running water which, in high winds, could cause vibration in the stays and compromise the stability of the viaduct.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peil|first1=Udo|last2=Nahrath|first2=Niklas|date=2003|title=Modeling of rain-wind induced vibrations|url=https://www.koreascience.or.kr/article/JAKO200321349898188.page|journal=Wind and Structures|volume=6|issue=1|pages=41–52|doi=10.12989/was.2003.6.1.041|issn=1226-6116|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The stays were installed by the [[Freyssinet]] company.

===Road surface===
To allow for deformations of the metal road deck under traffic, a special surface of modified [[bitumen]] was installed by research teams from {{interlanguage link|Appia (company)|fr|Eiffage Infrastructures}}. The surface is somewhat flexible to adapt to deformations in the steel deck without cracking, but it must nevertheless have sufficient strength to withstand motorway conditions (fatigue, density, texture, adherence, anti-rutting etc.). The 'ideal formula' was found after two years of research.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.brueckenweb.de/datenbank/dokumente/kostenfrei/BAS3800_journal10.pdf|title=A specific surfacing extensively tested!|journal=Le Viaduc de Millau|publisher=Compagnie Eiffage du Viaduc de Millau|page=3|date=4 November 2004|access-date=17 October 2015}}</ref>

===Electrical installations===
The [[electrical installation]]s of the viaduct are large in proportion to the size of the bridge. There are {{convert|30|km|mi}} of high-current cables, {{convert|20|km|mi}} of [[fibre optic]]s, {{convert|10|km|mi}} of low-current cables, and 357 telephone sockets; allowing maintenance teams to communicate with each other and with the command post. These are situated on the deck, on the pylons, and on the masts.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

The pylons, road deck, masts, and cable stays are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable [[structural health monitoring]]. These are designed to detect the slightest movement in the Viaduct, and measure its resistance to wear-and-tear over time. [[Anemometer]]s, [[accelerometer]]s, [[inclinometer]]s, and temperature sensors are all used for the instrumentation network.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

Twelve [[fibre optic]] [[extensometer]]s were installed in the base of pylon P2. Being the tallest of all, it is therefore under the most intense [[Stress (physics)|stress]]. These sensors detect movements on the order of a [[micrometre]]. Other extensometers, electrical this time, are distributed on top of P2 and P7. This apparatus is capable of taking up to 100 readings per second. In high winds, they continuously monitor the reactions of the Viaduct to extreme conditions. Accelerometers placed strategically on the road deck monitor the [[oscillation]]s that can affect the metal structure. Displacements of the deck on the abutment level are measured to the nearest millimetre. The cable stays are also instrumented, and their ageing meticulously analysed. Additionally, two [[piezoelectric sensors]] gather traffic data: [[weight]] of vehicles, [[average speed]], density of the flow of traffic, etc. This system can distinguish between fourteen different types of vehicle.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

The data is transmitted by an [[Ethernet]] [[computer network|network]] to a [[computer]] in the [[Information technology|IT]] room at the management building situated near the [[toll plaza]].

===Toll plaza===
The [[toll plaza]] is on the [[A75 autoroute]]; the bridge toll booths and the buildings for the commercial and technical management teams are situated {{convert|4|km|mi}} north of the viaduct. The toll plaza is protected by a canopy in the shape of a leaf, formed from tendrilled [[concrete]], using the ceracem process. Consisting of 53 elements ([[voussoir]]s), the canopy is {{convert|100|m|ft}} long and {{convert|28|m|ft}} wide. It weighs around {{convert|2500|tonne|ton|lk=on}}.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

The toll plaza can accommodate sixteen lanes of traffic, eight in each direction. At times of low [[Traffic|traffic volume]], the central booth is capable of servicing vehicles in both directions. A [[car park]] and viewing station, equipped with public toilets, is situated at each side of the toll plaza. The total cost was {{Euro|20 million}}.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

===Rest area of Brocuéjouls===
[[File:Millau7658.JPG|thumb|View of the rest area with the 'Ferme de Brocuéjouls']]
[[File:Millau Viaduct, France (39307678014).jpg|thumb|Millau Viaduct as viewed from the A75 near the Aire du Viaduc de Millau, facing south]]
The [[rest area]] of Brocuéjouls, named ''Aire du Viaduc de Millau'',<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://saratlas.free.fr/index.php?page=route&route=a75&lang=fr Details of A75 on Saratlas website] (see "Position #82")</ref> is situated just north of the viaduct, and is centred on an old farm building named 'Ferme de Brocuéjouls'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://patrimoines.midipyrenees.fr/fileadmin/DOC_LIE/IVC12145/IA12ETUD/IA12101334_01.PDF|title=Brocuéjouls Farm on the Midi-Pyrénées heritages website}}</ref> It was inaugurated by the prefect of [[Aveyron]], Chantal Jourdan, on 30 June 2006, after 7 months of works. The farm and its surroundings can accommodate entertainment and tourism promotion activities.<ref name=Aire>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aveyron.gouv.fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017093633/http://www.aveyron.gouv.fr/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-10-17|title=Internet des Services de l'Etat en Aveyron|website=archive.wikiwix.com}}</ref>

The cost of this work amounted to {{Euro|5.8 million}}:
* {{Euro|4.8 million}} of state funds for the realisation of the area (access roads, parking, rest area, toilets, etc.)<ref name=Aire/>
* {{Euro|1 million}} for the restoration of the old farm building of Brocuéjouls (all two tranches)<ref name=Aire/>

===Statistics===
* {{convert|2460|m|ft|lk=on}}: total [[length]] of the roadway
* 7: number of piers<ref name=BBC-Nov2003/>
* {{convert|77|m|ft}}: [[height]] of Pier 7, the shortest
* {{convert|343|m|ft}}: height of Pier 2, the tallest ({{convert|245|m|ft|disp=or}} at the roadway's level)<ref name=BBC-Dec2004/>
* {{convert|87|m|ft}}: height of a mast
* 154: number of shrouds
* {{convert|270|m|ft}}: average height of the roadway<ref name=BBC-May2004/>
* {{convert|4.20|m|ftin}}: thickness of the roadway
* {{convert|32.05|m|ftin}}: width of the roadway
* {{convert|85000|m3|cuyd|lk=on}}: total [[volume]] of concrete used
* {{convert|290000|tonnes|short ton|lk=on}}: total weight of the bridge
* 10,000–25,000 vehicles: estimated daily traffic
* {{Euro|11.20–13.70}}: typical automobile toll (price increasing in summer),<ref name="TollRates" /> {{as of|2025|02|lc=on}}
* {{convert|20|km|mi}}: horizontal radius of curvature of the road deck

{{comparison of notable bridges.svg}}

==Impact and events==

===Pedestrian sporting events===
Unusually for a bridge closed to pedestrians, a run took place in 2004, and another on 13 May 2007:{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* December 2004 – 19,000 walkers and runners of the [[Three Bridge Walk]] had the privilege of crossing the bridge deck for the first time, but the walk was not authorised to go further than pylon P1; the bridge was still closed to traffic.
* 13 May 2007 – 10,496 runners took the departure of the race from Place de Mandarous, in the centre of Millau, to the southern end of the Viaduct. After starting on the northern side, they crossed the viaduct, then retraced their steps. Total distance: {{convert|23.7|km|mi}}.<!-- Broken Link <ref> [http://www.millau-clic.com/index.php?option=com_magazine&func=show_article&id=525 {{Formatnum: 10500}} runners with the attack of the bridge highest of the world.]</ref> -->

===Events and popular culture===
* In 2004, a fire started on the slope of the {{interlanguage link|Causse Rouge|fr}} because of a spark originating from a welder; some trees were destroyed in the fire.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* The [[speed limit]] on the bridge was reduced from {{convert|130|km/h|mph|lk=on}} to {{convert|110|km/h|mph}} because tourists were slowing down to take photos. Soon after the bridge opened to traffic, cars were stopping on the [[hard shoulder]] so that travelers could view the landscape and the bridge.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* A [[postage stamp]] was designed by Sarah Lazarevic to commemorate the opening of the Viaduct.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lazarevic.fr/index.php?/bio/ |title=Bio/References : Sarah Lazarevic |website=lazarevic.fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007211646/http://lazarevic.fr/index.php?/bio/ |archive-date=2013-10-07}}</ref>
* The Chinese transport minister at the time visited the bridge on the first anniversary of its opening. The commission was impressed by the technical prowess of the bridge's immense construction, but also by the legal and financial assembly of the Viaduct. However, according to the minister, he did not envisage building a counterpart in [[People's Republic of China]].
* The cabinet of the [[governor of California]] [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], who envisaged the construction of a bridge in [[San Francisco Bay]], asked the council of the town hall of Millau about the popularity of the construction of the viaduct.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ecole.org/seminaires/FS4/SEM272/EV010206-ENG.pdf|title=l'École de Paris du management&nbsp;– Ecole de Paris|website=ecole.org |access-date=15 November 2010}}</ref>
* This bridge was featured in a scene of the 2007 film ''[[Mr. Bean's Holiday]]''.
* The bridge also appeared in the ending of the console and PC versions of the [[third-person shooter]] video game ''[[James Bond 007: Blood Stone]]'', where [[James Bond]] confronts the game's true antagonist.
* The hosts of the British motoring show ''[[Top Gear (2002 TV series)|Top Gear]]'' featured the bridge during [[Top Gear (series 7)|Series 7]], when they took a [[Ford GT]], [[Pagani Zonda]], and [[Ferrari F430]] Spyder on a road trip across France to see the newly completed bridge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.TopGear.com/videos/top-gear-tv/supercars-across-france-part-44-series-7-episode-3|title=Top Gear TV > Supercars across France, part 4/4 (series 7, episode 3)|format=video|website=TopGear.com|publisher=[[BBC Worldwide|BBC Worldwide Ltd]]|date=20 October 2008|access-date=2 May 2017}}</ref>
* [[Richard Hammond]], one of the above hosts on ''Top Gear,'' explored the engineering aspects in the construction of the Millau Viaduct in Series 2 of ''[[Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections]].''
* The bridge was featured in Series 2 of ''World's Greatest Bridges.''
* Construction of the bridge was featured in the series ''How Did They Build That? ''

==See also==
{{Portal|France|Transport|Engineering|Roads|Architecture}}
* [[World Architecture Survey]]
* [[List of bridges in France]]
* [[List of longest cable-stayed bridge spans]]
* [[List of bridges by length]]
* [[List of highest bridges in the world]]
* [[List of tallest bridges in the world]]
* [[Jiaxing-Shaoxing Sea Bridge]]
* [[Baluarte Bridge]]
* [[Pont de Normandie]]
* [[Rio-Antirrio Bridge]]
* [[Royal Gorge Bridge]], in Colorado, United States.
{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* {{Official|http://www.leviaducdemillau.com/ }} {{in lang|fr}}
* [https://www.leviaducdemillau.com/en Millau Viaduct official website] {{in lang|en}}
* [http://www.tourisme-aveyron.com/fr/decouvrir/incontournables/viaduc-millau.php Millau Viaduct on the Aveyron touristic website] {{in lang|fr}}
* {{Structurae}}

{{Supertall}}
{{Public infrastructure topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cable-stayed bridges in France]]
[[Category:Foster and Partners buildings]]
[[Category:High-tech architecture]]
[[Category:Toll bridges in France]]
[[Category:Viaducts in France]]
[[Category:Landmarks in France]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Aveyron]]
[[Category:Transport in Occitania (administrative region)]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 2004]]
[[Category:2004 establishments in France]]
[[Category:21st-century architecture in France]]