View source for Mikasuki language

{{More footnotes needed|date=May 2009}}{{Short description|Muskogean language spoken in southern US}}
{{use mdy dates|date=July 2024}}{{Infobox language
| name             = Mikasuki
| altname          = Hitchiti, Hitchiti-Mikasuki
| states           = [[United States]]
| region           = [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], Southern [[Florida]]
| ethnicity        = [[Miccosukee]], [[Seminole]]
| speakers         = 290
| date             = 2015 census
| ref              = e21
| familycolor      = American
| fam1             = [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]]
| fam2             = Eastern
| dia1             = [[Hitchiti dialect|Hitchiti]] {{extinct}}
| iso3             = mik
| notice           = IPA
| glotto           = mika1239
| glottorefname    = Mikasuki
| map              = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption       = {{center|{{small|Mikasuki is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}
| ancestor         = Hitchiti?
}}
The '''Mikasuki''', '''Hitchiti-Mikasuki''', or '''Hitchiti''' language is a language or a pair of dialects or closely related languages that belong to the [[Muskogean languages]] family. {{As of|2014}}, Mikasuki was spoken by around 290 people in southern [[Florida]].<ref>{{Cite news
 |title       = Voices of the Everglades: Indian Culture
 |work        = The News-Press
 |access-date  = 2014-03-28
 |date        = 2014-03-22
 |url         = http://www.news-press.com/article/20140322/ENT13/303230044/Voices-of-the-Everglades-Indian-culture?gcheck=1&nclick_check=1
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://archive.today/20140328034006/http://www.news-press.com/article/20140322/ENT13/303230044/Voices-of-the-Everglades-Indian-culture?gcheck=1&nclick_check=1
 |archive-date = 2014-03-28
}}</ref> Along with the Cow Creek Seminole dialect of [[Muscogee language|Muscogee]], it is also known as '''Seminole'''. It is spoken by members of the [[Miccosukee]] tribe and of the [[Seminole Tribe of Florida]]. The extinct [[Hitchiti#Language|Hitchiti]] was a mutually intelligible dialect of or the ancestor of Mikasuki.

== Hitchiti dialect ==
Hitchiti was one of the many Muskogean languages spoken by peoples of what is now the southeastern United States, and is considered by many scholars to be the ancestor of the Mikasuki language. It was spoken in Georgia and eastern Alabama in the early historic period, with speakers moving into Florida during the 18th and 19th centuries. Hitchiti was the language of [[tribal town]]s such as [[Hitchiti]], [[Chiaha]], [[Oconee people|Oconee]], Okmulgee, [[Sabacola|Sawokli]], and [[Apalachicola (tribal town)|Apalachicola]]. Based on the number of place names that have been derived from the language, scholars believe it could have spread over a much larger area than Georgia and Florida during colonial times.{{sfn|Hann|2006|pp=6–7}}

It was part of the [[Muskogean language]] family; it is often considered a dialect of the '''Mikasuki language''' with which it was mutually intelligible.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hardy|first1=Heather|first2=Janine|last2=Scancarelli|year=2005|title=Native Languages of the Southeastern United States|location=Lincoln, NE|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|pages=69–70}}</ref> The Hitchiti and the Mikasuki tribes were both part of the Creek confederacy. The Mikasuki language was historically one of the major languages of the [[Seminole]] people, who developed as a new ethnic group in Florida. It is still spoken by many Seminole and [[Miccosukee]] in Florida, but it has become extinct among the [[Oklahoma Seminole]].

Like [[Muscogee language|Muscogee]], Hitchiti had an ancient "female" dialect. The dialect was still remembered and sometimes spoken by the older people, and it used to be the language of the males as well. Their language with the "female" dialect was also known as the 'ancient language'.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gatschet|first=Albert|title=A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians|url=https://archive.org/details/migrationcreek00gatsrich|date=1884}}</ref>

The language appears to have been used beyond the territorial limits of the tribe: it was spoken in Native American villages on the [[Chattahoochee River]], such as [[Chiaha]] (Chehaw),{{sfn|Ethridge|2003|p=62}} Chiahudshi, Hitchiti, Oconee, Sawokli, Sawokliudshi, and Apalachicola, and in those on the Flint River, and also by the [[Miccosukee]] tribe of Florida. Traceable by local names in Hitchiti, the language was used by peoples over considerable portions of Georgia and Florida.

Scholars believe that the [[Yamasee]] also spoke Hitchiti, but the evidence is not conclusive. Other evidence points toward their speaking a different language, perhaps one related to [[Guale]].

Some sources list Hitchiti as an extant language in the 1990s.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Moseley|editor1-first=Christopher|editor2-first=R.E.|editor2-last=Asher|title=Atlas of the World's Languages|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|year=1994|page=6}}</ref>

== History ==
The Seminole and Miccosukee were made up of descendants of members of the [[Muscogee Confederacy]], who had migrated to Florida under pressure from European-American encroachment. The Seminole formed by a process of [[ethnogenesis]] in the 18th century. American settlers began to enter Florida and came into conflict with the Seminole. The [[American Indian Wars|Seminole Wars of the 19th century]] greatly depleted the numbers of these tribes, especially the [[Second Seminole War]]. The United States forcibly removed many Seminole to [[Indian Territory]] (now Oklahoma). The Seminole and Miccosukee had gradually moved into the center of Florida and the Everglades, from where they resisted defeat even in the Third Seminole War. The US gave up efforts against them.

In the 20th century, the Florida Seminole and Miccosukee split apart, with the former moving onto reservations. The Miccosukee lived in communities that were affected by the early 20th-century construction of the [[Tamiami Trail]], which brought tourists into the Everglades.

The Miccosukee achieved federal recognition as a tribe in 1962. Both tribes have speakers of Mikasuki today.

As of 2002, the language is taught in the local school, [[Miccosukee Indian School]], which has "an area devoted to 'Miccosukee Language Arts'".<ref>{{Cite journal
| issue = 56
| title = Elders Seek Way to Preserve Fading Language
| journal = Canku Ota
| access-date = 2012-09-29
| date = 2002-03-09
| url = http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues02/Co03092002/CO_03092002_Miccosukee_Language.htm
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020816004027/http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues02/Co03092002/CO_03092002_Miccosukee_Language.htm
| url-status = usurped
| archive-date = August 16, 2002
}}</ref> Circa 2005 the dominance of English language media was seen as a factor inhibiting Miccosukee.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wadsworth|first=Chris|title=Tribes work to preserve native language|newspaper=[[Marshfield News-Herald]]|place=[[Marshfield, Wisconsin]]|agency=[[Gannett News Service]]|date=2004-05-03|page=A1, A2}} - [https://www.newspapers.com/clip/82767349/for-mikasuki-language/ Clipping of first] and [https://www.newspapers.com/clip/82767322/for-mikasuki-language/ of the second page at] [[Newspapers.com]].</ref>

As of 2011, the [[University of Florida]] Department of Anthropology is home to the Elling Eide Endowed Professorship in Miccosukee Language and Culture, for Native American languages of the southeastern United States.<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Faculty Openings in the Anthropology Department
| access-date = 2012-09-29
| url = http://www.anthro.ufl.edu/faculty_search_09-10.shtml
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121215061026/http://www.anthro.ufl.edu/faculty_search_09-10.shtml
| archive-date = 2012-12-15
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

Presentations in the language have been featured at the [[Florida Folk Festival]].<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Traditional Seminole Song - Rev. Josie Billie
| work = World Digital Library
| access-date = 2014-05-22
| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4053/#regions=north-america&languages=mik
}}</ref>

==Phonology==
The orthography, where it differs from the IPA, is shown in angled brackets.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Vowels{{sfn|Boynton|1982|p=14}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | 
! colspan="2" |[[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" |[[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" |[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! <small>&nbsp;Short&nbsp;</small>
! <small>Long</small>
! <small>&nbsp;Short&nbsp;</small>
! <small>&nbsp;Long&nbsp;</small>
! <small>&nbsp;Short</small>
! <small>&nbsp;Long</small>
|-
! align=center | &nbsp;[[High vowel|High]]&nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPAlink|i}} {{Angbr IPA|e}}
| align=center | {{IPAlink|iː}} {{Angbr IPA|ee}}
| align=center | 
| align=center |
| align=center | 
| align=center | 
|-
! align=center | &nbsp;[[Mid vowel|Mid]]&nbsp;
| align=center | 
| align=center | 
| align=center |
| align=center | 
| align=center | {{IPAlink|o}}
| align=center | {{IPAlink|oː}} {{Angbr IPA|oo}}
|-
! align=center | &nbsp;[[Low vowel|Low]]&nbsp;
| align=center | 
| align=center |
| align=center | {{IPAlink|a}}
| align=center | {{IPAlink|aː}} {{Angbr IPA|aa}}
| align=center |
| align=center | 
|}

There are three tones: high, low and falling. Vowel length is distinctive: {{lang|mik|eche}} {{IPA|[itʃi]}} {{gloss|mouth}} vs. {{lang|mik|eeche}} {{IPA|[iːtʃi]}} {{gloss|deer}}, {{lang|mik|ete}} {{IPA|[iti]}} {{gloss|eye}} vs. {{lang|mik|eete}} {{IPA|[iːti]}} {{gloss|fire}}.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Consonants{{sfn|Boynton|1982|p=14}}
! colspan=2|
! [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]] 
! [[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPAlink|m}}
|{{IPAlink|n}}
|
|
|-align=center
!  rowspan=2|[[Stop consonant|Stop]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPAlink|p}}
| {{IPAlink|t}}
| {{IPAlink|k}}
|
|-align=center
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|b}}
|
|
|
|-align=center
! colspan=2|[[Affricate consonant|Affricative]]
|
| {{IPAlink|tʃ}} {{Angbr IPA|ch}}
|
|
|-align=center
! colspan=2|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| {{IPAlink|ɸ}} {{Angbr IPA|f}}
| {{IPAlink|ɬ}} {{Angbr IPA|ł}}
| {{IPAlink|ʃ}} {{Angbr IPA|sh}}
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|- align="center"
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant]]
| {{IPAlink|w}}
| {{IPAlink|l}}
| {{IPAlink|j}} {{Angbr IPA|y}}
|
|}

==Alphabet==
Mikasuki is written using the Latin alphabet. The vowel characters on the left represent the sounds on the right, transcribed phonetically:

{| class="wikitable"
!Letter
![[International Phonetic Alphabet chart|IPA]] symbol
|-
|a, aa
|{{IPA|a}}, {{IPA|aː}}
|-
|a̲, a̲a̲
|{{IPA|ã}}, {{IPA|ãː}}
|-
|e, ee
|{{IPA|i}}, {{IPA|iː}}
|-
|e̲, e̲e̲
|{{IPA|ĩː}}, {{IPA|ĩː}}
|-
|o, oo
|{{IPA|o}}, {{IPA|oː}}
|-
|o̲, o̲o̲
|{{IPA|õ}}; {{IPA|õː}}
|-
|ay
|{{IPA|ai}}
|-
|ao
|{{IPA|ao}}
|}

The consonants characters are:

{| class="wikitable"
!Letter
!IPA symbol
|-
|b
|{{IPA|b}}
|-
|ch
|{{IPA|t͡ʃ}}
|-
|f
|{{IPA|ɸ}}
|-
|h
|{{IPA|h}}
|-
|k
|{{IPA|k}}
|-
|l
|{{IPA|l}}
|-
|ł
|{{IPA|ɬ}}
|-
|m
|{{IPA|m}}
|-
|n
|{{IPA|n}}
|-
|ng
|{{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
|p
|{{IPA|p}}
|-
|sh
|{{IPA|ʃ}}
|-
|t
|{{IPA|t}}
|-
|w
|{{IPA|w}}
|-
|y
|{{IPA|j}}
|}

High tone is indicated with an acute accent (´), low tone with a grave accent (`), and falling tone with an acute accent followed by a grave accent. A long vowel with falling tone is represented by two accented vowel letters (áà). When the vowel is short, the grave accent is placed over the next consonant (áǹ):

{| class="wikitable"
!High Tone
!Low Tone
!Falling Tone
|-
|á, áa
|à, àa
|áǹ, áà
|-
|}
An [[Svarabhakti|epenthetic]] [ə] vowel appears in kl, kw and kn clusters in careful speech.

==Grammar==
Nouns are marked with suffixes for various functions, some examples:
{| class="wikitable"
!Suffix
!Function
!Example
!Meaning
|-
|
|
|{{lang|mik|embaache}}
|battery
|-
|{{lang|mik|–ot}}
|subject marker
|{{lang|mik|embaachot hampeepom}}
|the battery has gone bad
|-
|{{lang|mik|–on}}
|object marker
|{{lang|mik|embaachon aklomle}}
|I need a battery
|-
|{{lang|mik|–ee}}
|question marker
|{{lang|mik|embachee cheméèło?}}
|do you have a battery?
|-
|}

Free pronouns exist ({{lang|mik|aane}} {{gloss|I}}, {{lang|mik|chehne}} {{gloss|you}}, {{lang|mik|pohne}} {{gloss|we}}) but are rarely used. Verb suffixes are the usual way of marking person.

==Vocabulary==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Verbs
|{{lang|tsr|bochonkom|italic=no}}
|he/she/it touches
|-
|{{lang|tsr|chaolom|italic=no}}
|he/she/it writes
|-
|{{lang|tsr|chayahlom|italic=no}}
|he/she/it walks
|-
|{{lang|tsr|eelom|italic=no}}
|he/she/it arrives
|-
|{{lang|tsr|empom|italic=no}}
|he/she/it eats
|-
|{{lang|tsr|eshkom|italic=no}}
|he/she/it drinks
|-
|{{lang|tsr|faayom|italic=no}}
|he/she/it hunts
|-
|{{lang|tsr|ommom|italic=no}}
|he/she/it makes
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Numerals
|1
|{{lang|tsr|łáàmen|italic=no}}
|-
|2
|{{lang|tsr|toklan|italic=no}}
|-
|3
|{{lang|tsr|tocheenan|italic=no}}
|-
|4
|{{lang|tsr|shéetaaken|italic=no}}
|-
|5
|{{lang|tsr|chahkeepan|italic=no}}
|-
|6
|{{lang|tsr|eepaaken|italic=no}}
|-
|7
|{{lang|tsr|kolapaaken|italic=no}}
|-
|8
|{{lang|tsr|toshnapaaken|italic=no}}
|-
|9
|{{lang|tsr|oshtapaaken|italic=no}}
|-
|10
|{{lang|tsr|pokoolen|italic=no}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Kinship terms
|{{lang|tsr|nakne|italic=no}}
|man, male
|-
|{{lang|tsr|ooche|italic=no}}
|son
|-
|{{lang|tsr|ooshtayke|italic=no}} 
|daughter
|-
|{{lang|tsr|táàte|italic=no}}
|father
|-
|{{lang|tsr|tayke|italic=no}}
|woman, female
|-
|{{lang|tsr|wáàche|italic=no}}
|mother
|-
|{{lang|tsr|yaate|italic=no}}
|person
|-
|{{lang|tsr|yaatooche|italic=no}}
|infant
|}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
==References==
* {{Cite thesis |last=Boynton |first=Sylvia S |title=Mikasuki grammar in outline |date=1982 |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Florida |url=http://ufdc.ufl.edu/AA00052390/00001 |oclc=9252451 |id={{ProQuest|303232611}}}}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Derrick-Mescua |first=Mary Tyler |title=A phonology and morphology of Mikasuki |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Florida |url=https://ufdc.ufl.edu/AA00061722/00001 |year=1980}}
*{{Cite book |last=Ethridge |first=Robbie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_8MX4d1xJmoC |title=Creek Country: The Creek Indians and Their World |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-8078-2827-0 |location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina}}
*{{Cite book |last=Hann |first=John H. |title=The Native American World Beyond Apalachee |publisher=University Press of Florida |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8130-2982-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=West |first=J. |title=A Guide to the Miccosukee Language |last2=Smith |first2=N. |publisher=Miccosukee Corporation |year=1978 |location=Miami}}
* {{Cite journal |last=West |first=John David |year=1962 |title=The Phonology of Mikasuki |journal=Studies in Linguistics |volume=16 |issue=3–4 |pages=77–91 |oclc=29208642}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305200754/http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=%5Cdata%5Ctypol%5Ctypology&text_recno=4847&root=config A Global Linguistic Database: Mikasuki]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121205181501/http://www.semtribe.com/Culture/Language.aspx Miccosukee place names]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/mikasuki.htm Mikasuki, Omniglot]
* [http://www.native-languages.org/mikasuki.htm Miccosukee Indian Language (Mikasuki, Hitchiti)]
* [http://www.language-archives.org/language/mik OLAC resources in and about the Mikasuki language]

{{Languages of Oklahoma}}
{{Muscogee}}
{{Seminole}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mikasuki Language}}
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Muskogean languages]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southeast]]
[[Category:Tonal languages]]
[[Category:Seminole culture]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Florida]]