View source for Middle Low German

{{short description|Developmental stage of Low German}}
{{Use British English |date=November 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates |date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox language
|name          = Middle Low German
|altname       = '''''Sassisch''''', ''Dǖdisch'', ''Nedderlendisch'', ''Ôstersch''
|nativename    = ''sassesche sprâke'' (or unnormalised ''sassche sprake''), ''nedderlendische sprâke'' (or unnormalised ''nederlendesche sprake''; since the 16th century)<ref name="la14">{{cite Q |Q131355367 |publisher=Max Niemeyer |mode=cs1}}</ref>{{rp|p=5}}
|region        = Northern [[Central Europe]], viz. Northern [[Germany]] (roughly the [[North German Plain|Northern lowlands]]), Northeastern [[Netherlands]], Northwestern/North-central (modern) [[Poland]], modern [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], also sporadically in [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]] (confined to cities)
|era           = 13th to 16th centuries; evolved into [[Low German|Modern Low German]]; gradually superseded as an official language by [[High German languages|High German]] and (in the far West) [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|familycolor   = Indo-European
|fam2          = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3          = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4          = [[North Sea Germanic]]
|ancestor      = [[Old Saxon]]
|dia1          = [[Westphalian language|Westphalian]]
|dia2          = [[Eastphalian dialect|Eastphalian]]
|dia3          = [[Northern Low Saxon|North Low Saxon]], incl. ''[[East Frisian Low Saxon|East Frisian]]—Oldenburgish'', ''Nordalbingian'', ''East Elbian''
|dia4          = [[Brandenburgisch dialect|Brandenburgish]]
|script        = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Fraktur]])
|map           = Extent of the Hansa-optimiert.jpg
|mapcaption    = Northern Europe in 1400, showing the extent of the [[Hanseatic League]]
|lingua        = 52-ACB-ca<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.linguasphere.info/lcontao/tl_files/pdf/index/LS_index_m-m.pdf |title=m |page=219 |work=The Linguasphere Register |access-date=1 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827103404/http://www.linguasphere.info/lcontao/tl_files/pdf/index/LS_index_m-m.pdf |archive-date=27 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|iso3          = gml
|glotto        = midd1318
|glottorefname = Middle Low German
}}
[[File:Hansesprache no text.jpg|thumb|right|265px|Extent of Middle Low German in red and as literary language (black lines tilted right)]]
'''Middle Low German'''{{efn |{{langx|nds|Middelsassisk}}, {{langx|nds|Middelsassisch|label=none}}, {{langx|nds|Middelnedderdüüsch|label=none}} or {{langx|nds|Middelneaderdüütsk|label=none}},{{cd |date=August 2024}} {{langx|de|Mittelniederdeutsch|italics=yes}}, {{langx|nl|Middelnederduits|italics=yes}}}} is a developmental stage of [[Low German]]. It developed from the [[Old Saxon]] language in the [[Middle Ages]] and has been documented in writing since about 1225–34 ({{lang|de|[[Sachsenspiegel]]}}). During the [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] period (from about 1300 to about 1600), Middle Low German was the leading written language in the north of [[Central Europe]] and served as a [[lingua franca]] in the northern half of Europe. It was used parallel to [[medieval Latin]] also for purposes of [[diplomacy]] and for [[deed]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Handbuch zur niederdeutschen Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft |last1=Cordes |first1=Gerhard |last2=Möhn |first2=Dieter |date=1983 |language=de |page=119 |publisher=Erich Schmidt Verlag |location=Berlin |isbn=3-503-01645-7 |oclc=9961089 }}</ref>

==Terminology==
While ''Middle Low German'' (MLG) is a scholarly term developed in hindsight, speakers in their time referred to the language mainly as {{lang|gml|sassisch}} (Saxon) or {{lang|gml|de sassische sprâke}} (the Saxon language). In contrast to Latin as the primary written language, speakers also referred to discourse in Saxon as speaking/writing {{lang|gml|to dǖde}}, i.e. 'clearly, intelligibly'.<ref name="la14" />{{rp|p=5}}<ref>{{cite Q |Q131356101 |edition=3rd |chapter=düde (1) |chapter-url=http://www.koeblergerhard.de/mnd/mnd_d.html |access-date=2024-11-29 |mode=cs1 }}</ref> This contains the same root as {{lang|gml|dǖdisch}} 'German' ([[cf.]], [[High German]]: {{wikt-lang|de|deutsch}}, [[Dutch language|Dutch]] {{wikt-lang|nl|duits}} ([[wikt:archaic|archaic]]ally ''N(i)ederduytsche'' to mean the [[Middle Dutch|contemporary version]] of the [[Dutch language]])  both from [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*þiudiskaz}} {{lit}} "of the people"; 'popular, vernacular') which could also be used for [[Low German]] if the context was clear. Compare also the modern colloquial term {{lang|de|Platt(dütsch)}} (from {{lang|de|platt}} 'plain, simple') denoting [[Low Germanic Languages|Low]] (or [[West Central German|West Central]]) [[German dialects]] in contrast to the written [[Standard High German|standard]].

Another medieval term is {{lang|gml|ôstersch}} (lit. 'East-ish') which was at first applied to the [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities of the [[Baltic Sea]] (the 'East Sea'), their territory being called {{lang|gml|Ôsterlant}} ('East-land'), their inhabitants {{lang|gml|Ôsterlinge}} ('Eastlings'). This appellation was later expanded to other German Hanseatic cities and it was a general name for Hanseatic merchants in the Netherlands, e.g. in [[Bruges]] where they had their {{lang|gml|komptôr}} (office; see [[Kontor]]).<ref name="la14" />{{rp|p=5}}<ref>{{cite Q |Q131356101 |edition=3rd |chapter=ōsterisch |chapter-url=http://www.koeblergerhard.de/mnd/mnd_o.html |access-date=2024-11-29 |mode=cs1 }}</ref>

In the 16th century, the term {{lang|gml|nedderlendisch}} (lit. 'Lowland-ish, [[Terminology of the Low Countries|Netherlandish]]') gained ground, contrasting Saxon with the [[High German languages|German]] dialects in the [[Central Uplands|uplands]] to the south. It became dominant in the High German dialects (as [[Early New High German|ENHG]] {{lang|gmh|niderländisch}}, which could also refer to the modern [[Netherlands]]), while {{lang|gml|sassisch}} remained the most widespread term within MLG. The equivalent of 'Low German' ([[Modern German|NHG]] {{lang|de|niederdeutsch}}) seems to have been introduced later on by High German speakers and at first applied especially to Netherlanders.<ref name="la14" />{{rp|p=6}}

''Middle Low German'' is a modern term used with varying degrees of inclusivity. It is distinguished from [[Middle High German]], spoken to the south, which was later replaced by [[Early New High German]]. Though [[Middle Dutch]] is today usually excluded from MLG (although very closely related), it is sometimes, especially in older literature, included in MLG, which then encompasses the [[dialect continuum]] of all [[High Middle Ages|high-medieval]] [[Continental Germanic]] dialects outside [[Middle High German|MHG]], from [[Flanders]] in the West to the eastern Baltic.<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Nicholas |year=2009 |title=The Northern Lands: Germanic Europe, c.1270–c.1500 |pages=180–198 |location=Chichester |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-405-10051-9 }}</ref><ref name="la14" />{{rp|p=1}}

==Extent==
Middle Low German covered a wider area than the [[Old Saxon]] language of the preceding period, due to expansion to the East and, to a lesser degree, to the North.{{efn |The following section based on Agathe Lasch (1914).<ref name="la14" />{{rp|pp=1–2}}}}

In the East, the MLG-speaking area expanded greatly as part of the ''[[Ostsiedlung]]'' (settlement of the East) in the 12th to 14th century and came to include [[Mecklenburg]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Pomerania]] and (Old) [[Old Prussia|Prussia]], which were hitherto dominated by [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] and [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] tribes. Some pockets of these native peoples persisted for quite some time, e.g. the ''[[Polabian Slavs|Wends]]'' along the lower Elbe until about 1700 or the [[Kashubians]] of Eastern Pomerania up to modern times.

In the North, the [[Frisian languages|Frisian]]-speaking areas along the North Sea diminished in favour of Saxon, esp. in [[East Frisia]] which largely switched to MLG since the mid-14th century. North of the [[Elbe]], MLG advanced slowly into [[Sleswick]], against [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]], although the whole region was ruled by [[Denmark]]. MLG exerted a huge influence upon Scandinavia (see {{slink| |History}}), even if native speakers of Low German were mostly confined to the cities where they formed colonies of merchants and craftsmen. It was an official language of [[Old Livonia]], whose population consisted mostly of [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] and [[Balto-Finnic peoples|Finnic]] tribes.

In the West, at the [[Zuiderzee]], the forests of the [[Veluwe]] and close to the [[Lower Rhine]], MLG bordered on closely related [[Low Franconian]] dialects whose written language was mainly [[Middle Dutch]]. In earlier times, these were sometimes included in the modern definition of MLG (see {{slink| |Terminology}}).

In the South, MLG bordered on [[High German]] dialects roughly along the northern borders of [[Hesse]] and [[Thuringia]]. The language border then ran eastwards across the plain of the middle Elbe until it met the (then more extensive) [[Sorbian languages|Sorb]]-speaking area along the upper [[Spree (river)|Spree]] that separated it from High German. The border was never a sharp one, rather a [[Dialect continuum|continuum]]. The modern convention is to use the pronunciation of northern ''maken'' vs. southern ''machen'' ('to make') for determining an exact border. Along the middle [[Elbe]] and lower [[Saale]] rivers, Low German began to retreat in favour of High German dialects already during Late Medieval times (cf. ''[[Wittenberg]]'' whose name is Low German but whose inhabitants already spoke mostly/exclusively High German when the [[Lutheran reformation|Reformation]] set in).<ref>{{cite Q |Q131357533 |chapter=Der Anschluss an das Mitteldeutsche |pages=219–280 |mode=cs1 }}</ref>
{{gallery
|title=Examples of Middle Low German usage
|width=250
|height=250
|align=centre

|File:Mittelniederdeutsch.jpg
|A Middle Low German inscription on a [[Timber framing|half-timbered house]] in [[Hameln]], Lower Saxony that reads: {{lang|gml|Alle der warlde herlicheyt is alse ene blome de huete wasset un[de] morge[n] vorgheit. Des here[n] wort blift y[n] ewicheit.}} It is a passage from the [[First Epistle of Peter]], and translates as 'All the world's magnificence is like a flower that grows today and vanishes tomorrow; the Lord's word remains in eternity.'<ref>{{Bibleverse |1 Peter |1:24–25 |web}}</ref>

|File:Bugenhagen Kirchenordnung HL.jpg
|{{lang|gml|Der Keyserliken Stadt Lübeck Christlike Ordeninge/ tho denste dem hilgen Evangelio/ Christliker leve/ tucht/ frede unde enicheyt/ vor de yöget yn eyner guden Schole[n] tho lerende. Unde de Kercken denere und rechten armen Christlick tho vorsorgende. Dorch Jo. Bugen. Pom. beschreven. 1531}}. Translates as 'The Imperial City of [[Lübeck]]'s [[Church Ordinance|Christian Ordinance]] at the service of the Holy Gospel of Christian life, discipline, peace and unity, to teach the youth in a good school, and to provide Christianly for the church servants and the righteous poor. Written by [[Johannes Bugenhagen]] the Pomeranian, 1531'.

|File:Reynke-de-Vos Vorrede.jpg
|The title of this passage reads {{lang|gml|Eyne vorrede ouer dyt boek van reynken deme vosse}}, which translates as 'A prologue about this book of [[Reynard the Fox]]'. ''Reynard the Fox'' is an allegorical epic that was popular in medieval Europe. This depiction is from the 1498 edition published in [[Lübeck]], one of the major Hanseatic cities. The typeface is typical for the [[blackletter]] used in MLG printing.
}}

==History==
Sub-periods of Middle Low German are:<ref>{{cite book |title=Lexikologie. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Natur und Struktur von Wörtern und Wortschätzen |trans-title=Lexicology. An international handbook on the nature and structure of words and vocabularies |year=2005 |volume=2 |page=1180 |language=de |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin |oclc=1025116289 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Mittelhochdeutsch: eine Einführung |trans-title=Middle High German: An introduction |last=Weddige |first=Hilkert |year=2015 |edition=9th |page=7 |language=de |publisher=C.H. Beck Verlag |location=München |isbn=9783406684388 |oclc=933385847 }}</ref>

* Early Middle Low German (Standard High German: {{lang|de|Frühmittelniederdeutsch}}): 1200–1350, or 1200–1370
* Classical Middle Low German ({{lang|de|klassisches Mittelniederdeutsch}}): 1350–1500, or 1370–1530
* Late Middle Low German ({{lang|de|Spätmittelniederdeutsch}}): 1500–1600, or 1530–1650

Middle Low German was the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Hanseatic League]], spoken all around the [[North Sea]] and the [[Baltic Sea]]. It used to be thought that the language of [[Lübeck]] was dominant enough to become a normative standard (the so-called {{lang|de|Lübecker Norm}}) for an emergent spoken and written standard, but more recent work has established that there is no evidence for this and that Middle Low German was non-standardised.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Low German texts from late medieval Sweden |last=Mähl |first=Stefan |year=2012 |pages=113–122 |editor1-first=Lennart |editor1-last=Elmevik |editor2-first=Ernst Håkon |editor2-last=Jahr |editor2-link=Ernst Håkon Jahr |journal=Contact Between Low German and Scandinavian in the Late Middle Ages: 25 Years of Research |volume=121 |series=Acta Academiae Regiae Gustavi Adolphi |location=Uppsala |publisher=Kungl. Gustav Adolfs Akademien för svensk folkkultur |url=https://kgaa.bokorder.se/en-GB/article/2916/contact-between-low-german-and-scandinavian-i |isbn=9789185352975 }}</ref>{{rp|p=118}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Stellmacher |first=Dieter |title=Die niederdeutsche Sprachgeschichte und das Deutsch von heute |year=2017 |pages=30–31 |language=de |publisher=Peter Lang Edition |location=Frankfurt am Main |isbn=978-3-631-67548-9 |doi=10.3726/978-3-653-07005-7 |oclc=993588521 }}</ref>

Middle Low German provided a large number of [[loanword]]s to languages spoken around the Baltic Sea as a result of the activities of Hanseatic traders. Its traces can be seen in the [[North Germanic languages|Scandinavian]], [[Finnic languages|Finnic]], and [[Baltic languages]], as well as [[Standard German|Standard High German]] and [[English language|English]]. It is considered the largest single source of loanwords in [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]].

Beginning in the 15th century, Middle Low German fell out of favour compared to Early Modern High German, which was first used by elites as a written and, later, a spoken language. Reasons for this loss of prestige include the decline of the Hanseatic League, followed by political heteronomy of northern Germany and the cultural predominance of central and southern Germany during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and [[Luther Bible|Luther's translation of the Bible]].

==Phonology and orthography==
The description is based on Lasch (1914)<ref name="la14" /> which continues to be the authoritative comprehensive grammar of the language but is not necessarily up-to-date in every detail.

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable"
! &nbsp;
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Postalveolar consonant|Post-alv.]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-align=center
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPAblink|ŋ}}
| &nbsp;
|-align=center
![[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| {{IPA link|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|d}}
| &nbsp;
| {{IPAblink|c}}
| {{IPA link|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPAblink|ɡ}}
| &nbsp;
|-align=center
![[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| &nbsp;
| ({{IPA link|t͡s}})
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-align=center
![[fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| {{IPA link|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;[{{IPA link|v}}]
| {{IPA link|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;[{{IPA link|z}}]
| ({{IPA link|ʃ}})
| [{{IPA link|ç}}]&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPAblink|ʝ}}
| [{{IPA link|x}}]&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|ɣ}}
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-align=center
![[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| {{IPA link|ʋ}}
| {{IPA link|r}}
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA link|j}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-align=center
![[Approximant consonant#Lateral approximant|Lateral]]
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA link|l}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-align=center
|}
* Square brackets indicate [[allophone]]s.
* Round brackets indicate phonemes that do not have phoneme status in the whole language area or are marginal in the phonological system.

It is not rare to find the same word in MLG affected by one of the following phonological processes in one text and unaffected by it in another text because the lack of a written standard, the dialectal variation and ongoing linguistic change during the Middle Low German (MLG) era.

'''General notes'''
* '''[[Final devoicing]]''': Voiced obstruents in the syllable coda are devoiced, e.g. ''geven'' (to give) but ''gift'' (gift). The change took place early in MLG but is not always represented in writing. [[Proclitic]] words like ''mid'' (with) might remain voiced before a vowel because they are perceived as one phonological unit with the following word. Also, as can already be seen in Old Saxon, lenited {{IPA|/b/}} is devoiced to {{IPA|[f]}} before syllabic nasals or liquids, e.g. ''gaffel'' (fork) from [[Proto-Germanic language|PG]] ''*gabalō''.
* '''[[Grammatischer Wechsel]]''': Because of sound changes in Proto-Germanic (cf. [[Verner's law]]), some words had different sounds in different grammatical forms. In MLG, there were only fossilised remnants of the "grammatischer wechsel" (grammatical change), namely for {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/r/}}, e.g. ''kêsen'' (to choose) but ''koren'' ((they) chose), and for {{IPA|/h/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, e.g. ''vân'' < PG ''*fanhaną'' (to take hold, to catch) but ''gevangen'' < PG ''*fanganaz'' (taken hold of, caught).
* '''[[Assimilation (phonology)|Assimilation]]''': A sound becoming more similar to a (usually) neighbouring sound, usually in place or manner of articulation, is very common across all languages. Early MLG did mark assimilation much more often in writing than later periods, e.g. ''vamme'' instead of ''van deme'' (of the).
* '''[[Dissimilation]]''': In MLG, it frequently happened with {{IPA|/l/}} vs. {{IPA|/r/}} or {{IPA|/l/}} vs. {{IPA|/n/}}, e.g. ''balbêrer'' < ''barbêrer'' (barber), or ''knuflôk'' < ''kluflôk'' (garlic). Both forms frequently co-existed. The complete loss of a sound in proximity to an identical sound can also be explained in such a way, e.g. the loss of {{IPA|/l/}} in ''Willem'' (William) < ''Wilhelm''.
* '''[[Metathesis (linguistics)|Metathesis]]''': Some sounds tended to switch their places, especially the "liquids" {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/r/}}. Both forms may co-exist, e.g. ''brennen'' vs. (metathesised) ''bernen'' (to burn).
* '''[[Gemination]]''': In MLG, geminate consonants, which came into being by assimilation or [[Syncope (phonology)|syncope]], were no longer pronounced as such. Instead, geminate spelling marks the preceding vowel as short. Many variants exist, like combinations of voiced and voiceless consonants (e.g. {{lang|gmh|breifve}} letters, {{lang|gmh|sontdage}} Sundays). Late MLG tended to use clusters of similar consonants after short as well as long vowels for no apparent reason, e.g. {{lang|gmh|tidth}} for {{lang|gmh|tîd}} (time).
* '''h spellings''': A mute ''h'' appeared sporadically after consonants already in Old Saxon. Its use greatly increased in MLG, first at the end of a word, when it often marked the preceding vowel as long, but it later appears largely randomly. In very late times, the use of ''h'' directly after the vowel is sometimes adopted from Modern High German as a sign of vowel length.

'''Specific notes on nasals'''
(Indented notes refer to orthography.)

* {{IPA|/m/}} had a tendency to shift to {{IPA|/n/}} in the coda, e.g. ''dem'' > ''den'' (the (dat.sg.m.)).
** Intervocalic {{IPA|/m/}} is sometimes spelled ''mb'' whether or not it developed from Old Saxon {{IPA|/mb/}}.
* {{IPA|/n/}} assimilated to {{IPA|[ŋ]}} before velars {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}}.
* Final {{IPA|/n/}} often dropped out in unstressed position before consonants, e.g., {{lang|gml|hebbe(n) wi}} (we have), cf. Modern Dutch for a similar process. Similarly, it often dropped from {{IPA|/nɡ/}}-clusters after unstressed vowels, especially in Westphalian, e.g. ''jârlix'' (annually) < ''jârlings''.
* Furthermore, {{IPA|/n/}} had been deleted in certain coda positions several centuries earlier (the so-called [[Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law]]), but there were many exceptions and restorations through analogy: the shifted form ''gôs'' (goose < [[Proto-Germanic language|PG]] ''*gans'') with an unshifted plural ''gense'' (geese) was quite common. Non-shifted forms have been common in the more innovative Eastern dialects.

'''Specific notes on stops and fricatives'''
* {{IPA|/b/}} as a stop {{IPA|[b]}} is always word-initially (''blôme'' flower, bloom), at the onset of stressed syllables (''bar'''b'''êrer'' barber) and (historically) geminated (''ebbe'' ebb, low tide). Its allophones in other cases are word-internal {{IPA|[v]}} and word-final {{IPA|[f]}} (e.g. ''drêven'' to drive, vs. ''drêf'' drive (n.)).
* Voiceless {{IPA|/f/}} usually appeared word-initially (e.g. ''vader'' father), word-finally (merged with historical {{IPA|/b/}}, see above), otherwise between short vowels and nasals/liquids (also from historical {{IPA|/b/}}, e.g. ''gaffel'' fork) and in loans (e.g. ''straffen'' to tighten, from [[High German]]).
** It was mostly written ''v'' in the syllable onset, {{lang|gmh|f(f)}} in the coda. Exceptions include loans (''figûre''), some proper names (''Frederik''), cases like ''gaffel'' as mentioned earlier and sporadically before ''u'' (where ''v'' would be too similar graphically) and before ''l'' and ''r''. Sometimes, ''w'' is used for ''v'', and ''ph'' for ''f''. 
** In MLG (like in other medieval) texts, there is usually no clear graphic distinction between ''v'' and ''u''. The distinction between both (consonant value as ''v'', vocalic value as ''u'') is used in modern dictionaries, in grammars and in this article simply for better readability. Thus, in the manuscripts, e.g. ''auer'' is ''aver'' (but).
* {{IPA|/w/}} was originally an approximant {{IPA|[w~ʋ]}} but seems to have later shifted towards a fricative. Its exact articulation likely differed from dialect to dialect, and many of them merged word-internally with {{IPA|[v]}}, an allophone of {{IPA|/b/}}.
** In writing, ''w'' for word-internal {{IPA|/w/}} was kept strictly separate from {{IPA|[v]}} at first, but the use of ''w'' later also expanded to {{IPA|[v]}}.
** The clusters {{IPA|/dw-/}}, {{IPA|/tw-/}}, {{IPA|/sw-/}}, {{IPA|/kw-/}} were originally often written with ''v''/''u'' (''svager'' brother-in-law) but later mostly shifted to a ''w''-spelling, except for {{IPA|/kw-/}}, which kept ''qu'' from Latin influence.
* The dentals {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} tended to drop out between unstressed vowels, e.g. ''antwēr'' (either) instead of ''antwēder'', and in word-final clusters like {{IPA|/-ft/}}, {{IPA|/-xt/}} or {{IPA|/-st/}}, e.g. often ''rech'' next to ''recht'' (law, right), ''schrîf'' next to ''schrîft'' ((he/she) writes).
* Remnants of Old Saxon {{IPA|/θ/}} shifted via {{IPA|/ð/}} into {{IPA|/d/}} in the early MLG era. After {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/n/}}, it was the case already in late Old Saxon. For {{IPA|/rθ/}}, word-final {{IPA|/-θ/}} and some frequent words like ''dat'' (that, the (neut.)), the change also happened very early. The changes happened earliest in Westphalian and latest in North Low Saxon.
* {{IPA|/s/}} was voiced intervocalically as {{IPA|[z]}}. Whether it was voiced word-initially is not fully clear. There seems to have been dialectal variation, with voiceless {{IPA|[s]}} more likely for Westphalian and voiced {{IPA|[z]}} more likely for East Elbian dialects.
** Because of the variation, voiceless {{IPA|/s/}} (for example in loans from Romance or Slavic) was often written ''tz'', ''cz'', ''c'' etc. for clarity.
* The phonemic status of {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is difficult to determine because of the extremely irregular orthography. Its status likely differed between the dialects, with early MLG having {{IPA|/sk/}} (Westphalian keeping it until modern times) and no phonemic {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, and e.g. East Elbian and in general many later dialects had {{IPA|/ʃ/}} from earlier {{IPA|/sk/}}. If there is phonemic {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, it often replaces {{IPA|/s/}} in clusters like {{IPA|/sl-/}} and {{IPA|/sn-/}}.
* Connected with the status of {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is the manner of articulation of {{IPA|/s/}}. Orthographic variants and some modern dialects seem to point to a more retracted, more ''sh''-like pronunciation (perhaps {{IPA|[s̠]}}), especially if there was no need to distinguish {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/ʃ/}}. This is consistent with modern Westphalian.
* {{IPA|/t͡s/}} is at best a marginal role as a phoneme and appears in loans or develops because of compounding or [[epenthesis]]. Note the palatalised {{IPA|/k/}} (next point).
** In writing, it was often marked by copious clustering, e.g. ''er'''tzc'''ebischope'' (archbishop).
* {{IPA|/k/}} before front vowels is strongly palatalised in Old Saxon (note the similar situation in the closely related [[Old English]]) and at least some of early MLG, as can be seen from spellings like ''zint'' for ''kint'' (child) and the variation of placename spellings, especially in [[Nordalbingia]]n and [[Eastphalia]]n, e.g. ''Tzellingehusen'' for modern ''[[Kellinghusen]]''. The palatalisation, perhaps as {{IPA|[c]}} or {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}, persisted until the High Middle Ages but was later mostly reversed. Thus, for instance, the old affricate in the Slavic placename ''Liubi'''c'''i'' could be reinterpreted as a velar stop, giving the modern name ''[[Lübeck]]''. A few words and placenames completely palatalised and shifted their velar into a sibilant (''sever'' beetle, chafer, from [[Proto-Germanic language|PG]] ''*kebrô''; the city of ''[[Celle]]'' < Old Saxon ''Kiellu'').
** Early MLG frequently used ''c'' for {{IPA|/k/}} (''cleyn'' small), which later became rarer. However, geminate ''k'' (after historically short vowels and consonants) continued to be written ''ck'' (e.g. ''klocke'' bell), more rarely ''kk'' or ''gk''. 
** ''gk'' otherwise appeared often after nasal (''ringk'' ring, (ice) rink). 
** {{IPA|/ks/}} was often written ''x'', especially in the West. 
** {{IPA|/kw/}} usually appeared as ''qu'', under Latin influence (''quêmen'' to come).
* Furthermore, after unstressed {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} often changed into {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, e.g. in the frequent derivational suffix ''-lik'' (''vrüntligen'' friendly (infl.)) or, with [[final devoicing]], in ''sich'' instead of ''sik'' (him-/her-/itself, themselves).
** Sometimes, ''ch'' was used for a syllable-final {{IPA|/k/}} (''ôch'' also, too). The ''h'' can be seen a sign of lengthening of the preceding vowel, not of [[spirantisation]] (see "''h''-spelling" below).
* {{IPA|/ɣ/}} was a fricative. Its exact articulation probably differed by dialect. Broadly, there seem to have been dialects that distinguished a voiced palatal {{IPA|[ʝ]}} and a voiced velar {{IPA|[ɣ]}}, depending on surrounding vowels ({{IPA|[ʝ]}}: word-initially before front vowels, word-internally after front vowels; {{IPA|[ɣ]}} in those positions, but with back vowels), and dialects that always used {{IPA|[ʝ]}} word-initially and word-internally (Eastphalian, Brandenburgian, e.g. word-internally after a back vowel: {{lang|gmh|voyet}} [[Vogt|vogt, reeve]]). Nevertheless, {{IPA|[ʝ]}} was kept separate from old {{IPA|/j/}}. In the coda position, {{IPA|/ɣ/}} became a dorsal fricative (palatal {{IPA|[ç]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}, depending on the preceding sound), thus merging with {{IPA|/h/}}.
** The spelling ''gh'' was at first used almost exclusively before ''e'' or word-finally but began to spread to other positions, notably before ''i''. It did not indicate a different pronunciation but was part of an orthographic pattern seen in many other parts of Europe. Furthermore, in early western traditions of MLG, sometimes ''ch'' was used for {{IPA|/ɡ/}} in all positions, even word-initially.
** Coda {{IPA|/ɡ/}} was mostly spelled ''ch'' because it completely merged with historic {{IPA|/h/}} (see below).
* After nasals and as a geminate, {{IPA|/ɣ/}} appeared as a stop {{IPA|[ɡ]}}, e.g. ''seggen'' "to say", ''penninghe'' "pennies". In contrast to modern varieties, it remained audible after a nasal. Pronouncing ''g'' word-initially as a stop {{IPA|[ɡ]}} is likely a comparatively recent innovation under High German influence.
** {{lang|gmh|gg(h)}} could be used for {{IPA|/ŋɡ/}} in older MLG, e.g. ''Dudiggerode'' for the town of [[:de:Düringerode|Düringerode]].
* {{IPA|/ɣ/}} was frequently dropped between sonorants (except after nasals), e.g. ''bormêster'' ([[burgomaster]], mayor) < ''bor'''ge'''rmêster''.
* {{IPA|/ɣ/}} was often epenthetised between a stressed and an unstressed vowel, e.g. ''nei'''g'''en'' (to sew) < Old Saxon ''*nāian'', or ''vrûghe'' (lady, woman) < Old Saxon ''frūa''. In Westphalian, this sound could harden into [g], e.g. ''eggere'' (eggs).
* {{IPA|/h/}} in the onset was a glottal fricative {{IPA|[h]}}, and it merged with historic {{IPA|/ɣ/}} in the coda (see above). Word-final {{IPA|/h/}} after consonant or long vowel was frequently dropped, e.g. ''hôch'' or ''hô'' (high). In a compound or phrase, it often became silent (''Willem'' < ''Wilhelm'' William).
** Onset {{IPA|/h/}} was written ''h'', while coda {{IPA|/h/}} = {{IPA|[ç~x]}} was mostly written ''ch'' but also {{lang|gmh|g(h)}} and the like because of its merger with {{IPA|/ɣ/}}.
* Coda {{IPA|/h/}} = {{IPA|[ç~x]}} frequently dropped between {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/t/}}, e.g. ''Engelbert'' (a first name) with the common component ''-bert'' < Old Saxon {{lang|gmh|-ber(a)ht}} (bright, famous). In unstressed syllables, it could also occur between a vowel and {{IPA|/t/}}, e.g. ''nit'' (not) < Old Saxon ''niowiht'' (not a thing).
** Often, ''h'' was used for other purposes than its actual sound value: to mark vowel length (see ''h''-spelling under "General Notes" above), to "strengthen" short words (''ghân'' to go), to mark a vocalic onset ({{lang|gmh|hvnsen}} our (infl.)) or vowel [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] (''sêhes'' (of the) lake).

'''Specific notes on approximants'''
* {{IPA|/j/}} was a palatal approximant and remained separate from {{IPA|[ʝ]}}, the palatal allophone of {{IPA|/ɣ/}}.
** It was often spelled ''g'' before front vowels and was not confused with ''gh'' = {{IPA|[ʝ]}}. The variant ''y'' was sometimes used (''yöget'' youth). 
* {{IPA|/r/}} was likely an alveolar trill {{IPA|[r]}} or flap {{IPA|[ɾ]}}, like in most traditional Low German dialects until recently. Post-vocalic {{IPA|/r/}} sometimes dropped, especially before {{IPA|/s/}}. 
* {{IPA|/l/}} was originally probably velarised, i.e. a "dark l" {{IPA|[ɫ]}}, at least in the coda, judging from its influence on surrounding vowels, but it was never extensively vocalised as Dutch {{IPA|/l/}} was. During the MLG era, it seems to have shifted to a "clear l" in many dialects and tended to be dropped in some usually unstressed words, especially in Westphalian, e.g., {{lang|gmh|as(se)}}, instead of {{lang|gmh|alse}} (as).

===Vowels===
Modern renderings of MLG (like this article) often use circumflex or macron to mark vowel length (e.g. ''â'' or ''ā'') to help the modern reader, but original MLG texts marked vowel length not by accents but by doubling vowels, by adding a lengthening ''e'' or ''i'', by doubling the following consonants (after short vowels) or by adding ''h'' after the following consonants.

{{Expand section|1=description of the vowel system, possibly based on [https://archive.org/details/mittelniederdeu00lasc Lasch (1914)]|section=1|date=March 2019}}

==Morphology==

===Noun===

{{Expand section|1=description of the nominal system, possibly based on [https://archive.org/details/mittelniederdeu00lasc Lasch (1914)]|section=1|date=March 2019}}

===Verb===

{{Expand section|1=description of the verbal system, possibly based on [https://archive.org/details/mittelniederdeu00lasc Lasch (1914)]|section=1|date=March 2019}}

==Dialects==
Lasch distinguished the following large dialect groups,<ref name="la14" />{{rp|pp=12–20}} emphasising that she based it strictly on the orthography, which may often omit strongly dialectal phenomena in favour of more prestigious/"standard" forms. Nevertheless, the dialect groups broadly correspond with modern ones.

'''Westphalian''' ([[German language|HG]]: ''Westfälisch'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Westfaals''): Broadly speaking, the area between the middle [[Weser]] and lower [[Rhine]]. Main cities: [[Münster]], [[Paderborn]], [[Dortmund]], [[Bielefeld]], [[Osnabrück]]. Some Saxon dialects in the modern [[Netherlands]] (esp. modern [[Gelderland]] and [[Overijssel]]) belonged to this group. Dutch influence on them strongly increased since the 15th century.

''Some features'': In the West, strong influence from Low Franconian orthographic patterns (e.g. ''e'' or ''i'' as a sign of length, like ''oi'' = {{IPA|/oː/}}). The "breaking" of old short vowels in open syllables and before {{IPA|/r/}} was often marked in writing (e.g. ''karn'' instead of ''korn''). Old geminated {{IPA|/jj/}} and sometimes {{IPA|/ww/}} was hardened into {{IPA|[ɡ]}}; {{IPA|/ft/}} frequently shifted to {{IPA|/xt/}} (sometimes reversed in writing); {{IPA|/s/}} instead of {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (''sal'' vs ''schal''). The native present plural verbs was ''-et'' but the written norm often impressed ''-en''. Similarly, the participle prefix ''ge-'' was usually written, though probably only spoken in the Southwest. Lexically, strong connections with adjacent dialects further north (East Frisian and Oldenburgish), e.g. {{lang|gmh|godensdach}} ('Wednesday') instead of {{lang|gmh|middeweke}}. Westphalian was and is often thought to be altogether the most conservative dialect group.

'''North Low Saxon''' ([[German language|HG]]: ''Nordniedersächsisch'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Noord-Nedersaksisch''): Spoken in a long stretch of coastal regions from the [[Zuiderzee]] in the West to [[East Prussia]] in the East. Its orthographic habits come closest to what was traditionally perceived as a MLG standard (the ''Lübeck standard'', nowadays disputed).

Some features: Short {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} in open syllables are stretched into a {{IPA|[ɛː]}}-like vowel. The personal suffixes ''-er'' and ''-ald'' appear as ''-ar'' and ''-old''. The pronouns ''mî'' (1.sg.), ''dî'' (2.sg.) and ''jû'' (2.pl.) are used for both dative and accusative.

Three subgroups can be distinguished:

(1) ''East Frisian and Oldenburgish'', i.e. the areas west of the lower [[Weser]], in the North including dialects on [[Frisian languages|Frisian]] substrate. As can be expected, there is much Westphalian, Dutch and Frisian influence (''hem'' next to ''em'' 'him'; plurals in ''-s''; ''vrent'' next to ''vrünt'' 'friend').

(2) ''Nordalbingian'', between the lower [[Weser]] and the lower [[Elbe]], and also Holstein on the right bank of the lower [[Elbe]]. main towns: [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Lüneburg|Lunenburg]], [[Kiel]].

(3) ''East Elbian'', including [[Lübeck]] and the areas further east, like [[Mecklenburg]], [[Pomerania]], northern [[Brandenburg]] (Prignitz, Uckermark, Altmark), [[Old Prussia]], [[Livonia]]. Very close to ''Nordalbingian''. While the Eastern dialects are today clearly distinguished from the West by their uniform present plural verb ending in ''-en'' (against Western uniform {{lang|gmh|-(e)t}}), in MLG times, both endings competed against each other in West and East. Main towns: Lübeck, [[Wismar]], [[Rostock]], [[Stralsund]]. High German influence was strong in the [[State of the Teutonic Order|Teutonic Order]], due to the diverse regional origins of its chivalric elite, therefore MLG written culture was neglected early on.

'''Eastphalian''' ([[German language|HG]]: ''Ostfälisch''): Roughly the area east of the middle [[Weser]], north and partly west of the [[Harz]] mountains, reaching the middle [[Elbe]], but leaving out the [[Altmark]] region. In the north, the sparsely populated [[Lunenburg Heath]] forms something of a natural border. Main cities: [[Hannover|Hanover]], [[Hildesheim]], [[Braunschweig|Brunswick]], [[Goslar]], [[Göttingen]], [[Magdeburg]], [[Halle an der Saale|Halle]] (early times). The area within the Elbe's drainage was established by colonisation and is in many ways special. The southern part of this ''Elbe Eastphalian'' ([[German language|HG]]: ''Elbostfälisch'') area switched to High German already in Late Medieval times.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bischoff |first=Karl |title=Sprache und Geschichte an der mittleren Elbe und unteren Saale |year=1967 |series=Mitteldeutsche Forschungen |volume=52 |location=Köln |publisher=Böhlau |pages=236–237 |language=de |lccn=68124531 |ol=OL18179705M |oclc=5835474 |quote=Wenn Aken, Dessau, Köthen, Wittenberg, Walkenried, Eisleben, Merseburg, Halle mit ihren Umgebungen heute mitteldeutsche Mundarten haben, so ist das erst das Ergebnis einer großen sprachlichen Umlagerung, sie haben mit ihrer niederdeutschen Vergangenheit gebrochen. Aber ganz können sie sie nicht verleugnen, einige Reste sind auch im Bereich der Lautverschiebung unangetastet geblieben. [Translation: That [[Aken (Elbe)|Aken]], [[Dessau]], [[Köthen]], [[Wittenberg]], [[Walkenried]], [[Eisleben]], [[Merseburg]], [[Halle an der Saale|Halle]] and their vicinities today have [[Central German language|Central German]] dialects, that is the result of a great linguistic shift; they have broken with their Low German past. But they cannot completely deny it; some remnants have also persisted in the issue of [[High German consonant shift|consonant shift]].] }}</ref>

''Some features'': [[Germanic umlaut|Umlaut]] is more productive, occurring before ''-ich'' and ''-isch'' (e.g. {{lang|gmh|sessisch}} 'Saxon, Low German') and shifting also ''e'' to ''i'' (e.g. ''stidde'' for ''stêde'' 'place'). Diphthongised short {{IPA|/o/}} is rarely marked as such, contrary to other dialects. Before {{IPA|/r/}}, ''e'' and ''a'' are frequently interchanged for each other. Unstressed ''o'' (as in the suffix ''-schop'') frequently changes into ''u'' (''-schup''). The modal verb for 'shall/should' features {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, not {{IPA|/s/}} (i.e. ''schal''). The past participle's prefix was commonly spoken ''e-'' but mostly written ''ge-'' under prescriptive influence. The local form ''ek'' ('I' (pron. 1.sg.)) competed with "standard" ''ik''; in a similar way the oblique form ''mik'' ('me') with "standard" ''mî''. Unusually, there is also a dative pronoun (1.sg. ''mê''). Lexically, close connections with Nordalbingian. Unusual plural ''menne'' ('men').

'''(South) Brandenburgish''' ([[German language|HG]]: ''(Süd-)Brandenburgisch'') and ''East Anhaltish'' ([[German language|HG]]: ''Ostanhaltisch''): Roughly between the middle Elbe and the middle Oder, and along the middle Havel, bordering old [[Sorbs|Sorbian]] territory to the Southeast. Main cities: [[Berlin]], [[Frankfurt/Oder]], [[Zerbst]]. A colonial dialect strongly influenced by settlers speaking Low Franconian. Also strongly influenced by High German early on.

''Some features'': Old long ''ê'' and ''ô'' were diphthongised into {{IPA|[iə]}} and {{IPA|[uə]}}, written ''i'' and ''u''. Old Germanic coda {{IPA|/n/}} is restored, contrary to [[Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law|Ingvaeonic sound changes]], e.g. ''gans'' 'goose'. Present plural of verbs features the suffix ''-en''. Lack of negative determiner ''nên'' ('no' (attr.)), instead: ''keyn'', similar to High German. The past participle retains the prefix ''ge-''. Lack of ''gaderen'' ('to gather') and ''tőgen'' ('to show'); instead of them, forms close to High German, i.e. {{Transliteration|gmh|samenen}} and {{Transliteration|gmh|teigen}}. In East Anhaltish, distinction of dative and accusative pronouns (e.g. ''mi'' vs ''mik'', cf. [[German language|HG]] ''mir'' and ''mich'').

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Literature==
{{Expand section|1=overview of writings in MLG, e.g. Bible translations and other religious/spiritual literature, legal texts (e.g. ''Sachsenspiegel'', Hanseatic documents), chronicles/histories, popular tales/chapbooks (e.g. ''Reynke de Vos'', ''Dat Narrenschyp''). [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11023379?page=1 This digitised book] might be a good basis|section=1|date=March 2019}}

* [[Bible translations into German]]
* The ''[[Sachsenspiegel]]''
* ''Reynke de Vos'',<ref name="ghe98">{{cite wikisource |wslink=nds:Reynke de Vos |title=Reynke de Vos |first=Hans |last=van Ghetelen |year=1498 |location=Lübeck }}</ref> a version of [[Reynard]]
* Low German Incunable prints<ref name="gdws">{{cite web |title=Recherche |date=2010-08-17 |website=Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke |url=https://www.gesamtkatalogderwiegendrucke.de/Query.asp |access-date=2024-11-29 }}</ref> in Low German as catalogued in the [[Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke]], including the Low German ''Ship of Fools'',<ref name="gdw-sb17">{{cite web |title=Sebastian Brant |date=2017-10-13 |website=Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke |url=https://www.gesamtkatalogderwiegendrucke.de/docs/BRANSEB.htm |access-date=2024-11-29 }}</ref> ''Danse Macabre'',<ref name="gdw-tt12">{{cite web |title=Totentanz |date=2012-02-14 |website=Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke |url=https://www.gesamtkatalogderwiegendrucke.de/docs/TOTENTA.htm |access-date=2024-11-29 }}</ref> and the novel ''Paris und Vienne''<ref name="gdw-pev24">{{cite web |title=Paris et Vienne |date=2024-11-01 |website=Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke |url=https://www.gesamtkatalogderwiegendrucke.de/docs/HISTORI.htm#ParisEtVienne |access-date=2024-11-29 }}</ref>

==Sample texts==
{{Expand section|1=several small samples with translations, preferably from different dialects and periods, to be taken e.g. from Lübben's (1882) chrestomathy (see links). Cf. also how it was done for [[Middle English#Sample texts|Middle English]]|section=1|date=March 2019}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite Q |Q131354856 |publisher=T. O. Weigel |mode=cs1}}
*{{cite Q |Q131355367 |publisher=Max Niemeyer |mode=cs1}}
*{{cite Q |Q131356101 |mode=cs1 }}
*{{cite Q |Q19220072 |mode=cs1 }}
**{{cite Q |Q131357128 |title=A{{snd}}E <!-- Where is 'F'? --> |series=Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch |mode=cs1 }}
**{{cite Q |Q131356920 |title=G{{snd}}L |series=Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch |mode=cs1 }}
**{{cite Q |Q131357165 |title=M{{snd}}R |series=Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch |mode=cs1 }}
**{{cite Q |Q131357492 |title=S{{snd}}T |series=Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch |mode=cs1 }}
**{{cite Q |Q131357529 |title=U{{snd}}Z |series=Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch |mode=cs1 }}
**{{cite Q |Q131357531 |title=Nachtrag |series=Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch |mode=cs1 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180409103514/http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~cd2/drw/s/Sa-schm.htm#Schiller-Lubben Schiller-Lübben] in the {{lang|de|Quellenverzeichnis des Deutschen Rechtswörterbuchs}}
*[https://www.mediaevum.de/links/woerterbuecher Mediaevum]
* [http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/ Project TITUS], including texts in [http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/indexe.htm?/texte/texte2.htm#mndt Middle Low German]
* [http://germanic-studies.org/Middle-Low-German-loanwords-in-the-Scandinavian-languages.htm Middle Low German influence on the Scandinavian languages]
* [http://www.chlg.ac.uk/corpus.html Middle Low German corpus]. Still under construction, but the website contains a very concise sketch of MLG grammar also based on Lasch

{{subject bar |auto=y |portal=Linguistics}}

{{Germanic languages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Low German]]
[[Category:German dialects]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League]]
[[Category:History of the German language]]
[[Category:Medieval languages|Low German, Middle]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 12th century]]