View source for Media manipulation

{{Short description|Techniques in which partisans create an image that favours their interests}}
{{Other uses|Manipulation (disambiguation){{!}}Manipulation}}
[[File:Kozera DTV.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Examples of [[television|televised]] manipulation can be found in [[news programs]] that can  reach mass audiences. Pictured is the Polish newscast program ''[[Dziennik Telewizyjny|Dziennik]]'', infamous for having attempted to slander [[capitalism]] in [[Polish People's Republic|then-communist Poland]] using [[loaded language|emotive and loaded language]].]] 
'''Media manipulation''' refers to orchestrated campaigns in which actors exploit the distinctive features of broadcasting mass communications or digital media platforms to mislead, misinform, or create a narrative that advances their interests and agendas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Diaz Ruiz |first=Carlos |date=2023-10-30 |title=Disinformation on digital media platforms: A market-shaping approach |journal=New Media & Society |language=en |doi=10.1177/14614448231207644 |issn=1461-4448|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Marwick, A. E., & Lewis, R. (2017). Media manipulation and disinformation online. Data & Society Research Institute</ref><ref name="Human Manipulation">{{cite book |last=Coxall |first=Malcolm |editor-last=Caswell |editor-first=Guy |date=2 Mar 2013 |title=Human Manipulation - A Handbook |publisher=Cornelio Books |isbn=978-8-4940-8532-1 }}</ref>

In practice, media manipulation tactics may include the use of [[rhetorical strategies]] including [[fallacy|logical fallacies]], deceptive content like [[disinformation]], and [[propaganda]] techniques, and often involve the [[information suppression|suppression of information]] or points of view by crowding them out, by inducing other people or groups of people to stop listening to certain arguments, or by simply diverting [[attention]] elsewhere. In ''[[Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes]]'', [[Jacques Ellul]] writes that [[public opinion]] can only express itself through channels which are provided by the [[mass media]] of communication – without which there could be no propaganda.<ref>Ellul, Jacques (1973). ''Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes'', Ch. 2.Trans. Konrad Kellen & Jean Lerner. Vintage Books, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-394-71874-3}}.</ref>
== Contexts ==

=== Activism ===
{{main|Activism}}
Activism is the practice or doctrine that has an emphasis on direct vigorous action especially supporting or opposing one side of a controversial matter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/activism|title=Definition of Activism|date=2015|website=Merriam-Webster}}</ref> It is quite simply starting a movement to affect or change social views. It is frequently started by influential individuals but is done collectively through [[social movement]]s with large masses. These social movements can be done through public [[Demonstration (protest)|rallies]], [[strike action|strike]]s, street marches, and [[social media]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Greijdanus |first1=Hedy |last2=A de Matos Fernandes |first2=Carlos |last3=Turner-Zwinkels |first3=Felicity |last4=Honari |first4=Ali |last5=Roos |first5=Carla A. |last6=Rosenbusch |first6=Hannes |last7=Postmes |first7=Tom |date=2020 |title=The psychology of online activism and social movements: relations between online and offline collective action |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.03.003. |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=35 |pages=49–54|doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.03.003 |pmid=32330859}}</ref>

=== Advertising ===
[[File:Daisy (1964).webm|thumb|350px|thumbtime=3|"[[Daisy (advertisement)|Daisy]]", a TV commercial for the re-election of U.S. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. It aired only once, in September 1964, and is considered both one of the most controversial and one of the most effective political ads in American history.]]
{{main|Advertising}}
Advertising is a form of promotion that seeks to persuade a specific audience to purchase a good or service. One of the first types of marketing, it aims to influence its target market to either buy, sell, or carry out a particular action.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Young |first=Megan |title=Marketing vs. Advertising |url=https://www.ama.org/pages/marketing-vs-advertising/ |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=American Marketing Association |language=en-US}}</ref> 

These advertisements are not only done by businesses but can also be done by other groups. Non-commercial advertisers are those who spend money on advertising in the hope of raising awareness for a cause or promoting specific ideas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/non-commercial-advertising.html|title=Non-commercial Advertising|date=2015|website=Business Dictionary|access-date=2016-04-01|archive-date=2018-06-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143141/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/non-commercial-advertising.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Hoaxing ===
{{main|Hoax}}
A hoax is something intended to deceive or defraud. Misleading public stunts, [[scientific fraud]]s, false [[bomb threat]]s and business [[scam]]s are examples of hoaxes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Broersma |first=Marcel |title=A refractured paradigm: Journalism, hoaxes and the challenge of trust |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=9780203102688 |pages=28–44}}</ref>

=== Propagandizing ===
{{main|Propaganda}}
Propagandizing is a form of communication that is aimed at [[social influence|influencing]] the attitude of a community toward some cause or position by presenting only one side of an argument. [[Propaganda]] is commonly created by governments, but some forms of [[mass communication]] created by other influential organizations can be considered propaganda. As opposed to impartially providing information, propaganda, in its most basic sense, presents information primarily to influence an audience. Propaganda is usually repeated and dispersed over a wide variety of media in order to create the desired result in audience attitudes. While the term propaganda has justifiably acquired a strongly negative connotation by association with its most manipulative and [[jingoistic]] examples (e.g. [[Nazi propaganda]] used to justify the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]]), propaganda in its original sense was neutral, and could refer to uses that were generally benign or innocuous, such as public health recommendations, signs encouraging citizens to participate in a census or election, or messages encouraging persons to report crimes to the police, among others.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Woolley |first1=Samuel |title=Digital Propaganda: The Power of Influencers |url=https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/digital-propaganda-the-power-of-influencers/ |website=Journal of Democracy |publisher=JOD |access-date=April 24, 2024}}</ref>

Propaganda uses societal norms and myths that people hear and believe. Because people respond to, understand and remember more simple ideas this is what is used to influence people's beliefs, attitudes and values.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297c/war_peace/media/hpropaganda.html|title=Media's Use of Propaganda to Persuade People's Attitude, Beliefs and Behaviors|website=web.stanford.edu|access-date=2017-12-03}}</ref>

=== Psychological warfare ===
{{main|Psychological warfare}}
Psychological warfare is a term used to denote actions taken by governments with the aim evoking a planned psychological reaction in other people.<ref>Schmid, A. (2005). Terrorism as psychological warfare. Democracy and Security, 1(2), 137-146.</ref>

This tactic has been used in multiple wars throughout history. During [[World War II]], the [[Allies of World War II|western Allies]], expected that the [[Soviet Union]] would drop leaflets on the US and England. During the conflict with [[Iraq]], American and English forces dropped leaflets, with many of the leaflets telling the people how to surrender. In the [[Korean War]] both sides would use [[Loudspeaker|loud speakers]] from the front lines.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/psychological-warfare|title=psychological warfare|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2017-12-03|language=en}}</ref> In 2009 people in [[Israel]] in the [[Gaza War (2008–09)|Gaza war]] received text messages on their [[Mobile phone|cell phones]] threatening them with rocket attacks. The [[Palestinians|Palestinian]] people were getting phone calls and leaflets warning them that they were going to drop rockets on them. These phone calls and leaflets were not always accurate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/03/israelandthepalestinians-middleeast|title=Text messages and phone calls add psychological aspect to warfare in Gaza|last=Jerusalem|first=Hazem Balousha Toni O'Loughlin in|date=2009-01-03|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-03|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

=== Public relations ===
{{main|Public relations}}
Public relations (PR) is the management of the flow of [[information]] between an individual or an [[organization]] and the [[General public|public]].<ref>Botan, Carl H., and Maureen Taylor. "Public relations: State of the field." Journal of communication 54.4 (2004): 645-661.</ref>

== Techniques ==
Means of influence include, but are not limited to, the methods outlined in ''[[Influence: Science and Practice]]'', which include appealing to authority, and making the person aware of the scarcity of an offer.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cialdini |first=Robert B. |author-link=Robert Cialdini |date=2000 |title=[[Influence: Science and Practice]] |location=New Jersey |publisher=[[Allyn & Bacon]] |isbn=0-321-18895-0}}</ref>

===Internet manipulation===
{{main|Internet manipulation}}

==== Astroturfing ====
{{Main|Astroturfing}}

Astroturfing is when there is an intent and attempt to create the illusion of support for a particular cause, person, or stance. While this is mainly connected to and seen on the internet, it has also happened in newspapers during times of political elections.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/feb/08/what-is-astroturfing|title=Astroturfing: what is it and why does it matter? {{!}} Adam Bienkov|last=Bienkov|first=Adam|date=2012-02-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-03|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>&nbsp;Corporations and political parties try to imitate&nbsp;[[grassroots]]&nbsp;movements in order to sway the public to believing something that is not true.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/astroturfing-grassroots-movements-2011-9|title=10 Fake Grassroots Movements Started By Corporations To Sway Your Opinion|work=Business Insider|access-date=2017-12-03|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Example clickbait adverts (cropped).jpg|thumb|Examples of typical Clickbait with headlines containing exaggerated or sensationalized information.]]

==== Clickbait ====
{{Main|Clickbait}}

Clickbait refers to headlines of online news articles that are [[Sensationalism|sensationalized]] or sometimes wholly [[fake news|fake]]. It uses people's natural curiosity to get people to click. In some cases clickbait is used to generate income; more clicks mean more money is made with advertisers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Frampton |first=Ben |date=2015-09-14 |title=Is clickbait changing journalism? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-34213693 |access-date=2017-12-03}}</ref> But these headlines and articles can also be used to influence a group of people on [[social media]]. In some cases, they are constructed to appeal to the interest group's [[Confirmation bias|pre-existing biases]] and thus to be shared within [[filter bubble]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ohlheiser |first=Abby |date=2016-11-18 |title=Analysis {{!}} This is how Facebook's fake-news writers make money |language=en-US |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/11/18/this-is-how-the-internets-fake-news-writers-make-money/ |access-date=2022-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119110905/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/11/18/this-is-how-the-internets-fake-news-writers-make-money/ |archive-date=2016-11-19 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

==== Information laundering ====
{{main|Information laundering}}

[[Information laundering]] is a method of using a less trusted or less popular platform to publish a story of dubious origin or veracity for the purposes of reporting on that report rather than the story itself. This technique serves to insulate the secondary, more established media from having to issue a retraction if the report is false. Generally, secondary reports will report that the original report is reporting without verifying or making the report themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meleshevich |first1=Kirill |last2=Schafer |first2=Bret |date=2018-01-09 |title=Online information laundering: The role of social media |url=https://www.gmfus.org/sites/default/files/InfoLaundering_final%20edited.pdf |journal=Alliance for Securing Democracy}}</ref>

==== Search engine marketing ====
{{main|Search engine marketing}}
In search engine marketing, [[websites]] use [[market research]] from past searches and other sources to increase their visibility in [[search engine results page]]s. This allows them to guide search results along the lines they desire, thereby influencing searchers.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ratliff|first1=James|last2=Rubinfeld|first2=Daniel|title=Is There a Market for Organic Search Engine Results and Can Their Manipulation Give Rise to Antitrust Liability?|journal=Journal of Competition Law and Economics|date=May 2014|pages=1–25}}</ref>

Businesses have many tactics to entice customers to their websites to generate revenue, such as [[banner ad]]s, [[search engine optimization]] and [[pay-per-click]] marketing tools. They all serve a different purposes and use different tools that appeal to multiple types of users. Banner ads appear on sites in an attempt to attract visitors to a linked website. Search engine optimization is a technique in which a website is optimized to received a higher ranking from the search engine, causing it to be returned more often in searches.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kritzinger |first1=W. |last2=Weideman |first2=M. |date=2017 |title=Parallel search engine optimisation and pay-per-click campaigns: A comparison of cost per acquisition |url=https://doi.org/10.4102/SAJIM.V19I1.820 |journal=SA Journal of Information Management |volume=19 |pages=1|doi=10.4102/SAJIM.V19I1.820 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Firas |last2=Nawzad |first2=Mahmoodd |last3=Kareem |first3=Shahab |date=2021 |title=Search engine optimization: a review |url=https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1837798.pdf |journal=Applied Computer Science |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=70–80|doi=10.35784/acs-2021-07 }}</ref>

=== Distraction ===

==== Distraction by major events ====
Commonly known as "smoke screen", this technique consists of making the public focus its attention on a topic that is more convenient for the propagandist. This particular type of media manipulation has been referenced in popular culture. For example, the movie [[Wag the Dog]] (1997) illustrates how the public can be deceitfully distracted from an important topic by presenting another whose only quality is that of being more attractive.

Politicians might distract the public from domestic issues by diverting attention to global issues in order to reduce pressure domestically.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barberá |first=Pablo |display-authors=etal |date=January 2024 |title=Distract and divert: How world leaders use social media during contentious politics |journal=[[The International Journal of Press/Politics]] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=47–73 |doi=10.1177/19401612221102030 }}</ref>

==== Distracting the public ====
This is a variation of the traditional arguments known, in [[logic]] as [[ad hominem]] and [[ad populum]] but applied to countries instead of individuals. This technique consists of refuting arguments by appealing to nationalism or by inspiring fear and hate toward a foreign country or all foreigners. It has the potential to be important since it gives the propagandists the power to discredit any information coming from other countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yap |first=A |year=2013 |title=Ad Hominem Fallacies, Bias, and Testimony |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10503-011-9260-5 |journal=Argumentation |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=97–109|doi=10.1007/s10503-011-9260-5 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Straw man fallacy ====
{{main|Straw man}}
An [[informal fallacy]]. The "straw man" consists of appearing to refute the opponent's argument while  attacking another topic. For it to work correctly the topic that was refuted and the one that should have been refuted need to be similar.

=== Audio manipulation ===
{{Main|Audio deepfake}}

Audio manipulation is an artificially generated audio created by [[Artificial intelligence|artificial intelligence (AI)]] to create a realistic-replication of someone's voice. AI uses machine learning models and can replicate the specific characteristics of a target voice, such as pitch, tone, and cadence. It is commonly used to deceive and cause disruption.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Almutairi |first1=Z. |last2=Elgibreen |first2=H. |date=2022 |title=A Review of Modern Audio Deepfake Detection Methods: Challenges and Future Directions |journal=Algorithms |volume=15 |issue=5|page=155 |doi=10.3390/a15050155 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Photo manipulation ===
{{Main|Photo manipulation}}

Visual media can be [[Image editing|transformed]] through photo manipulation, commonly called "[[photoshopping]]." This can make a product, person, or idea seem more appealing. Specific product features are highlighted to attract and persuade the public, and specific editing tools are used to enhance the photo. Some techniques include cropping, resizing, airbrushing, color-enhancing, and removing or adding subjects from the original image. The motivation for photo manipulation may be for pure artistic creativity or more nefarious reasons to deceive. Photo manipulation is used extensively in the advertising and fashion industry and has been the subject of controversy for its part in false advertising and promoting unrealistic images of beauty.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=A |date=2015 |title=Picture [Im]Perfect: Photoshop Redefining Beauty in Cosmetic Advertisements, Giving False Advertising a Run for the Money |journal=Texas Review of Entertainment & Sports Law |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=87–105}}</ref>

===Video manipulation===
{{main|video manipulation}}

Video manipulation is a variant of media manipulation that targets [[digital video]] using a combination of traditional [[video processing]] and [[video editing]] techniques and auxiliary methods from artificial intelligence like [[face recognition]]. In typical video manipulation, the facial structure, body movements, and voice of the subject are replicated in order to create a fabricated recording of the subject. The applications of these methods range from educational videos to videos aimed at ([[Crowd manipulation|mass]]) manipulation and [[propaganda]], a straightforward extension of the long-standing possibilities of [[photo manipulation]]. This form of computer-generated misinformation has contributed to [[fake news]], and there have been instances when this technology was used during political campaigns in an attempt to influence the outcome.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chawki |first=Mohamed |date=2024-02-24 |title=Navigating legal challenges of deepfakes in the American context: a call to action |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2024.2320971 |journal=Cogent Engineering |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6|doi=10.1080/23311916.2024.2320971 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Media}}
* [[Audio deepfake]]
* [[Black propaganda]]
* [[Concentration of media ownership]]
* [[Crowd manipulation]]
* [[Deepfake]]
* [[Disinformation]]
* [[Sensationalism]]
* [[Spin (public relations)]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
'''Overviews'''
*[[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky, Noam]]; [[Edward S. Herman|Herman, Edward S.]], ''[[Manufacturing Consent|Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media]],'' New York: [[Pantheon Books]], 1988.
*Cialdini, Robert B., ''Influence: Science and Practice,'' 4th Edition New Jersey: [[Allyn & Bacon]], 2000.
*[[Stuart Ewen|Ewen, Stuart]], ''Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture,'' New York: [[McGraw-Hill]], 1976.
*Ewen, Stuart, ''PR! A Social History of Spin,'' New York: [[Basic Books]], 1996.
*Ewen, Stuart; Ewen, Elizabeth, ''Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness,'' New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.
* [[Jacques Ellul|Ellul, Jacques]]. ''[[Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes]]''. Trans. Konrad Kellen & Jean Lerner. New York: Knopf, 1965. New York: Random House/ Vintage 1973
*Jamieson,  H.  K, ''Dirty  Politics:  Deception,  Distraction  and  Democracy''  Oxford University  Press, 1992.
*Jowett, Garth S.; O'Donnell, Victoria, ''Propaganda and Persuasion,'' Thousand Oaks, CA: [[SAGE Publications]], 1999. {{ISBN|0-7619-1147-2}}.
*Parenti,  M.,  ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20180624081302/http://www.michaelparenti.org/MonopolyMedia.html Monopoly  Media  Manipulation],''  Mediterranean  Quarterly, Spring  2002.
*[[William D. Lutz|Lutz, William D.]], ''Doublespeak,'' New York, NY: [[HarperCollins|HarperPerennial]], 1990. {{ISBN|0-06-016134-5}}.
*[[Douglas Rushkoff|Rushkoff, Douglas]], ''"They Say"'', in ''Coercion: Why We Listen to What "They" Say,'' New York: [[Riverhead Books]], 1999.
'''Case studies'''
*Beeston,  R.,  ''Bin  Laden  Heads  List  of  Suspects,  Terror  in America''  Times, 12 September 2001.
*Bohannon, J., ''I  Fooled  Millions  of  People  into  Thinking  Chocolate Helps  Weight  Loss,  Here's  How''  IO9,  Gizmodo,  Debunkery, 27  May  2015.
*Braddock  J.,  ''Historian  says  US  backed  "efficious  terror"  in  1965 Indonesian  Massacre,''  World  Socialist  Website, 7  July  2009.
*Cashmore, E.;  McLaughlin, E.,  ''Out  of  Order:  Policing  Black  People,''  Routledge, 1991.
*Hodges,  D., ''West  Africans  Are  Streaming  Across  the  U.S.  Southern  Border  Carrying  the  Ebola  Virus,''  The  Common  Sense  Show, 3 August 2014.
*Howard, Philip N.; Ganesh, Bharath; Liotsiou, Dimitra; Kelly, John; François, Camille, ''[https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/ira-political-polarization/ The IRA, Social Media and Political Polarization in the United States, 2012-2018]''. [[Computational Propaganda]] Research Project, 17 December 2018.
*Kellner,  D.,  ''9/11,  Spectacles  of  terror,  and  media  manipulation,'' Miscellany, 15 August 2006.
*Ostrow, J., ''Politics  in  Russia:  A  Reader,''  Sage  Publications, 26  June  2012.
*Sniffen, Michael J., ''[https://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2007/01/28/libby_case_witness_details_art_of_media_manipulation/ Libby case witness details art of media manipulation]'', Boston Globe, 28 January 2007.
*Turner-Sadler, J.,  ''African  American  History:  An  Introduction,''  Peter  Lang Publishing, 2009.
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/persuaders/ "The Persuaders"] ''[[Frontline (US TV series)|Frontline]]''
*[http://polaris.gseis.ucla.edu/pagre/understanding.html "Understanding Jargon: A Short Bibliography"] by Philip E. Agre

{{Media manipulation}}
{{Disinformation}}
{{Propaganda}}
{{Media culture}}
{{Media and human factors}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Media Manipulation}}
[[Category:Media manipulation| ]]
[[Category:Consumer behaviour]]
[[Category:Social influence]]
[[Category:Mass media issues|Manipulation]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]