View source for Maya script

{{short description|Writing system of the Maya civilization}}
{{hatnote|Since Maya [[glyph]]s can be read either as [[syllable]]s or as [[morpheme|entire words (morphemes)]], this article uses {{sc1|small caps}} to mark morphemic readings and lowercase for syllabic readings.}}
{{Infobox writing system
| sample      = Palenque glyphs-edit1.jpg
| caption     = Maya glyphs were highly complex and often carved into stone.
| type        = [[Logosyllabic]]
| time        = 3rd century BCE to 16th century CE
| languages   = [[Mayan languages]]
| iso15924    = Maya
| unicode     = [https://www.unicode.org/roadmaps/smp/ None<br />(tentative range U+15500–U+159FF)]
| direction   = mixed
}}
{{Maya civilization}}

'''Maya script''', also known as '''Maya glyphs''', is historically the native [[writing system]] of the [[Maya civilization]] of [[Mesoamerica]] and is the only [[Mesoamerican writing system]] that has been substantially deciphered. The earliest inscriptions found which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century BCE in [[San Bartolo (Maya site)|San Bartolo]], [[Guatemala]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.sanbartolo.org/science.pdf |title=Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala. |author=Saturno, William A., David Stuart, and Boris Beltrán. |date=2006 |journal=Science|volume=311 |issue=5765 |pages=1281–1283 |doi=10.1126/science.1121745 |pmid=16400112 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1281S |s2cid=46351994 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/10/science/10maya.html | work=The New York Times | title=Symbols on the Wall Push Maya Writing Back by Years | date=2006-01-10 | access-date=2010-05-12}}</ref> Maya writing was in continuous use throughout Mesoamerica until the [[Spanish conquest of the Maya]] in the 16th and 17th centuries. Though modern [[Mayan languages]] are almost entirely written using the [[Latin alphabet]] rather than Maya script,{{sfn|Breaking the Maya Code|2008}} there have been recent developments encouraging a revival of the Maya glyph system.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

Maya writing used [[logogram]]s complemented with a set of [[syllabary|syllabic]] [[glyph]]s, somewhat similar in function to modern [[Japanese writing]]. Maya writing was called "hieroglyphics" or [[hieroglyph]]s by early European explorers of the 18th and 19th centuries who found its general appearance reminiscent of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], although the two systems are unrelated.

== Languages ==
Evidence suggests that codices and other classic texts were written by [[scribe]]s—usually members of the [[Maya priesthood]]—in [[Classic Maya language|Classic Maya]], a literary form of the extinct [[Chʼoltiʼ language]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Houston |first1=Stephen D. |author-link1=Stephen D. Houston | first2=John |last2=Robertson |author-link3=David Stuart (Mayanist) |first3=David |last3=Stuart |year=2000 |title=The Language of Classic Maya Inscriptions |journal=[[Current Anthropology]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=321–356 |issn=0011-3204 |doi=10.1086/300142 |pmid=10768879|s2cid=741601 }}</ref>{{sfn|Kettunen|Helmke|2020|p=13}}  It is possible that the Maya elite spoke this language as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' over the entire Maya-speaking area, but texts were also written in other [[Mayan languages]] of the [[Petén Basin|Petén]] and [[Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán]], especially [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec]]. There is also some evidence that the script may have been occasionally used to write Mayan languages of the [[Guatemalan Highlands]].{{sfn|Kettunen|Helmke|2020|p=13}} However, if other languages were written, they may have been written by Chʼoltiʼ scribes, and therefore have Chʼoltiʼ elements.

== Structure ==
{{multiple image
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| footer = Two different ways of writing the word ''bʼalam'' '[[jaguar]]' in the Maya script – first, as a [[logogram]] representing the entire word with the single glyph {{smallcaps|bʼalam}}, and then, phonetically using the three syllable signs ''bʼa'', ''la'', and ''ma''
}}
{{multiple image
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| footer = Three ways to write ''bʼalam'' using combinations of the logogram with the syllabic signs as phonetic complements. From left to right: ''bʼa''-{{smallcaps|bʼalam}}, {{smallcaps|bʼalam}}-''ma'', and ''bʼa''-{{smallcaps|bʼalam}}-''ma''
}}

[[File:Maya script reading direction.png|thumb|right|Maya inscriptions were most often written in columns two glyphs wide, with each successive pair of columns read left to right, top to bottom]]

Mayan writing consisted of a relatively elaborate and complex set of glyphs, which were laboriously painted on ceramics, walls and bark-paper [[codex|codices]], carved in wood or stone, and molded in [[stucco]]. Carved and molded glyphs were painted, but the paint has rarely survived. {{As of|2008}}, the sound of about 80% of Maya writing could be read and the meaning of about 60% could be understood with varying degrees of certainty, enough to give a comprehensive idea of its structure.{{sfn|Kettunen|Helmke|2020|p=22}}

Maya texts were usually written in blocks arranged in columns two blocks wide, with each block corresponding to a noun or verb [[phrase]]. The blocks within the columns were read left to right, top to bottom, and would be repeated until there were no more columns left. Within a block, glyphs were arranged top-to-bottom and left-to-right (similar to Korean [[Hangul]] syllabic blocks). Glyphs were sometimes [[Typographic ligature|conflated into ligatures]], where an element of one glyph would replace part of a second. In place of the standard block configuration, Maya was also sometimes written in a single row or column, or in an 'L' or 'T' shape. These variations most often appeared when they would better fit the surface being inscribed.

The Maya script was a [[logogram|logosyllabic]] system with some [[syllabogram]]matic elements. Individual glyphs or symbols could represent either a [[morpheme]] or a [[syllable]], and the same glyph could often be used for both. Because of these dual readings, it is customary to write logographic readings in [[all caps]] and phonetic readings in italics or bold. For example, a calendaric glyph can be read as the morpheme {{smallcaps|manikʼ}} or as the syllable ''chi''.

Glyphs used as syllabograms were originally logograms for single-syllable words, usually those that ended in a vowel or in a weak consonant such as ''y, w, h,'' or [[glottal stop]]. For example, the logogram for 'fish fin'—found in two forms, as a fish fin and as a fish with prominent fins—was read as [kah] and came to represent the syllable ''ka''. These syllabic glyphs performed two primary functions: as phonetic complements to disambiguate logograms which had more than one reading (similar to ancient Egyptian and modern Japanese ''[[furigana]]''); and to write grammatical elements such as verbal inflections which did not have dedicated logograms (similar to Japanese ''[[okurigana]]''). For example, ''bʼalam'' 'jaguar' could be written as a single logogram, {{smallcaps|bʼalam}}; a logogram with syllable additions, as ''ba-''{{smallcaps|bʼalam}}, or {{smallcaps|bʼalam}}''-ma,'' or ''bʼa-''{{smallcaps|bʼalam}}-''ma''; or written completely phonetically with syllabograms as ''bʼa-la-ma.''

In addition, some syllable glyphs were [[homophones]], such as the six different glyphs used to write the very common [[grammatical person|third person]] pronoun ''u-''.

=== Harmonic and disharmonic echo vowels ===
[[File:Dresden codex, page 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec Maya writing]] in the ''[[Dresden Codex]]'', c. 11–12th century, [[Chichen Itza]]]]
Phonetic glyphs stood for simple consonant-vowel (CV) or vowel-only (V) syllables. However, Mayan [[phonotactics]] is slightly more complicated than this. Most Mayan words end with consonants, and there may be sequences of two consonants within a word as well, as in ''xolteʼ'' ({{IPA|[ʃolteʔ]}} 'scepter') which is CVCCVC. When these final consonants were [[sonorant]]s ''(l, m, n)'' or [[guttural]]s ''(j, h, ʼ)'' they were sometimes ignored ("underspelled"). More often, final consonants were written, which meant that an extra vowel was written as well. This was typically an [[echo vowel|"echo" vowel]] that repeated the vowel of the previous syllable. For example, the word [kah] 'fish fin' would be underspelled ''ka'' or written in full as ''ka-ha''. However, there are many cases where some other vowel was used, and the orthographic rules for this are only partially understood; this is largely due to the difficulty in ascertaining whether this vowel may be due to an underspelled suffix.

{{harvtxt|Lacadena|Wichmann|2004}}  proposed the following conventions:
* A CVC syllable was written ''CV-CV,'' where the two vowels (V) were the same: ''yo-po'' [yop] 'leaf'
* A syllable with a long vowel (CVVC) was written ''CV-Ci,'' unless the long vowel was [i], in which case it was written ''CiCa: ba-ki'' [baak] 'captive', ''yi-tzi-na'' [yihtziin] 'younger brother'
* A syllable with a [[glottalization|glottalized]] vowel (CVʼC or CVʼVC) was written with a final ''a'' if the vowel was [e, o, u], or with a final ''u'' if the vowel was [a] or [i]: ''hu-na'' [huʼn] 'paper', ''ba-tzʼu'' [baʼtsʼ] 'howler monkey'.
* Preconsonantal [h] is not indicated.

In short, if the vowels are the same (harmonic), a simple vowel is intended. If the vowels are not the same (disharmonic), either two syllables are intended (likely underspelled), or else a single syllable with a long vowel (if V<sub>1</sub> = [a e? o u] and V<sub>2</sub> = [i], or else if V<sub>1</sub> = [i] and V<sub>2</sub> = [a]) or with a glottalized vowel (if V<sub>1</sub> = [e? o u] and V<sub>2</sub> = [a], or else if V<sub>1</sub> = [a i] and V<sub>2</sub> = [u]). The long-vowel reading of [Ce-Ci] is still uncertain, and there is a possibility that [Ce-Cu] represents a glottalized vowel (if it is not simply an underspelling for [CeCuC]), so it may be that the disharmonies form natural classes: [i] for long non-front vowels, otherwise [a] to keep it disharmonic; [u] for glottalized non-back vowels, otherwise [a].

A more complex spelling is ''ha-o-bo ko-ko-no-ma'' for [haʼoʼb kohknoʼm] 'they are the guardians'.{{efn|Vowel length and glottalization are not always indicated in common words like 'they are'.}} A minimal set is,

*''ba-ka'' [bak]
*''ba-ki'' [baak]
*''ba-ku'' [baʼk] = [baʼak]
*''ba-ke'' [baakel] (underspelled)
*''ba-ke-le'' [baakel]

=== Verbal inflections ===

Despite depending on consonants which were frequently not written, the Mayan [[grammatical voice|voice]] system was reliably indicated. For instance, the paradigm for a transitive verb with a CVC root is as follows:{{sfn|Kettunen|Helmke|2020|p=66}}

{|class="wikitable"
|+Verbal inflections in Mayan writing
!scope="col"| Voice
!scope="col"| Transliteration
!scope="col"| Transcription
!scope="col"| Gloss
|-
!scope="row"| [[Active voice|Active]]
| u-{{sc|tzutz}}-wa
| ''utzutzuw''
| "(s)he finished it"
|-
!scope="row"| [[Passive voice|Passive]]
| {{sc|tzutz}}-tza-ja
| ''tzu[h]tzaj''
| "it was finished"
|-
!scope="row"| [[Mediopassive]]
| {{sc|tzutz}}-yi
| ''tzutzuy''
| "it got finished"
|-
!scope="row"| [[Antipassive]]
| {{sc|tzutz}}-wi
| ''tzutzuw''
| "(s)he finished"
|-
!scope="row"| [[Participial]]
| {{sc|tzutz}}-li
| ''tzutzul''
| "finished"
|}
The active suffix did not participate in the harmonic/disharmonic system seen in roots, but rather was always ''-wa''.

However, the language changed over 1500 years, and there were dialectal differences as well, which are reflected in the script, as seen next for the verb "(s)he sat" ({{angle bracket|h}} is an [[infix]] in the root ''chum'' for the [[passive voice]]):{{sfn|Kettunen|Helmke|2020|p=72}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Change in passive voice for ''chum''
!scope="col"| Period
!scope="col"| Transliteration
!scope="col"| Transcription
|-
!scope="row"| Late Preclassic
| {{sc|chum}}?
| ''chu[h]m''?
|-
!scope="row"| Early Classic
| {{sc|chum}}-ja
| ''chu[h]m-aj''
|-
!scope="row"| Classic (Eastern Chʼolan)
| {{sc|chum}}[mu]la-ja
| ''chum-l-aj''
|-
!scope="row"| Late Classic (Western Chʼolan)
| {{sc|chum}}[mu]wa-ni
| ''chum-waan''
|}

== Emblem glyphs ==
[[File:Tikalemblem.jpg|left|thumb|Tikal or "Mutal" Emblem Glyph, Stela 26 in Tikal's Litoteca Museum]]
[[File:NaranjoStela10Maler.jpg|thumb|upright|An inscription in Maya glyphs from the site of [[Naranjo]], relating to the reign of king ''Itzamnaaj Kʼawil'', 784–810]]
An "emblem glyph" is a kind of royal title. It consists of a place name followed by the word ''[[ajaw]]'', a Classic Maya term for "lord" with an unclear but well-attested etymology.{{sfn|Lacadena García-Gallo|Ciudad Ruiz|1998|pp=31–64}} Sometimes the title is introduced by an adjective ''kʼuhul'' ("holy, divine" or "sacred"), resulting in the construction "holy &#91;placename&#93; lord". However, an "emblem glyph" is not a "glyph" at all: it can be spelled with any number of syllabic or logographic signs and several alternative spellings are attested for the words ''kʼuhul'' and ''ajaw'', which form the stable core of the title. "Emblem glyph" simply reflects the time when Mayanists could not read Classic Maya inscriptions and used a term to isolate specific recurring structural components of the written narratives, and other remaining examples of Maya orthography.

This title was identified in 1958 by [[Heinrich Berlin]], who coined the term "emblem glyph".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berlin |first=H. |date=1958 |title=El Glifo Emblema en las inscripciones Maya |journal=Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris |volume=47 |pages=111–119 |language=es}}</ref> Berlin noticed that the "emblem glyphs" consisted of a larger "main sign" and two smaller signs now read as ''[[kʼuhul ajaw]]''. Berlin also noticed that while the smaller elements remained relatively constant, the main sign changed from site to site. Berlin proposed that the main signs identified individual cities, their ruling dynasties, or the territories they controlled. Subsequently, {{harvtxt|Marcus|1976}} argued that the "emblem glyphs" referred to archaeological sites, or more so the prominence and standing of the site, broken down in a 5-tiered hierarchy of asymmetrical distribution. Marcus' research assumed that the emblem glyphs were distributed in a pattern of relative site importance depending on broadness of distribution, roughly broken down as follows: '''Primary regional centers (capitals)''' ([[Tikal]], [[Calakmul]], and other "superpowers") were generally first in the region to acquire a unique emblem glyph(s). Texts referring to other primary regional centers occur in the texts of these "capitals", and dependencies exist which use the primary center's glyph. '''Secondary centers''' ([[Altun Ha]], [[Lubaantun]], [[Xunantunich]], and other mid-sized cities) had their own glyphs but are only rarely mentioned in texts found in the primary regional center, while repeatedly mentioning the regional center in their own texts. '''Tertiary centers''' (towns) had no glyphs of their own, but have texts mentioning the primary regional centers and perhaps secondary regional centers on occasion. These were followed by the '''villages''' with no emblem glyphs and no texts mentioning the larger centers, and '''hamlets''' with little evidence of texts at all.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marcus |first=J. |title=Territorial Organization of the Lowland Classic Maya |journal=Science |date=1 June 1973 |volume=180 |number=4089 |pages=911–916|doi=10.1126/science.180.4089.911 |pmid=17735911 |bibcode=1973Sci...180..911M |s2cid=37509459 }}</ref> This model was largely unchallenged for over a decade until Mathews and Justeson,{{sfn|Mathews|1991}} as well as Houston,{{sfn|Houston|1986}} argued once again that the "emblem glyphs" were the titles of Maya rulers with some geographical association.

The debate on the nature of "emblem glyphs" received a new spin in {{harvtxt|Stuart|Houston|1994}}. The authors demonstrated that there were many place-names-proper, some real, some mythological, mentioned in the hieroglyphic inscriptions. Some of these place names also appeared in the "emblem glyphs", some were attested in the "titles of origin" (expressions like "a person from Lubaantun"), but some were not incorporated in personal titles at all. Moreover, the authors also highlighted the cases when the "titles of origin" and the "emblem glyphs" did not overlap, building upon Houston's earlier research.{{sfn|Houston|1993|pp=97–101}} Houston noticed that the establishment and spread of the Tikal-originated dynasty in the Petexbatun region was accompanied by the proliferation of rulers using the Tikal "emblem glyph" placing political and dynastic ascendancy above the current seats of rulership.<ref>{{cite conference |first=A. |last=Tokovinine |title=People from a place: re-interpreting Classic Maya "Emblem Glyphs" |conference=11th European Maya Conference "Ecology, Power, and Religion in Maya Landscapes" |location=Malmö University, Sweden |date=December 2006}}</ref> Recent investigations also emphasize the use of emblem glyphs as an [[Emic and etic|emic]] identifier to shape socio-political self-identity.<ref>{{cite conference |first=S. |last=Gronemeyer |publication-date=2012 |title=Maya Political Relations and Strategies |conference=The 14th European Maya Conference |location=Cracow |date=2009 |book-title=Contributions in New World Archaeology |volume=4 |editor1-first=Jarosław |editor1-last=Źrałka |editor2-first=Wiesław |editor2-last=Koszkul |editor3-first=Beata |editor3-last=Golińska |pages=13–40 |publisher=Polska Akademia Umiejętności and Uniwersytet Jagielloński}}</ref>

== Numerical system ==
{{main|Maya numerals}}
[[File:Mayan numerals 0-19 & 2 vertical examples.gif|thumb|600px|List of Maya numerals from 0 to 19 with underneath two vertically oriented examples]]
The Mayas used a positional base-twenty ([[vigesimal]]) numerical system which only included whole numbers. For simple counting operations, a bar and dot notation was used. The dot represents 1 and the bar represents 5. A shell was used to represent zero. Numbers from 6 to 19 are formed combining bars and dots, and can be written horizontally or vertically.

Numbers over 19 are written vertically and read from the bottom to the top as powers of 20. The bottom number represents numbers from 0 to 20, so the symbol shown does not need to be multiplied. The second line from the bottom represents the amount of 20s there are, so that number is multiplied by 20. The third line from the bottom represents the amount of 400s, so it is multiplied by 400; the fourth by 8000; the fifth by 160,000, etc. Each successive line is an additional power of twenty (similar to how in [[Arabic numerals]], additional powers of 10 are added to the left of the first digit). This positional system allows the calculation of large figures, necessary for chronology and astronomy.<ref>Information panel in the Museo Regional de Antropología in Mérida (state of Yucatán), visited on 2010-08-04</ref>

[[File:Examples of how to calculate the value of Mayan numerals.gif|thumb|300px|These four examples show how the value of Maya numerals can be calculated.]]

== History ==
It was until recently thought that the Maya may have adopted writing from the [[Olmecs|Olmec]] or [[Epi-Olmec culture]], who used the [[Isthmian script]]. However, murals excavated in 2005 have pushed back the origin of Maya writing by several centuries, and it now seems possible that the Maya were the ones who invented writing in Mesoamerica.{{sfn|Saturno|Stuart|Beltrán|2006 |pp=1281–1283}} Scholarly consensus is that the Maya developed the only [[Writing system#Complete and partial writing systems|complete writing system]] in [[Mesoamerica]].{{sfn|Coe|1992|loc=preface}}

Knowledge of the Maya writing system continued into the early colonial era and reportedly{{By whom|date=October 2017}} a few of the early [[Spain|Spanish]] priests who went to [[Yucatán]] learned it. However, as part of his campaign to eradicate pagan rites, Bishop [[Diego de&nbsp;Landa]] ordered the collection and destruction of written Maya works, and a sizable number of [[Maya codices]] were destroyed. Later, seeking to use their native language to convert the Maya to Christianity, he derived what he believed to be a Maya "alphabet" (the so-called [[de&nbsp;Landa alphabet]]). Although the Maya did not actually write alphabetically, nevertheless he recorded a glossary of Maya sounds and related symbols, which was long dismissed as nonsense (for instance, by leading Mayanist [[J. Eric S. Thompson|J. E. S. Thompson]] in his 1950 book ''Maya Hieroglyphic Writing'')<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robinson|first=Andrew|title=Lost Languages: The Enigma of the World's Undeciphered- Scripts|publisher=Nevraumont Publishing Company|year=2002|location=New York City|pages=122}}</ref> but eventually became a key resource in [[decipherment|deciphering]] the Maya script. The difficulty was that there was no simple correspondence between the two systems, and the names of the letters of the Spanish alphabet meant nothing to Landa's Maya scribe, so Landa ended up asking things like ''write "ha": "hache–a",'' and glossed a part of the result as "H," which, in reality, was written as a-che-a in Maya glyphs.[[File:Diego de Landa's Maya alphabet, from page 36 of 'A larger history of the United States of America to the close of President Jackson's administration ... Illustrated, etc'.jpg|thumb|[[Diego de Landa|Diego de Landa's]] Maya alphabet was an early attempt at decipherment.]] Landa was also involved in creating an [[orthography]], or a system of writing, for the [[Yucatec Maya language]] using the [[Latin alphabet]]. This was the first Latin orthography for any of the Mayan languages,{{citation needed|date=February 2007}} which number around thirty.

For many years, only three [[Maya codices]] were known to have survived the conquistadors; this was expanded with the 2015 authentication of the [[Grolier Codex]] as the fourth.{{sfn|McKillop|2004| p=294}} Most surviving texts are found on pottery recovered from Maya tombs, or from [[monument]]s and [[stele|stelae]] erected in sites which were abandoned or buried before the arrival of the Spanish.

Knowledge of the writing system was lost, probably by the end of the 16th&nbsp;century. Renewed interest in it was sparked by published accounts of [[List of Maya sites|ruined Maya sites]] in the 19th&nbsp;century.{{sfn|McKillop|2004| p=294}}

== Decipherment ==
[[File:Yuri Knorosov monument in Mérida, Yucatán (cropped).jpg|thumb|Monument to [[Yuri Knorozov]] and his cat Asya in [[Mérida, Yucatán]]]]
Deciphering Maya writing has proven a long and laborious process. 19th-century and early 20th-century investigators managed to decode the [[Maya numerals|Maya numbers]]<ref>[[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque|Constantine Rafinesque]] (1832) "Philology.  Second letter to Mr. Champollion on the graphic systems of America, and the glyphs of Otolum or Palenque, in Central America – Elements of the glyphs," ''Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge'', '''1''' (2) : 40–44.  [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/104571#page/50/mode/1up From p. 42:]  "This page of Demotic has letters and numbers, these represented by strokes meaning 5 and dots meaning unities as the dots never exceed 4."</ref> and portions of the texts related to [[astronomy]] and the [[Maya calendar]], but understanding of most of the rest long eluded scholars. In the 1930s, [[Benjamin Whorf]] wrote a number of published and unpublished essays, proposing to identify phonetic elements within the writing system. Although some specifics of his decipherment claims were later shown to be incorrect, the central argument of his work, that Maya hieroglyphs were phonetic (or more specifically, syllabic), was later supported by the work of [[Yuri Knorozov]] (1922–1999), who played a major role in deciphering Maya writing.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Yury Valentinovich Knorozov {{!}} Russian linguist | encyclopedia=Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Yury-Valentinovich-Knorozov|access-date=2023-02-12|date=2004|language=en}}</ref> [[Napoleon Cordy]] also made some notable contributions in the 1930s and 1940s to the early study and decipherment of Maya script, also arguing for some share of phonetic signs in 1946.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cordy |first=N. |author-link=Napoleon Cordy |date=1946 |title=Examples of Phonetic Construction in Maya Hieroglyphs |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-antiquity/article/abs/examples-of-phonetic-construction-in-maya-hieroglyphs/0D2624C68F64AE90DC5351E35AB65C8D |journal=American Antiquity |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=108–117 |doi=10.2307/275343 |jstor=275343 |issn=0002-7316|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In 1952 Knorozov published the paper "Ancient Writing of Central America", arguing that the so-called "de Landa alphabet" contained in [[Bishop Diego de Landa]]'s manuscript ''Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán'' was made of [[syllabary|syllabic]], rather than [[alphabet]]ic symbols. He further improved his decipherment technique in his 1963 [[monograph]] "The Writing of the Maya Indians"<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://mesoamerica.narod.ru/knorozov.html Yuri Knorozov]</ref> and published translations of Maya manuscripts in his 1975 work "Maya Hieroglyphic Manuscripts". In the 1960s, progress revealed the dynastic records of Maya rulers. Since the early 1980s scholars have demonstrated that most of the previously unknown symbols form a [[syllabary]], and progress in reading the Maya writing has advanced rapidly since.

As Knorozov's early essays contained several older readings already published in the late 19th century by [[Cyrus Thomas]],{{sfn|Coe|1992|p=151}} and the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] editors added propagandistic claims{{sfn|Coe|1992|p=147}} to the effect that Knorozov was using a peculiarly "[[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]]" approach to decipherment,{{sfn|Coe|1992|p=147}} many Western [[Mayanist]]s simply dismissed Knorozov's work. However, in the 1960s, more came to see the syllabic approach as potentially fruitful, and possible phonetic readings for symbols whose general meaning was understood from context began to develop. Prominent older epigrapher [[J. Eric S. Thompson]] was one of the last major opponents of Knorozov and the syllabic approach. Thompson's disagreements are sometimes said to have held back advances in decipherment.{{sfn|Coe|1992|p=125–144}} For example, {{harvtxt|Coe|1992|p=164}} says "the major reason was that almost the entire Mayanist field was in willing thrall to one very dominant scholar, Eric Thompson". [[Galina Yershova]], a student of Knorozov's, stated that reception of Knorozov's work was delayed only by authority of Thompson, and thus has nothing to do with [[Marxism]] – "But he (Knorozov) did not even suspect what a storm of hatred his success had caused in the head of the American school of Mayan studies, Eric Thompson. And the Cold War was absolutely nothing to do with it. An Englishman by birth, Eric Thompson, after learning about the results of the work of a young Soviet scientist, immediately realized 'who got the victory'."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ершова Г. Г. Юрий Валентинович Кнорозов // Портреты историков. Время и судьбы. М., Наука, 2004. С. 474–491|url=https://h.120-bal.ru/istoriya/18884/index.html|access-date=2023-02-12|website=h.120-bal.ru}}</ref>
[[File:Escritura maya.jpg|thumb|left|Maya glyphs at [[National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico)]]]]
[[File:Detail of Codex Dresdensis drawn by Lacambalam.jpg|thumb|300px|Detail of the [[Dresden Codex]] (modern reproduction)]]

In 1959, examining what she called "a peculiar pattern of dates" on stone monument inscriptions at the Classic Maya site of [[Piedras Negras, Guatemala|Piedras Negras]], Russian-American scholar [[Tatiana Proskouriakoff]] determined that these represented events in the lifespan of an individual, rather than relating to religion, astronomy, or prophecy, as held by the "old school" exemplified by Thompson. This proved to be true of many Maya inscriptions, and revealed the Maya [[epigraphy|epigraphic]] record to be one relating actual histories of ruling individuals: dynastic histories similar in nature to those recorded in other human cultures throughout the world. Suddenly, the Maya entered written history.{{sfn|Coe|1992|pp=167–184}}

Although it was then clear what was on many Maya inscriptions, they still could not literally be read. However, further progress was made during the 1960s and 1970s, using a multitude of approaches including [[pattern analysis]], de Landa's "alphabet", Knorozov's breakthroughs, and others. In the story of Maya decipherment, the work of [[archaeology|archaeologists]], art historians, epigraphers, [[linguistics|linguists]], and [[anthropology|anthropologists]] cannot be separated. All contributed to a process that was truly and essentially multidisciplinary. Key figures included [[David Kelley (Mayanist)|David Kelley]], [[Ian Graham]], [[Gilette Griffin]], and [[Michael Coe]].

A new wave of breakthroughs occurred in the early 1970s, in particular at the first [[Mesa Redonda de Palenque]], a scholarly conference organized by [[Merle Greene Robertson]] at the Maya site of [[Palenque]] and held in December, 1973. A [[working group]] consisting of [[Linda Schele]], then a studio artist and art instructor, [[Floyd Lounsbury]], a linguist from [[Yale University|Yale]], and [[Peter Mathews (Mayanist)|Peter Mathews]], then an undergraduate student of David Kelley's at the [[University of Calgary]] (whom Kelley sent because he could not attend). In one afternoon they reconstructed most of the [[King list|dynastic list]] of [[Palenque]], building on the earlier work of Heinrich Berlin.{{sfn|Coe|1992|pp=204–205}}{{sfn|Breaking the Maya Code|2008}} By identifying a sign as an important royal title (now read as the recurring name ''Kʼinich''), the group was able to identify and read the life histories (from birth, to accession to the throne, to death) of six kings of Palenque.{{sfn|Coe|1992|p=205}}{{sfn|Breaking the Maya Code|2008}} Palenque was the focus of much epigraphic work through the late 1970s, but linguistic decipherment of texts remained very limited.

From that point, progress proceeded rapidly. Scholars such as [[J. Kathryn Josserand]], [[Nick Hopkins]] and others published findings that helped to construct a Mayan vocabulary.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.nightfirefilms.org/breakingthemayacode/interviews/JosserandHopkinsTRANSCRIPT.pdf|title= Josserand, Hopkins interview transcript |website=Nightfirefilms.org |via=Google Docs |access-date= 5 June 2015}}</ref> The "old school" continued to resist the results of the new scholarship for some time. A decisive event which helped to turn the tide in favor of the new approach occurred in 1986, at an exhibition entitled "The Blood of Kings: A New Interpretation of Maya Art", organized by [[InterCultura]] and the [[Kimbell Art Museum]] and curated by Schele and by Yale art historian [[Mary Miller (art historian)|Mary Miller]]. This exhibition and its attendant catalogue—and international publicity—revealed to a wide audience the new world which had latterly been opened up by progress in decipherment of Maya hieroglyphics. Not only could a real history of ancient America now be read and understood, but the light it shed on the material remains of the Maya showed them to be real, recognisable individuals. They stood revealed as a people with a history like that of all other human societies: full of wars, dynastic struggles, shifting political alliances, complex religious and artistic systems, expressions of personal property and ownership and the like. Moreover, the new interpretation, as the exhibition demonstrated, made sense out of many works of art whose meaning had been unclear and showed how the material culture of the Maya represented a fully integrated cultural system and world-view. Gone was the old Thompson view of the Maya as peaceable astronomers without conflict or other attributes characteristic of most human societies.

However, three years later, in 1989, supporters who continued to resist the modern decipherment interpretation made their last argument against it. This occurred at a conference at [[Dumbarton Oaks]]. It did not directly attack the methodology or results of decipherment, but instead contended that the ancient Maya texts had indeed been read but were "epiphenomenal". This argument was extended from a populist perspective to say that the deciphered texts tell only about the concerns and beliefs of the society's elite, and not about the ordinary Maya. In opposition to this idea, Michael Coe described "epiphenomenal" as "a ten penny word meaning that Maya writing is only of marginal application since it is secondary to those more primary institutions—economics and society—so well studied by the dirt archaeologists."{{sfn|Coe|1992|p=268}}

Linda Schele noted following the conference that this is like saying that the inscriptions of ancient Egypt—or the writings of Greek philosophers or historians—do not reveal anything important about their cultures.

Over 90 percent of the Maya texts can now be read with reasonable accuracy.{{sfn|Breaking the Maya Code|2008}} {{As of|2020}}, at least one phonetic glyph was known for each of the syllables marked green in this chart. /tʼ/ is rare. /pʼ/ is not found, and is thought to have been a later innovation in the Ch'olan and Yucatecan languages.

{| class=wikitable
|+ Syllables for which at least one phonetic glyph has been found{{sfn|Kettunen|Helmke|2020}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Updated List of Characters for Mayan Codices |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20248-mayan-update.pdf |publisher=Unicode.org |access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref>
|-
!  !! (ʼ) !! b !! ch !! chʼ !! h !! j !! k !! kʼ !! l !! m !! n !! p !! s !! t !! tʼ !! tz !! tzʼ !! w !! x !! y
|- align=center
! a
| {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|- align=center
! e
| {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | ? || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | ? || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | ? || {{yes}}
|- align=center
! i
| {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|- align=center
! o
| {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | ? || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|- align=center
! u
| {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || bgcolor="#e0e0e0" | ? || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|}

== Syllables ==
Syllables are in the form of consonant + vowel. The top line contains individual vowels. In the left column are the consonants with their pronunciation instructions. The apostrophe ' represents the glottal stop. There are different variations of the same character in the table cell. Blank cells are bytes whose characters are not yet known.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.famsi.org/research/pitts/MayaGlyphsBook1Sect1.pdf | title= Writing in Maya Glyphs: Names, Places, & Simple Sentences : A Non-Technical Introduction to Maya Glyphs  | author= Pitts, Mark | year= 2008 | publisher= FAMSI | pages= s. 16–22 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"|
!colspan="5"| Main Glyphs
!rowspan="2"|
!colspan="5"| Affixable Glyphs
|-
! -a !! -e !! -i !! -o !! -u !! -a !! -e !! -i !! -o !! -u
|-
! -<br />/ʔ/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary A 3.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary A 4.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary E 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary E 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary I 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary I 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary O 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary U 3.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary U 8.jpg|50x50px]]
! -<br />/ʔ/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary A 1.jpg|50x50px]] [[File:Maya Syllabary A 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary U 1.jpg|50x50px]] [[File:Maya Syllabary U 2.jpg|50x50px]] [[File:Maya Syllabary U 4.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary U 5.jpg|50x50px]] [[File:Maya Syllabary U 6.jpg|50x50px]] [[File:Maya Syllabary U 7.jpg|50x50px]]
|-
! b-<br />/ɓ/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ba 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ba 2.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ba 3.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Bi 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Bi 2.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Bi 3.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Bo 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Bu 2.jpg|50x50px]]
! b-<br />/ɓ/
|
|
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Bu 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|-
! ch-<br />/t͡ʃ/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Cha 2.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Cha 4.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Chi 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Chi 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Chu 1.jpg|50x50px]]
! ch-<br />/t͡ʃ/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Cha 1.jpg|50x50px]] [[File:Maya Syllabary Cha 3.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Che 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Cho 1.jpg|50x50px]] ||
|-
! ch’-<br />/t͡ʃʼ/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ch'a 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ch'u 1.jpg|50x50px]]
! ch’-<br />/t͡ʃʼ/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ch'a 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|
|
|-
! h-<br />/h/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ha 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary He 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Hi 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ho 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Hu 1.jpg|50x50px]]
! h-<br />/h/
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Hi 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|-
! j-<br />/x/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ja 2.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ja 3.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Je 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ji 3.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Jo 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
! j-<br />/x/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ja 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Je 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ji 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ji 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Jo 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ju 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|-
! k-<br />/k/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ka 3.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ke 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ke 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ki 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ku 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ku 2.jpg|50x50px]]
! k-<br />/k/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ka 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ka 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ki 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ko 1.jpg|50x50px]] ||
|-
! k’-<br />/k’/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary K'a 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary K'a 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary K'e 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary K'i 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary K'o 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary K'u 2.jpg|50x50px]]
! k’-<br />/k’/
|
|
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary K'u 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|-
! l-<br />/l/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary La 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Li 3.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Lo 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Lu 1.jpg|50x50px]]
! l-<br />/l/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary La 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Le 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Li 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Li 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|-
! m-<br />/m/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ma 3.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ma 4.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Me 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Mi 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Mo 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Mu 2.jpg|50x50px]]
! m-<br />/m/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ma 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ma 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Mu 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|-
! n-<br />/n/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Na 2.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Na 3.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ne 3.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ni 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary No 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Nu 2.jpg|50x50px]]
! n-<br />/n/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Na 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ne 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ne 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ni 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary No 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Nu 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Nu 3.jpg|50x50px]]
|-
! p-<br />/p/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Pa 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Pa 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Po 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Pu 1.jpg|50x50px]]
! p-<br />/p/
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Pi 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|-
! s-<br />/s/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Sa 2.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Sa 4.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Se 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|
! s-<br />/s/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Sa 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Sa 3.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Sa 5.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Si 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Su 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|-
! t-<br />/t/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ta 4.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ta 5.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Te 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ti 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary To 3.jpg|50x50px]]
|
! t-<br />/t/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ta 1.jpg|50x50px]] [[File:Maya Syllabary Ta 2.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ta 3.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ti 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary To 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary To 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Tu 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|-
! t’-<br />/t’/
|
|
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary T'u 1.jpg|50x50px]]
! t’-<br />/t’/
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! tz-<br />/t͡s/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Tza 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Tze 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Tzi 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Tzu 1.jpg|50x50px]]
! tz-<br />/t͡s/
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Tzi 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|-
! tz’-<br />/t͡sʼ/
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Tz'i 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
! tz’-<br />/t͡sʼ/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Tz'a 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Tz'u 1.jpg|50x50px]] [[File:Maya Syllabary Tz'u 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|-
! w-<br />/w/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Wa 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary We 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|
! w-<br />/w/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Wa 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Wi 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Wo 1.jpg|50x50px]] ||
|-
! x-<br />/ʃ/
|
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Xi 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Xo 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Xu 1.jpg|50x50px]]
! x-<br />/ʃ/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Xa 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
|
|
|
|-
! y-<br />/j/
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ye 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ye 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Yo 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|
! y-<br />/j/
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Ya 1.jpg|50x50px]]<br />[[File:Maya Syllabary Ya 2.jpg|50x50px]]
|
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Yi 1.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Yo 2.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Maya Syllabary Yu 1.jpg|50x50px]]
|-
! !! -a !! -e !! -i !! -o !! -u !! !! -a !! -e !! -i !! -o !! -u 
|}

== Example ==
Tomb of [[Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal]]:
[[File:Exx.png|maya exx|left|frameless|601x601px]]

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Transcription
|-
!rowspan="2"| Row
!colspan="2"| Glyphs
!colspan="2"| Reading
|-
! I || J || I || J
|-
! 4
| ya k’a wa || ʔu(?) K’UH hu lu || ''yak’aw'' || ''ʔuk’uhul''
|-
! 5
| PIK || 1-WINAAK-ki || ''pik'' || ''juʔn winaak''
|-
! 6
| pi xo ma || ʔu SAK hu na la || ''pixoʔm'' || ''ʔusak hunal''
|-
! 7
| ʔu-ha || YAX K’AHK’ K’UH? || ''ʔuʔh'' || ''Yax K’ahk’ K’uh?''
|-
! 8
| ʔu tu pa || K’UH? ? || ''ʔutuʔp'' || ''k’uh(ul)? ...l''
|-
! 9
| ʔu KOʔHAW wa || ?[CHAAK] ...m || ''ʔukoʔhaw'' || ''Chaahk (‘GI’)''
|-
! 10
| SAK BALUʔN || – || ''Sak Baluʔn'' || –
|}

'''Text:''' ''Yak’aw ʔuk’uhul pik juʔn winaak pixoʔm ʔusak hunal ʔuʔh Yax K’ahk’ K’uh(?) ʔutuʔp k’uh(ul)? ...l ʔukoʔhaw Chaahk (‘GI’) Sak Baluʔn.''<br />
'''Translation:''' «He gave the god clothing, [consisted of] twenty nine headgears, white ribbon, necklace, First Fire God’s earrings and God’s quadrilateral badge helmet, to Chaahk Sak-Balun».

{{clear}}

== Revival ==
In recent times, there has been an increased interest in reviving usage of the script. Various works have recently been both transliterated and created into the script, notably the transcription of the [[Popol Vuh]], a record of [[Kʼicheʼ people|Kʼicheʼ]] religion, in 2018.{{fact|date=December 2024}} Another example is the sculpting and writing of a modern [[stele]] placed at [[Iximche]] in 2012, describing the full historical record of the site dating back to the beginning of the [[Mayan long count]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matsumoto |first1=Mallory E. |title=La estela de Iximche' en el contexto de la revitalización lingüística y la recuperación jeroglífica en las comunidades mayas de guatemala |trans-title=The stela of Iximche 'in the context of linguistic revitalization and hieroglyphic recovery in the Mayan communities of Guatemala |language=es |journal=Estudios de Cultura Maya |date=2015 |volume=45 |issue=45 |pages=225–258 |doi=10.1016/S0185-2574(15)30008-3 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The 2014 poem "Cigarra", by Martín Gómez Ramírez, was written entirely in [[Tzeltal language|Tzeltal]] using the script.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jornada.com.mx/2016/02/13/oja-cigarra.html|title=Ojarasca-Xikitin/Cigarra Un poema tseltal en glifos mayas}}</ref>

== Computer encoding ==
The Maya script can be represented as a custom downloadable primer's font <ref>https://dn-works.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/UFAS010223/Maya.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=August 2024}}</ref> but has yet to be formally introduced into Unicode standards. With the renewed usage of Maya writing, digital encoding of the script has been of recent interest.<ref name=":2">Joseph DeChicchis (2012), Current Trends in Mayan Literacy, In: John C. Maher, Jelisava Dobovsek-Sethna, and Cary Duval (eds.), [http://lib.mainit.org/153/1/literacy-for-dialogue-in-multilingual-societies-2011.pdf Literacy for Dialogue in Multilingual Societies. Proceedings of Linguapax Asia Symposium 2011], Tokyo 2012, p. 71-82</ref> A range of code points (U+15500–U+159FF) has been tentatively allocated for [[Unicode]], but no detailed encoding proposal has been submitted yet.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Roadmap to the SMP|url=https://www.unicode.org/roadmaps/smp/|access-date=2023-02-12|website=unicode.org}}</ref> The Script Encoding Initiative project of the [[University of California, Berkeley]], was awarded a grant in June 2016 to create a proposal to the Unicode Consortium for layout and presentation mechanisms in Unicode text.<ref>{{Cite web|website=unicode.org|title=Encoding the Mayan Script: your Adopt-a-Character sponsorships at work|url=http://blog.unicode.org/2016/06/encoding-mayan-script-your-adopt.html|access-date=2024-10-12|language=en}}</ref> As of 2024, the proposal is still under development.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scriptencodinginitiative.github.io/scripts-not-encoded.html|title=Scripts Not Encoded|website=Script Encoding Initiative|author=((Script Encoding Initiative))|date=2023|access-date=2024-10-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=Deborah |last2=Hossain |first2=Anushah |title=SEI Liaison Report |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2024/24167-sei-liaison-rept.pdf |website=unicode.org |access-date=12 October 2024}}</ref>

The goal of encoding Maya hieroglyphs in Unicode is to facilitate the ''modern'' use of the script. For representing the degree of flexibility and variation of ''classical'' Maya, the expressiveness of Unicode is insufficient (e.g., with regard to the representation of infixes, i.e., signs inserted into other signs), so, for philological applications, different technologies are required.<ref>{{Cite conference
|title=Modelling vagueness – A criteria-based system for the qualitative assessment of reading proposals for the deciphering of Classic Mayan hieroglyphs
| author1=Franziska Diehr| author2= Sven Gronemeyer
| author3=Elisabeth Wagner|author4=Christian Prager|author5= Katja Diederichs
|author6=Uwe Sikora|author7=Maximilian Brodhun|author8= Nikolai Grube
|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1965/0e9b45f8542d4b459e4a48d47d51d322fa32.pdf|conference= Proceedings of the Workshop on Computational Methods in the Humanities 2018| date= 2018 | pages= 33–44|s2cid=67865187 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208125552/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1965/0e9b45f8542d4b459e4a48d47d51d322fa32.pdf| archive-date=2020-02-08}}</ref>

The [[Mayan numerals]], with values 0–19<sub>10</sub> creating a base-20 system, are encoded in block [[Mayan Numerals (Unicode block)|Mayan Numerals]].

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==

{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Coe |first1=Michael D. |author-link=Michael D. Coe |last2=Van Stone |first2=Mark L |year=2005 |title=Reading the Maya Glyphs |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=978-0-500-28553-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/readingmayaglyph0000coem }}
* {{cite book |last=Coe |first=Michael D. |author-link=Michael D. Coe |year=1992 |title=Breaking the Maya Code |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-05061-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/breakingmayacode00coem_0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gronemeyer |first=Sven |year=2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2088991 |chapter=Statements of Identity: Emblem Glyphs in the Nexus of Political Relations |editor1=Jarosław Źrałka |editor2=Wiesław Koszkul |editor3=Beata Golińska |title=Maya Political Relations and Strategies. Proceedings of the 14th European Maya Conference, Cracow, 2009 |series=Contributions in New World Archaeology |volume=4 |publisher=Polska Akademia Umiejętności and Uniwersytet Jagielloński |location=Cracow |pages=13–40 }}
* {{cite AV media |people=Guéguen-Leclair, Guy |title=Écriture maya. L'Alphabet consonantique dans les anciens textes mayas |publication-date=2012 |medium=Research papers |url=http://mayasite.pagesperso-orange.fr/index.htm }}
* {{cite book |last=Houston |first=Stephen D. |author-link=Stephen D. Houston |year=1993 |title=Hieroglyphs and History at Dos Pilas: Dynastic Politics of the Classic Maya |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |location=Austin |isbn=0-292-73855-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Houston |first=Stephen D. |author-link=Stephen D. Houston |year=1986 |title=Problematic Emblem Glyphs: Examples from Altar de Sacrificios, El Chorro, Rio Azul, and Xultun |url=http://www.mesoweb.com/bearc/cmr/03.html |format=[[PDF]] |edition=Mesoweb online facsimile |series=Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing, 3. |location=Washington D.C. |publisher=Center for Maya Research |asin=B0006EOYNY |access-date=2007-07-06 |archive-date=2021-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224144343/http://www.mesoweb.com/bearc/cmr/03.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kettunen |first1=Harri |first2=Christophe |last2=Helmke |year=2020 |title=Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs |format=PDF |publisher=Wayeb |url=https://www.wayeb.org/resources-links/wayeb-resources/workshop-handbook/ |access-date=2021-11-11 |language=en, es, fr, pl, da, sk, it }}
*{{cite book |author-last1=Lacadena |author-first1=Alfonso |author-last2=Wichmann |author-first2=Søren |chapter=On the Representation of the Glottal Stop in Maya Writing |title=The Linguistics of Maya Writing |pages=103–162 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Utah Press |location=Salt Lake City }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lacadena García-Gallo |first1=Alfonso |first2=Andrés |last2=Ciudad Ruiz |year=1998 |chapter=Reflexiones sobre la estructura política maya clásica |title=Anatomía de una Civilización: Aproximaciones Interdisciplinarias a la Cultura Maya |editor=Andrés Ciudad Ruiz |editor2=Yolanda Fernández Marquínez |editor3=José Miguel García Campillo |editor4=Maria Josefa Iglesias Ponce de León |editor5=Alfonso Lacadena García-Gallo |editor6=Luis T. Sanz Castro |publisher=Sociedad Española de Estudios Mayas |location=Madrid |isbn=84-923545-0-X |language=es }}
*{{cite web |last=de Landa |first=Diego |author-link=Diego de Landa |editor-last=Prager |editor-first=Christian |title=Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatán |url=http://www.wayeb.org/download/resources/landa.pdf |date=1566 |orig-year=From 1958 Porrua edition, with page numbers in parentheses |publication-date=2002 |via=Wayeb.org }}
* {{cite AV media |people=Lebrun, David (Director) Guthrie, Rosey (producer) |title=Breaking the Maya Code |year=2008 |medium=Documentary |publisher=Night Fire Films |asin=B001B2U1BE |ref={{harvid|Breaking the Maya Code|2008}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Mathews |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Mathews (archaeologist) |year=1991 |chapter=Classic Maya emblem glyphs |title=Classic Maya Political History: Hieroglyphic and Archaeological Evidence |series=School of American Research Advanced Seminars |editor-first=T. Patrick |editor-last=Culvert |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge and New York |pages=19–29|isbn=0-521-39210-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Marcus |first=Joyce |author-link=Joyce Marcus |year=1976 |title=Emblem and State in the Classic Maya Lowlands: an Epigraphic Approach to Territorial Organization |series=Dumbarton Oaks Other Titles in Pre-Columbian Studies |location=Washington D.C. |publisher=[[Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection]], [[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=0-88402-066-5  }}
*{{cite book |last=McKillop |first=Heather |year=2004 |title=The ancient Maya : new perspectives |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-393-32890-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmaya00heat }}
* {{cite book |last=Montgomery |first=John  |author-link=John Montgomery (art historian) |title=How to Read Maya Hieroglyphs |series=Hippocrene Practical Dictionaries |year=2004 |location=New York |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=978-0-7818-1020-3  }}
* {{cite book |last=Montgomery |first=John |author-link=John Montgomery (art historian)|title=Dictionary of Maya Hieroglyphs |year=2002 |location=New York |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=978-0-7818-0862-0  }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Saturno |first1=William A. |author-link2=David Stuart (Mayanist) |first2=David |last2=Stuart |first3=Boris |last3=Beltrán |date=3 March 2006 |title=Early Maya writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala |url=http://www.sanbartolo.org/science.pdf |format=[[PDF]] ''Science'' Express republ. |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5765 |pages=1281–3 |doi=10.1126/science.1121745 |pmid=16400112 |access-date=2007-06-15 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1281S |s2cid=46351994 }}
* {{cite book  |last1=Schele |first1=Linda   |author-link1=Linda Schele |first2=Mary Ellen  |last2=Miller |author-link2=Mary Miller (art historian)  |year=1992 |orig-year=1986 |title=Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art |others=[[Justin Kerr]] (photographer) |edition=reprint |publisher=George Braziller |location=New York |isbn=0-8076-1278-2  }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schele |first1=Linda |author-link=Linda Schele |first2=David |last2=Freidel |year=1990 |title=A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya |publisher=William Morrow |location=New York |isbn=0-688-07456-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/forestofkingsunt0034sche }}
* {{cite book |last=Soustelle |first=Jacques |author-link=Jacques Soustelle |title=The Olmecs: The Oldest Civilization in Mexico |year=1984 |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday and Co |isbn=0-385-17249-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/olmecsoldestcivi0000sous }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stuart |first1=David   |author-link=David Stuart (Mayanist) |last2=Houston |first2=Stephen D. |author-link2=Stephen D. Houston  |year=1994 |title=Classic Maya Place Names |series=Dumbarton Oaks Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology Series |volume=33 |location=Washington D.C. |publisher=[[Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection]], [[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=0-88402-209-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Tedlock |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Tedlock |title=2000 Years of Mayan Literature |url=https://archive.org/details/2000yearsofmayan0000tedl |url-access=registration |year=2010 |location=California |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23221-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=John Eric Sidney |author-link=John Eric Sidney Thompson |title=Maya hieroglyphic writing: An introduction (Civilization of the American Indian series) |year=1978 |location=California |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061095-8-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Van Stone |first1=Mark L |author-link=Mark L Van Stone |title=2012: Science and Prophecy of the Ancient Maya |year=2010 |location=California |publisher=Tlacaelel Press |isbn=978-0-9826826-0-9 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Maya glyphs}}
{{Portal|Latin America|Writing}}
*The European Association of Mayanists (Wayeb) has resources, including full books, on their [https://www.wayeb.org/resources-links/ Electronic Resources page]
* [http://learningobjects.wesleyan.edu/palenque/glyphs/temple_inscriptions/ A partial transcription, transliteration, and translation of the Temple of Inscriptions text by Michael D. Carrasco] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901074300/http://learningobjects.wesleyan.edu/palenque/glyphs/temple_inscriptions/ |date=2006-09-01 }}
* [http://www.mesoweb.com/resources/vocabulary/Vocabulary.pdf A Preliminary Classic Maya-English/English-Classic Maya Vocabulary of Hieroglyphic Readings by Erik Boot]
* [http://www.famsi.org/mayawriting/ FAMSI resources on Maya Hieroglyphic writing]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070613162647/http://www.authenticmaya.com/maya_writing.htm Maya Writing in: Guatemala, Cradle of the Maya Civilization]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181023144055/http://www.gockelmayatheory.com/ Wolfgang Gockel's morphemic interpretation of the glyphs]
* [http://www.peabody.harvard.edu/node/24 Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions Program at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927062939/http://www.peabody.harvard.edu/node/24 |date=2011-09-27 }}
* [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/results-list.php?collection=1210 Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions, Volumes 1–9. Published by the Peabody Museum Press and distributed by Harvard University Press]
* {{cite web|author=Talakh Viktor |url=http://bloknot.info/gfe/view.php?file=Textos/Maya/Talakh_Viktor_Introduction_to_hieroglyphic_script_of_the_Maya_manual_ukr_2010.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829072232/http://bloknot.info/gfe/view.php?file=Textos/Maya/Talakh_Viktor_Introduction_to_hieroglyphic_script_of_the_Maya_manual_ukr_2010.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-08-29 |title=Introduction to hieroglyphic script of the Maya. Manual |date=2011-03-19}} (in Ukrainian)
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/mayacode/time-nf.html Time Line of Decipherment]

{{list of writing systems}}
{{Writings systems of the Americas}}
{{Maya}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Maya script| ]]
[[Category:Mayan languages]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC establishments in the Maya civilization]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC introductions]]
[[Category:Writing systems introduced in the 1st millennium BC]]