View source for Max Müller

{{Short description|British philologist, Orientalist  (1823–1900)}}
{{Other people}}
{{Redirect|Max Mueller|the mayor of Idyllwild–Pine Cove, California|Mayor Max II}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Infobox writer
| honorific_prefix = [[The Right Honourable]]
| image            = Friedrich Max Müller by Bassano 1883.jpg
| alt              = 
| caption          = Müller in 1883, by [[Alexander Bassano]]
| birth_name       = Friedrich Max Müller
| birth_date       = {{birth date|df=yes|1823|12|6}}
| birth_place      = [[Dessau]], [[Duchy of Anhalt]], [[German Confederation]]
| death_date       = {{death date and age|df=yes|1900|10|28|1823|12|6}}
| death_place      = [[Oxford]], England
| resting_place    = 
| resting_place_coordinates = 
| education        = 
| alma_mater       = [[University of Leipzig]]
| notableworks     = ''The Sacred Books of the East''<br>''Chips from a German Workshop''
| occupation       = Writer, Comparative Philologist
| spouse           = Georgina Adelaide Grenfell
| children         = 4, including [[William Grenfell Max Muller|Wilhelm Grenfell Max Müller]]
| awards           = ''Associé étranger'' of the ''[[Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres]]''; [[Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art]]; member of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]
| signature        = Signature of Friedrich Max Müller.png
}}

'''Friedrich Max Müller''' ({{IPA|de|ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈmaks ˈmʏlɐ|lang}};<ref>{{citation |author=John C. Wells |year=2008 |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |edition=3rd |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Max_maennlicher_Vorname |title=Duden {{!}} Max {{!}} Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition |work=[[Duden]] |quote=Mạx |access-date=20 October 2018 |language=de}}</ref> 6 December 1823&nbsp;– 28 October 1900) was a German-born British comparative [[philologist]] and [[oriental studies|Orientalist]]. He was one of the founders of the Western academic disciplines of [[Indology]] and [[religious studies]]. Müller wrote both scholarly and popular works on the subject of Indology. He directed the preparation of the ''[[Sacred Books of the East]]'', a 50-volume set of English translations which continued after his death. 

Müller became a professor at [[Oxford University]],<ref name="1871 Census">{{Cite web |title=1871 English Census - FamilySearch.org |url=https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:KD86-8JD |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=www.familysearch.org}}</ref> first of modern languages,<ref name="1851 Census">{{Cite web |title=1851 English Census - FamilySearch.org |url=https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:SGXK-2Z3 |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=www.familysearch.org}}</ref> then [[Diebold Professor of Comparative Philology|of comparative philology]]<ref name="1871 Census" /> in a position founded for him, and which he held for the rest of his life. Early in his career he held strong views on India, believing that it needed to be transformed by Christianity. Later, his view became more nuanced, championing ancient [[Sanskrit literature]] and India more generally. He became involved in several controversies during his career: he was accused of being anti-Christian; he disagreed with Darwinian [[evolution]], favouring [[theistic evolution]]; he raised interest in [[Aryan]] culture, deeply disliking the resulting [[racism|racist]] [[Aryanism]]; and he promoted the idea of a [[Turanian languages|"Turanian" family of languages]].

Among his honours and distinctions, he was made an ''associé étranger'' of the French ''[[Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres]]''; he was awarded the [[Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art]]; and he was made a member of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom]].

== Early life and education ==

Max Müller was born into a cultured family on 6 December 1823 in [[Dessau]], the son of [[Wilhelm Müller]], a [[Lyric poetry|lyric poet]] whose verse [[Franz Schubert]] had set to music in his song-cycles ''[[Die schöne Müllerin]]'', and ''[[Winterreise]]''. His mother, Adelheid Müller (née von Basedow), was the eldest daughter of a prime minister of [[Anhalt-Dessau]]. [[Carl Maria von Weber]] was a [[godparent|godfather]].<ref name="ODNB2007">R. C. C. Fynes (May 2007), ''Müller, Friedrich Max (1823–1900)'', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18394], accessed 17 March 2013] {{ODNBsub}}</ref>

Müller was named after his mother's elder brother, Friedrich, and after the central character, Max, in Weber's opera ''[[Der Freischütz]]''. Later in life, he adopted Max as a part of his surname, believing that the prevalence of Müller as a name made it too common.<ref name="ODNB2007" /> His name was recorded as "Maximilian" <!--on several official documents (e.g. university register, marriage certificate),--> on some of his honours,<ref name="belles-lettres">[http://www.aibl.fr/membres/academiciens-depuis-1663/?lang=fr ''Académiciens depuis 1663''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610221355/http://www.aibl.fr/membres/academiciens-depuis-1663/?lang=fr |date=10 June 2015 }}. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.</ref> and in some other publications.<ref name="Johnston1900">Charles Johnston (1900) [https://archive.org/details/americanmonthly12shawgoog ''An Estimate of Max Müller (1823–1900)'']. ''[[The American Monthly Review of Reviews]]'', Vol XXII, July–December. The Review of Reviews Company: New York, pp.703–706.</ref>

Müller entered the [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] (grammar school) at Dessau when he was six years old. In 1835, at the age of twelve, he was sent to live in the house of [[Carl Gustav Carus]] and attend the Nicolai School at [[Leipzig]], where he continued his studies of music and classics.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/30269|title=My Autobiography: A Fragment|first=F. Max (Friedrich Max)|last=Müller|date=16 October 2009|access-date=19 September 2022|page=97|via=Project Gutenberg}}</ref> It was during his time in Leipzig that he frequently met [[Felix Mendelssohn]].<ref name="ODNB2007" />

In need of a scholarship to attend [[Leipzig University]], Müller successfully sat his [[abitur]] examination at [[Zerbst]]. While preparing, he found that the syllabus differed from what he had been taught, requiring him to rapidly learn mathematics, modern languages and science.<ref name="ODNB2007"/> He entered Leipzig University in 1841 to study philology, leaving behind his early interest in music and poetry. Müller received his [[Academic degree#Germany|Ph.D. degree]] in Sep 1843.<ref>{{Cite DNBSupp |wstitle = Max Müller, Friedrich |volume= 3 |last= Macdonell|first= Arthur Anthony|author-link= Arthur Anthony Macdonell | pages = 151-157 |short=1}}</ref> His final dissertation was on [[Spinoza]]'s ''[[Ethics (Spinoza)|Ethics]]''.<ref name="gifford_bio">{{cite web |first1=Sara |last1=Abraham |first2=Brannon |last2=Hancock |url=https://www.giffordlectures.org/lecturers/friedrich-max-m%C3%BCller |title=Friedrich Max Müller |website=Gifford Lectures |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105224955/https://www.giffordlectures.org/lecturers/friedrich-max-m%C3%BCller |archive-date=2016-01-05 |url-status=dead}}</ref> He had an aptitude for classical languages, learning [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], [[Latin]], [[Arabic]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Sanskrit]].

===Sanskrit studies===
In 1844, Müller studied in [[Berlin]] with [[Friedrich Schelling]]. He began to translate the ''[[Upanishads]]'' for Schelling, and continued to research Sanskrit under [[Franz Bopp]], the first systematic scholar of the [[Indo-European languages]] (IE). Schelling led Müller to relate the history of language to the history of religion. At this time, Müller published his first book, a German translation of the [[Hitopadesha |''Hitopadesa'']], a collection of Indian [[fable]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Fifty Key Thinkers on Language and Linguistics |author=Margaret Thomas |page=109 |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-37302-9}}</ref>

In 1845, Müller moved to Paris to study Sanskrit under [[Eugène Burnouf]]. Burnouf encouraged him to publish the complete [[Rigveda]], making use of the manuscripts available in England. He moved to England in 1846 to study [[Sanskrit]] texts in the collection of the [[British East India Company |East India Company]]. He supported himself at first with creative writing, his novel ''German Love'' being popular in its day.

Müller's connections with the East India Company and with Sanskritists based at [[Oxford University]] led to a career in Britain, where he eventually became the leading intellectual commentator on the [[culture of India]]. At the time, Britain controlled this territory as part of its Empire. This led to complex exchanges between Indian and British intellectual culture, especially through Müller's links with the [[Brahmo Samaj]].

Müller's Sanskrit studies came at a time when scholars had started to see language development in relation to cultural development. The recent discovery of the Indo-European language group had started to lead to much speculation about the relationship between [[Classical antiquity |Greco-Roman]] cultures and those of more ancient peoples. In particular the [[Vedas |Vedic]] culture of India was thought to have been the ancestor of European Classical cultures. Scholars sought to compare the genetically related European and Asian languages to reconstruct the earliest form of the root-language. The Vedic language, [[Sanskrit]], was thought to be the oldest of the IE languages.

Müller devoted himself to the study of this language, becoming one of the major Sanskrit scholars of his day. He believed that the earliest documents of Vedic culture should be studied to provide the key to the development of [[Paganism |pagan]] European religions, and of religious belief in general. To this end, Müller sought to understand the most ancient of Vedic scriptures, the ''[[Rig-Veda]].'' Müller translated the [[iarchive:RgVedaWithSayanasCommentaryPart1 |Rigveda Samhita]] book written by the 14th century Sanskrit scholar [[Sayana]]charya from Sanskrit to English. Müller was greatly impressed by [[Ramakrishna Paramhansa]], his contemporary and proponent of [[Vedanta |Vedantic]] philosophy, and wrote several essays and books about him.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vedanta-newyork.org/articles/on_sri_ramakrishna.htm#muller |title=Vedanta Society of New York: Ramakrishna |access-date=25 August 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916163215/http://www.vedanta-newyork.org/articles/on_sri_ramakrishna.htm#muller |archive-date=16 September 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Friedrich Max-Müller by George Frederic Watts.jpg |thumb |right |Portrait of the elderly Max Muller by [[George Frederic Watts]], 1894–1895]]

For Müller, the study of the language had to relate to the study of the culture in which it had been used. He came to the view that the development of languages should be tied to that of belief-systems. At that time the Vedic scriptures were little-known in the West, though there was increasing interest in the philosophy of the [[Upanishads]]. Müller believed that the sophisticated Upanishadic philosophy could be linked to the primitive [[henotheism]] of early Vedic Brahmanism from which it evolved. He had to travel to London to look at documents held in the collection of the [[British East India Company]]. While there he persuaded the company to allow him to undertake a critical edition of the Rig-Veda, a task he pursued over many years (1849–1874).<ref>{{cite book |title=Sayana, Volume 203 |author=B. R. Modak |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-7201-940-2 |page=33 |year=1995}}</ref> 

For Müller, the culture of the Vedic peoples represented a form of [[nature worship]], an idea clearly influenced by Romanticism. Müller shared many of the ideas associated with [[Romanticism]], which coloured his account of ancient religions, in particular his emphasis on the formative influence on early religion of emotional communion with natural forces.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O-7xYYt0oJsC&q=max%20muller%20romanticism&pg=PA336 |title=Studying Hinduism: Key Concepts and Methods |first1=Sushil |last1=Mittal |first2=Gene |last2=Thursby |date=10 September 2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=25 August 2016 |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-203-93973-4}}</ref> He saw the gods of the Rig-Veda as active forces of nature, only partly personified as imagined [[supernatural]] persons. From this claim Müller derived his theory that mythology is "a disease of language".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/32856/32856-h/32856-h.html |title=The Science of Language |access-date=9 September 2023}}</ref> By this he meant that myth transforms concepts into beings and stories. In Müller's view, "gods" began as words constructed to express abstract ideas, but were transformed into imagined personalities. Thus the Indo-European father-god appears under various names: [[Zeus]], [[Jupiter (god) |Jupiter]], [[Dyaus Pita]]. For Müller all these names can be traced to the word ''"Dyaus",'' which he understood to imply "shining" or "radiance". This leads to the terms "deva", "deus", "theos" as generic terms for a god, and to the names "Zeus" and "Jupiter" (derived from deus-pater). In this way a metaphor becomes personified and fixed.{{sfn|Müller|1897|pp=497–503}}

==Academic career==

In 1850 Müller was appointed deputy [[Taylor Institution|Taylorian]] professor of modern European languages at [[Oxford University]].<ref name="1851 Census" /> In the following year, at the suggestion of [[Thomas Gaisford]], he was made an honorary M.A. and a member of the college of [[Christ Church, Oxford]]. On succeeding to the full professorship in 1854, he received the full degree of [[Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin)|M.A.]] by a decree of [[Convocation (university)|Convocation]]. In 1858 he was elected to a life fellowship at [[All Souls' College]].<ref>[[s:Max Müller, Friedrich (DNB01)|Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement]].</ref>

He was defeated in the [[Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, 1860|1860 election for the position of Boden Professor of Sanskrit]], which was a "keen disappointment" to him.{{sfnp|Müller|1902|pp=241–242}} Müller was far better qualified for the post than the other candidate, [[Monier Monier-Williams]], but Müller's theological views, Lutheranism, German birth, and lack of practical first-hand knowledge of India spoke against him. After the election he wrote to his mother, "all the best people voted for me, the Professors almost unanimously, but the ''vulgus profanum'' made the majority".{{sfnp|Müller|1902|p=244}}

Later in 1868, Müller became Oxford's first [[Diebold Professor of Comparative Philology|professor of comparative philology]],<ref name="1871 Census" /> a position founded on his behalf. He held this chair until his death, although he retired from its active duties in 1875.<ref>{{cite book|title = The Harmsworth Encyclopaedia: Everybody's Book of Reference : containing 50,000 articles, profusely illustrated, Volume 6|author = George Sandeman|publisher = The Amalgamated Press|page = 4042|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2oRRAAAAYAAJ|date = 1907}}</ref>

==Scholarly and literary works==

===Gifford Lectures===
[[File:Friedrich Max Müller, Vanity Fair, 1875-02-06.jpg|thumb|1875 [[Vanity Fair (British magazine)|''Vanity Fair'']] caricature of Müller confirming that, at the age of fifty-one, with numerous honours, he was one of the truly notable "Men of the Day".]]
In 1888, Müller was appointed Gifford Lecturer at the [[University of Glasgow]]. These [[Gifford Lectures]] were the first in an annual series, given at several Scottish universities, that has continued to the present day. Over the next four years, Müller gave four series of lectures.<ref name="gifford_bio" /> The titles and order of the lectures were as follows:<ref name="gifford4">Müller, F. Max (1895), ''Theosophy or Psychological Religion.'' London: Longmans, Green and Co., pp.89–90.</ref>

# '''Natural Religion'''. This first course of lectures was intended as purely introductory, and had for its object a definition of Natural Religion in its widest sense.
# '''Physical Religion'''. This second course of lectures was intended to show how different nations had arrived at a belief in something infinite behind the finite, in something invisible behind the visible, in many unseen agents or gods of nature, until they reached a belief in one god above all those gods. In short, a history of the discovery of the infinite in nature.
# '''Anthropological Religion'''. This third course was intended to show how different nations arrived at a belief in a [[soul]], how they named its various faculties, and what they imagined about its fate after death.
# '''Theosophy or Psychological Religion'''. The fourth and last course of lectures was intended to examine the relation between God and the soul ("these two Infinites"), including the ideas that some of the principal nations of the world have formed concerning this relation. Real religion, Müller asserted, is founded on a true perception of the ''relation'' of the soul to God and of God to the soul; Müller wanted to prove that this was true, not only as a postulate, but as an historical fact. The original title of the lectures was 'Psychological Religion' but Müller felt compelled to add 'Theosophy' to it. Müller's final Gifford Lecture is significant in interpreting his work broadly, as he situates his philological and historical research within a [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] and [[mystical]] theological project.{{sfnp|Josephson-Storm|2017|pp=108–110}}

===As translator===
In 1881, he published a translation of the first edition of [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. He agreed with [[Schopenhauer]] that this edition was the most direct and honest expression of Kant's thought. His translation corrected several errors that were committed by previous translators.<ref>{{cite book|title = The Athenaeum|publisher=J. Lection|quote=At times Prof. Müller has succeeded in correcting an error and in coming closer to his original or has modified the harshness of Mr. Meiklejohn's style; but in other passages we prefer the latter, and of certain general changes made by Prof. Max Müller.|year = 1882|page = 629}} Original from ''Princeton University''</ref> In his Translator's Preface, Müller wrote:

{{blockquote|The bridge of thoughts and sighs that spans the whole history of the Aryan world has its first arch in the Veda, its last in Kant's Critique.&nbsp;... While in the Veda we may study the childhood, we may study in Kant's Critique of Pure Reason the perfect manhood of the Aryan mind.&nbsp;... The materials are now accessible, and the English-speaking race, the race of the future, will have in Kant's Critique another Aryan heirloom, as precious as the Veda—a work that may be criticised, but can never be ignored.{{cite quote|date=January 2024}}}}

Müller continued to be influenced by the Kantian [[Transcendental idealism|Transcendentalist]] model of spirituality,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=h5XMBlBVbQsC&pg=PA218 ''Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''], Last Essays by the Right Hon. Professor F. Max Müller ... First Series: Essays on Language, Folklore and Other Subjects; pub. by Longmans, Green and Company, 1901.</ref> and was opposed to Darwinian ideas of human development.<ref>{{cite book|title = The Twentieth Century, Volume 23|page=745|quote = according to Mr. Max Müller, Kant established against Darwin by proving that there is transcendentalist side to human knowledge which affords.}} Original from ''Cornell University''</ref> He argued that "language forms an impassable barrier between man and beast."<ref>Müller, F. Max. (1899) ''Three Lectures on the Science of Language, etc., with a Supplement, My Predecessors''. 3rd ed. Chicago. p. 9.</ref>

==Views on India==
===Early career===
On 25 August 1866, Müller wrote to Chevalier Bunsen:
{{blockquote|India is much riper for Christianity than Rome or Greece were at the time of St. Paul. The rotten tree has for some time had artificial supports, because its fall would have been inconvenient for the government. But if the Englishman comes to see that the tree must fall, sooner or later, then the thing is done... I should like to lay down my life, or at least to lend my hand to bring about this struggle... I do not at all like to go to India as a missionary, that makes one dependent on the parsons... I should like to live for ten years quite quietly and learn the language, try to make friends, and see whether I was fit to take part in a work, by means of which the old mischief of Indian priestcraft could be overthrown and the way opened for the entrance of simple Christian teaching...<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283457|title=The Life And Letters Of The Right Honourable Friedrich Max Müller Vol.i|last=Friedrich Max Müller|date=1902|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283457/page/n207 191]–192}}</ref>|source=The Life And Letters Of The Right Honourable Friedrich Max Müller Vol. I, Chapter X}}

In his  career, Müller several times expressed the view that a "reformation" within Hinduism needed to occur, comparable to the Christian Reformation.<ref name="Menant">{{cite journal|author=Menant, M. D. |year=1907|title=Influence of Max Müller's Hibbert Lectures in India|journal=[[The American Journal of Theology]]|volume=11|issue= 2|pages= [https://archive.org/details/jstor-3153715/page/n1 293]–307|jstor=3153715|url=https://archive.org/details/jstor-3153715|doi=10.1086/478685}}</ref> In his view, "if there is one thing which a comparative study of religions places in the clearest light, it is the inevitable decay to which every religion is exposed...&nbsp;Whenever we can trace back a religion to its first beginnings, we find it free from many blemishes that affected it in its later states".<ref>{{cite book|title=Classical Approaches to the Study of Religion: Aims, Methods, and Theories of Research, Volume 1|page = 87|author = Jacques Waardenburg|year = 1999|publisher = Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-016328-5}}</ref>

He used his links with the [[Brahmo Samaj]] to encourage such a reformation on the lines pioneered by [[Ram Mohan Roy]]. Müller believed that the Brahmos would engender an Indian form of Christianity and that they were in practice "Christians, without being Roman Catholics, Anglicans or Lutherans". In the Lutheran tradition, he hoped that the "superstition" and idolatry, which he considered to be characteristic of modern popular Hinduism, would disappear.<ref name = "sha">Sharada Sugirtharajah (2003) ''Imagining hinduism: a postcolonial perspective''. Routledge. pp. 60–61. {{ISBN|81-208-4091-7}}</ref>

Müller wrote: 
<blockquote>The translation of the ''Veda'' will hereafter tell to a great extent on the fate of India, and on the growth of millions of souls in that country. It is the root of their religion, and to show them what the root is, I feel sure, is the only way of uprooting all that has sprung from it during the last 3,000 years... one ought to be up and doing what may be God's work.<ref>{{cite book|title = The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate|url = https://archive.org/details/questfororiginsv00brya|url-access = limited|author = Edwin Bryant|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/questfororiginsv00brya/page/n301 289]|year=2001|isbn=978-0-19-513777-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Karmic Traces, 1993–1999|author=Eliot Weinberger|publisher=New Directions Publishing|year=2000|page=174|isbn=978-0-8112-1456-8}}</ref></blockquote>

Müller hoped that increased funding for education in India would promote a new form of literature combining Western and Indian traditions. In 1868 he wrote to [[George Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll|George Campbell]], the newly appointed [[Secretary of State for India]]:

{{blockquote|India has been conquered once, but India must be conquered again, and that second conquest should be a conquest by education. Much has been done for education of late, but if the funds were tripled and quadrupled, that would hardly be enough (...) By encouraging a study of their own ancient literature, as part of their education, a national feeling of pride and self-respect will be reawakened among those who influence the large masses of the people. A new national literature may spring up, impregnated with Western ideas, yet retaining its native spirit and character (...) A new national literature will bring with it a new national life, and new moral vigour. As to religion, that will take care of itself. The missionaries have done far more than they themselves seem to be aware of, nay, much of the work which is theirs they would probably disclaim. The Christianity of our nineteenth century will hardly be the Christianity of India. But the ancient religion of India is doomed—and if Christianity does not step in, whose fault will it be?{{sfnp|Müller|1902|pp=357–358}}|sign=Max Müller (1868)}}

===Late career===
[[File:Friedrich Maximilian Müller, dal 1859 al 1900 - Accademia delle Scienze di Torino 0075 B.jpg|thumb|In uniform, 1890s]]

In his sixties and seventies, Müller gave a series of lectures, which reflected a more nuanced view in favour of Hinduism and the ancient literature from India. In his "What can India teach us?" lecture at University of Cambridge, he championed ancient Sanskrit literature and India as follows:

{{blockquote|If I were to look over the whole world to find out the country most richly endowed with all the wealth, power, and beauty that nature can bestow—in some parts a very paradise on earth—I should point to India. If I were asked under what sky the human mind has most full developed some of its choicest gifts, has most deeply pondered on the greatest problems of life, and has found solutions of some of them which well deserve the attention even of those who have studied Plato and Kant—I should point to India. And if I were to ask myself from what literature we, here in Europe, we who have been nurtured almost exclusively on the thoughts of Greeks and Romans, and of one Semitic race, the Jewish, may draw that corrective which is most wanted in order to make our inner life more perfect, more comprehensive, more universal, in fact more truly human, a life, not for this life only, but a transfigured and eternal life—again I should point to India.<ref>Max Müller, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20847/20847-h/20847-h.htm#LECTURE_I INDIA – LECTURE I. WHAT CAN INDIA TEACH US?], A Course of Lectures Delivered before the University of Cambridge, Project Gutenberg</ref>
|sign=Max Müller (1883)}}

Müller conjectured that the introduction of Islam in India in the 11th century had a deep effect on the psyche and behaviour of Hindus in another lecture, "Truthful Character of the Hindus":

{{blockquote|The other epic poem too, the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', is full of episodes showing a profound regard for truth. (...) Were I to quote from all the law-books, and from still later works, everywhere you would hear the same key-note of truthfulness vibrating through them all. (...) I say once more that I do not wish to represent the people of India as two hundred and fifty-three millions of angels, but I do wish it to be understood and to be accepted as a fact, that the damaging charge of untruthfulness brought against that people is utterly unfounded with regard to ancient times. It is not only not true, but the very opposite of the truth. As to modern times, and I date them from about 1000 after Christ (AD), I can only say that, after reading the accounts of the terrors and horrors of Mohammedan rule, my wonder is that so much of native virtue and truthfulness should have survived. You might as well expect a mouse to speak the truth before a cat, as a Hindu before a Mohammedan judge.<ref>Max Müller, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20847/20847-h/20847-h.htm#LECTURE_II INDIA – LECTURE II. Truthful Character of the Hindus], A Course of Lectures Delivered before the University of Cambridge, Project Gutenberg</ref>
|sign=Max Müller (1884)}}

[[Swami Vivekananda]], who was the foremost disciple of [[Ramakrishna Paramahamsa]], met Müller over a lunch on 28 May 1896. Regarding Müller and his wife, the Swami later wrote:

{{blockquote|The visit was really a revelation to me. That little white house, its setting in a beautiful garden, the silver-haired sage, with a face calm and benign, and forehead smooth as a child's in spite of seventy winters, and every line in that face speaking of a deep-seated mine of spirituality somewhere behind; that noble wife, the helpmate of his life through his long and arduous task of exciting interest, overriding opposition and contempt, and at last creating a respect for the thoughts of the sages of ancient India—the trees, the flowers, the calmness, and the clear sky—all these sent me back in imagination to the glorious days of ancient India, the days of our brahmarshis and rajarshis, the days of the great vanaprasthas, the days of Arundhatis and Vasishthas. It was neither the philologist nor the scholar that I saw, but a soul that is every day realizing its oneness with the universe.<ref>{{cite book |first=Swami |last=Nikhilananda |year=1953 |title=Vivekananda: A Biography |page=106 |publisher=Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center |location=New York |isbn=978-0-911206-25-8}}</ref>}}

==Controversies==
[[File:Portrait of Professor Max Müller, c. 1880 slnsw pxa 1023.jpg|thumb|Studio Portrait of Max Müller, {{Circa|1880}}]]

===Alleged anti-Christianity===
During the course of his [[Gifford Lectures]] on the subject of [[natural religion]], Müller was severely criticised for being anti-Christian. In 1891, at a meeting of the Established [[Presbytery of Glasgow]], Mr. Thomson (Minister of Ladywell) moved a motion that Müller's teaching was "subversive of the Christian faith, and fitted to spread pantheistic and infidel views amongst the students and others" and questioned Müller's appointment as lecturer.{{sfnp|Müller|1902|p=262}} An even stronger attack on Müller was made by Monsignor Alexander Munro in [[St. Andrew's Cathedral, Glasgow|St Andrew's Cathedral]]. Munro, an officer of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland (and Provost of the Catholic Cathedral of Glasgow from 1884 to 1892), declared that Müller's lectures "were nothing less than a crusade against Divine revelation, against Jesus Christ, and against Christianity". The blasphemous lectures were, he continued, "the proclamation of atheism under the guise of pantheism" and "uprooted our idea of God, for it repudiated the idea of a personal God".{{sfnp|Müller|1902|p=263}}

Similar accusations had already led to Müller's exclusion from the Boden chair in Sanskrit in favour of the conservative [[Monier Monier-Williams]]. By the 1880s Müller was being courted by [[Charles Godfrey Leland]], Theosophist [[Helena Blavatsky]], and other writers who were seeking to assert the merits of [[Paganism|pagan]] religious traditions over Christianity. The designer [[Mary Fraser Tytler]] stated that Müller's book ''Chips from a German Workshop'' (a collection of his essays) was her "Bible", which helped her to create a multi-cultural sacred imagery.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}

Müller distanced himself from these developments, and remained within the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] faith in which he had been brought up. According to G. Beckerlegge, "Müller's background as a Lutheran German and his identification with the Broad Church party" led to "suspicion by those opposed to the political and religious positions that they felt Müller represented", particularly his [[latitudinarianism]].<ref name="Beckerlegge">Beckerlegge, G. (1997) "Professor Friedrich Max Müller and the Missionary Cause". In, John Wolffe (Ed) ''Religion in Victorian Britain V Culture and Empire''. Manchester University Press, p.189.</ref>

Although Müller took a strong religious and academic interest in [[Hinduism]] and other non-Christian religions, and often compared Christianity to religions that many traditional Protestants would have regarded as primitive or false, he grounded his [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]] in a belief that Christianity possessed the fullest truth of all living religions.{{sfnp|Josephson-Storm|2017|pp=109–10}} Twenty-first century scholars of religion, far from accusing Müller of being anti-Christian, have critically examined Müller's theological project as evidence for a bias towards Christian conceptions of God in early academic [[religious studies]].{{sfnp|Josephson-Storm|2017|pp=120–2}}<ref>{{cite book|title= Manufacturing Religion: The Discourse on Sui Generis Religion and the Politics of Nostalgia |author=Russell T. McCutcheon |location = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKtPBsVd0d8C|pages = 58–61|isbn= 978-0-19-535568-0}}</ref>

===Darwin disagreement===

Müller attempted to formulate a philosophy of religion that addressed the crisis of faith engendered by the historical and critical study of religion by German scholars on the one hand, and by the [[Darwinism|Darwinian revolution]] on the other. He was wary of Darwin's work on human evolution, and attacked his view of the development of human faculties. His work was taken up by cultural commentators such as his friend [[John Ruskin]], who saw it as a productive response to the crisis  of the age<!-- (compare [[Matthew Arnold]]'s "[[Dover Beach]]")-->. He analyzed mythologies as rationalisations of natural phenomena, primitive beginnings that we might denominate "[[protoscience]]" within a cultural evolution.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} Müller proposed an early, mystical interpretation of [[theistic evolution]], using Darwinism as a critique of [[mechanical philosophy]].{{sfnp|Josephson-Storm|2017|p=113}}

In 1870 Müller gave a short course of three lectures for the British Institution on language as the barrier between man and beast, which he called "On Darwin's Philosophy of Language".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Müller |first=Max |title=Lectures on Mr. Darwin's Philosophy of Language |journal= Frazer's Magazine |date=May–July 1873 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/chi.28360518 |pages=[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/chi.28360518?urlappend=%3Bseq=533%3Bownerid=13510798902380015-551 525-541]; [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/chi.28360518?urlappend=%3Bseq=667%3Bownerid=13510798902380015-685 659-678]; [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/chi.23020195?urlappend=%3Bseq=9%3Bownerid=13510798902380574-13 1-24] |volume=87 |hdl=2027/chi.28360518 |via=[[HathiTrust]]}}</ref> Müller specifically disagreed with Darwin's theories on the origin of language and that the language of man could have developed from the language of animals. In 1873, he sent a copy of his lectures to Darwin reassuring him that, though he differed from some of Darwin's conclusions, he was one of his "diligent readers and sincere admirers".<ref>Charles Darwin. [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2740 ''More Letters of Charles Darwin&nbsp;– Volume 2'']. p. 397</ref>

===Opposition to Aryanism===

{{further|Aryanism}}

Müller's work contributed to the developing interest in [[Aryan]] culture, which often set Indo-European ("Aryan") traditions in opposition to [[Abrahamic religions|Semitic]] religions. He "was deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in [[racism|racist]] terms", as this was far from his intention.<ref>{{cite book |title = Mapping channels between Ganges and Rhein: German-Indian cross-cultural relations |quote=In later years, especially before his death, he was deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms. |first1=Jörg |last1=Esleben |author2=Christina Kraenzle |author3=Sukanya Kulkarni |publisher=Cambridge Scholars |page=62 |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84718-587-7}}</ref> For Müller, the discovery of common Indian and European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism, arguing that "an [[ethnologist]] who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a [[dolichocephalic]] dictionary or a [[brachycephalic]] grammar" and that "the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest [[Scandinavians]]".<ref>F. Max Müller (1888) [https://archive.org/details/biographiesword01mlgoog/page/n8 ''Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas'']. Kessinger Publishing reprint, 2004, p.120</ref><ref>Dorothy Matilda Figueira (2002) ''Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority Through Myths of Identity'', SUNY Press. p. 45. {{ISBN|0-7914-5532-7}}</ref>

===Turanian===

Müller put forward and promoted the theory of a "[[Turanian languages|Turanian]]" family of languages or speech, comprising the [[Finnic languages|Finnic]], [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]], "Tataric" ([[Turkic languages|Turkic]]), [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] and [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] languages.<ref>Müller, M. (1854) ''The last results of the researches respecting the non-Iranian and non-Semitic languages of Asia or Europe, or the Turanian family of language''. (Letter of Professor Max Müller to Chevalier Bunsen; Oxford August 1853; on the classification of the Turanian languages). In, Christian Bunsen (1854) ''Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History, Applied to Language and Religion.'' In Two Volumes. Vol. 1. London: Brown, Green, and Longmans.</ref> According to Müller, these five languages were those "spoken in Asia or Europe not included under the Arian [sic] and Semitic families, with the exception perhaps of the Chinese and its dialects". In addition, they were "nomadic languages," in contrast to the other two families (Aryan and Semitic), which he called State or political languages.<ref>M. Müller (1855) [https://archive.org/details/languagesseatwa00mlgoog/page/n9 ''The languages of the seat of war in the East. With a survey of the three families of language, Semitic, Arian, and Turanian'']. London: Williams and Norgate, p. 86.</ref>

The idea of a Turanian family of languages was not accepted by everyone at the time.<ref>{{cite book|title = The Origins of Himalayan Studies: Brian Houghton Hodgson in Nepal and Darjeeling|page = 20/232 |author = David Waterhouse|year=2002|publisher = Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-48035-9|quote = In 1910, a full decade after Müller's death, the ''Turan Tarsasag'' 'Turanian Society' was founded in order to study the history and culture of the Hungarians and other 'Turanian' peoples.}}</ref> Although the term "Turanian" quickly became an archaism<ref>T. Masuza (2005) ''The Invention of World Religions, Or, How European Universalism was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism''. The University of Chicago Press, p. 229. {{ISBN|0-226-50989-3}}</ref> (unlike "Aryan"), it did not disappear completely. The idea was absorbed later into nationalist ideologies in [[Hungarian Turanism|Hungary]] and [[Turanism#Turkey|Turkey]].<ref>Günay Göksu Özdoğan: ''The case of racism-Turanism: Turkism during single-party period, 1931–1944: a radical variant of Turkish nationalism''</ref>

== Honours and distinctions ==

[[File:Friedrich Max Müller 1974 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|upright|Müller on a 1974 stamp of India]]

[[File:Friedrich Max Müller, 1898.jpg|thumb|upright|Müller {{Circa|1898}}, wearing his ''[[:fr:Habit vert|Habit vert]]'' costume with the insignia of the order [[Pour le Mérite]] and the [[Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art]]]]

In 1869, Müller was elected to the French ''[[Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres]]'' as a foreign correspondent (''associé étranger'').<ref name="belles-lettres" />

In June 1874, Müller was awarded the ''[[Pour le Mérite]]'' (civil class), much to his surprise. Soon after, when he was commanded to dine at [[Windsor Castle|Windsor]], he wrote to [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Prince Leopold]] to ask if he ''might'' wear his Order, and the wire came back, "Not ''may'', but ''must''."{{sfnp|Müller|1902|p=462}}

In 1875, Müller was awarded the [[Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art]]. The award is given to acknowledge excellent and outstanding achievements in the field of science and art. In a letter to his mother dated 19 December, Müller wrote that the award was more showy than the ''[[Pour le Mérite]]'', "but that is the best".{{sfnp|Müller|1902|p=503}}

In 1896, Müller was appointed a member of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]].<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=26754 |date=30 June 1896 |page=3767 }}</ref>

==Personal life==

Müller became a naturalised British citizen in 1855, at the age of 32. He married Georgina Adelaide Grenfell on 3 August 1859 after overcoming the opposition from her family. The couple had four children, including [[William Grenfell Max Muller|William Grenfell]]. Two of their children predeceased them.<ref name="ODNB2007" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/wmss/online/1500-1900/muller/maxmuller.html|title=Max Muller Papers|access-date=25 August 2016}}</ref>

==Death and legacy==

Müller's health began deteriorating in 1898 and he died at his home in Oxford on 28 October 1900. He was interred at [[Holywell Cemetery]] on 1 November 1900.<ref name="gifford_bio" />

After his death a memorial fund, the Max Müller Memorial Fund, was opened at Oxford for "the promotion of learning and research in all matters relating to the history and archaeology, the languages, literatures, and religions of ancient India".<ref>[http://www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/general/trust_funds/max_muller_memorial_fund.html ''Max Müller Memorial Fund''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103023849/http://www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/general/trust_funds/max_muller_memorial_fund.html |date=3 January 2011 }}. [[Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford]].</ref>

[[Harry Everett Smith|Harry Smith]] stated of his film ''[[Heaven and Earth Magic]]'': "The first part depicts the heroine's toothache consequent to the loss of a valuable watermelon, her dentistry and transportation to heaven. Next follows an elaborate exposition of the heavenly land in terms of Israel, Montreal and the second part depicts the return to earth from being eaten by Max Müller on the day [[Edward VII|Edward the Seventh]] dedicated the Great Sewer of London."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://filmstudiescenter.uchicago.edu/events/2007/no-12-heaven-and-earth-magic |title=No. 12: Heaven and Earth Magic &#124; Film Studies Center &#124; University of Chicago |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612225037/https://filmstudiescenter.uchicago.edu/events/2007/no-12-heaven-and-earth-magic |archive-date=12 June 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[Goethe Institute]]s in India are named [[Max Müller Bhavan]] in his honour, as is a street (Max Mueller Marg) in [[New Delhi]].<ref>[http://www.goethe.de/ins/in/lp/uun/mxm/enindex.htm About Max Mueller]. Goethe-Institut / Max Mueller Bhavan.</ref>

Müller's biographies include {{harvp|Van den Bosch|2002}}, {{harvp|Stone|2002}} and {{harvp|Chaudhuri|1974}}.
[[Nirad C. Chaudhuri]]'s ''[[Scholar Extraordinary]]'' was awarded the [[List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for English|Sahitya Akademi Award for English]] by [[Sahitya Akademi]], India's National Academy of Letters.{{cn|date=January 2024}} In addition, [[Stephen G. Alter]]'s 2005 book ''William Dwight Whitney and the Science of Language'' contains a chapter on Müller's rivalry with the American linguist [[William Dwight Whitney]].{{sfnp|Alter|2005}}

==Publications==

Müller's scholarly works, published separately as well as an 18-volume ''Collected Works'', include:

* {{cite book |author1=Nārāyana |first2=Max (ed. & tr.) |last2=Müller |title=Hitopadesa: eine alte indische Fabelsammlung |year=1844 |place=Liepzig |publisher=F. A. Brockhaus |oclc=6679332 |lang=de |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-first=Max |editor-last=Müller |title=The German classics from the fourth to the nineteenth century |publisher=Longmans |place=London |year=1858 |oclc=793718181 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Max |last=Müller |title=A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature |year=1859 |place=London |publisher=Williams and Norgate |oclc=2994706 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Max |last=Müller |title=Lectures on the Science of Language |url=https://archive.org/details/lecturesonscien08mlgoog |year=1866 |place=London |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |oclc=1070792446 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first1=Max |last1=Müller |first2=C. K. J. |last2=Bunsen |title=Chips from a German Workshop |date=1868–1875 |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London |oclc=700979941 |ref=none}} 5 vols.
*{{cite book |first=Max |last=Müller |title=Introduction to the Science of Religion |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.24447 |publisher=Spottiswoode |place=London |year=1870 |oclc=58972203 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Max |last=Müller |title=Lectures on the origin and growth of religion |place=London |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |url=https://archive.org/details/lecturesonorigi05mlgoog |year=1878 |oclc=221232055 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Max (tr.) |last=Müller |title=The Upanishads |publisher=Clarendon Press |place=Oxford |date=1879–1884 |oclc=1416388926 |ref=none}} 
* {{cite book |first1=Immanuel |last1=Kant |author1-link=Immanuel Kant |first2=Max (tr.) |last2=Müller |title=Critique of Pure Reason |trans-title=Kritik der reinen Vernunft |publisher=Macmillan |place=London |year=1881 |oclc=1106845795 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Max |last=Müller |title=India: what Can it Teach Us? |url=https://archive.org/details/indiawhatcanitt00unkngoog |year=1883 |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London |oclc=458768544 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Max |last=Müller |title=Biographical Essays |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London |year=1884 |oclc=251576949 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Müller |first1=Max |last2=Macdonell |first2=Arthur Anthony |author2-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|url=https://archive.org/details/asanskritgramma00macdgoog |title=A Sanskrit grammar for beginners |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |location=London |year=1886 |oclc=156080873 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Max |last=Müller |title=The Science of Thought |year=1887 |oclc=1086677282 |ref=none}} 2 vols.
* {{cite book |first=Max |last=Müller |title=Studies in Buddhism |year=1888 |oclc=844556126 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Max |title=Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London |year=1888 |oclc=876089311 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Max |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalreligiong00ml |title=Natural Religion |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London |year=1888 |series=[[Gifford Lectures]] |oclc=21342863 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=F. Max |url=http://www.wilbourhall.org/index.html#veda |title=Rig-Veda-Samhita: The Sacred Hymns of the Brahmans |edition=2nd |place=London |publisher=Henry Frowde |date=1890–1892 |ref=none}} 4 vols.
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Max |url=https://archive.org/details/physicalreligion00ml |title=Physical Religion |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London |year=1891 |series=Gifford Lectures |oclc=1068602567 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Max |url=https://archive.org/details/anthroreligion00mulluoft |title=Anthropological Religion |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London |year=1892 |series=Gifford Lectures |oclc=470344671 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Max |title=Memories |publisher=A.C. McClurg & Co |place=London |year=1893 |oclc=679733299 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Max |url=https://archive.org/details/theosophyorpsych00mull |title=Theosophy, or Psychological Religion |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London |year=1893 |series=Gifford Lectures |oclc=427662759 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Max |title=Contributions to the Science of Mythology |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London |year=1897 |oclc= |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_0Ig7cA-HYC}}
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Max |title=Auld Lang Syne |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London |year=1898 |oclc=934825847 |ref=none}} 2 vols.
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Max |title=The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=New York |year=1899 |oclc=458768755 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Max |title=My Autobiography: A Fragment |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |place=London and Bombay |year=1901 |oclc=606296937 |ref=none}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Cited sources===

* {{cite book |first=Stephen G. |last=Alter |title=William Dwight Whitney and the Science of Language |chapter=The Battle with Max Müller |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp-2RZAPVRwC&pg=PA174 |year=2005 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-8020-9 |pages=174–207}}
* {{cite book |first=Nirad C. |last=Chaudhuri |title=[[Scholar Extraordinary|Scholar Extraordinary: The Life of Professor the Rt. Hon. Friedrich Max Müller]] |year=1974 |publisher=[[Chatto & Windus]] |isbn=978-0-7011-1944-7 |author-link=Nirad C. Chaudhuri}}
* {{Cite book |last=Josephson-Storm |first=Jason |title=The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-226-40336-6}}
*{{cite book |last=Müller |first=Georgina |year=1902 |title=The Life and Letters of Right Honorable Friedrich Max Müller |volume=1 |place=London |publisher=Longman |url=https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofrig01mluoft |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |first=Jon R. |last=Stone |title=The Essential Max Müller: On Language, Mythology, and Religion |year=2002 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-312-29309-3}}
* {{cite book |first=Lourens |last=Van den Bosch |title=Friedrich Max Müller: A Life Devoted to Humanities |year=2002 |publisher=E. J. Brill |isbn=978-90-04-12505-6}}

==Further reading==

* {{cite book |first=Stefan |last=Arvidsson |title=Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science |year=2006 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-02860-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |first1=John R. |last1=Davis |first2=Angus |last2=Nicholls |doi=10.1080/09593683.2016.1224493 |title=Friedrich Max Müller: The Career and Intellectual Trajectory of a German Philologist in Victorian Britain |journal=Publications of the English Goethe Society |volume=85 |number=2–3 |date=2016 |pages=67–97 |url=https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/36225/1/Davis-J-36225-AAM.pdf |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor1-first=John R. |editor1-last=Davis |editor2-first=Angus |editor2-last=Nicholls |year=2017 |isbn=978-1138633841 |title=Friedrich Max Müller and the Role of Philology in Victorian Thought |publisher=Routledge |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |first=Joan |last=Leopold |title=The Aryan Theory of Race in India 1870–1920 |journal=The Indian Economic and Social History Review |volume=VII |date=1970 |pages=271–97|doi=10.1177/001946467000700204 |s2cid=144438773 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |first=Joan |last=Leopold |title=British Applications of the Aryan Theory of Race to India 1850 70 |journal=The English Historical Review |volume=LXXXIX |date=1974 |pages=578–603|doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXXIX.CCCLII.578 |ref=none}} Winner of Universities Essay Prize, Royal Asiatic Society, London.
* {{cite journal |first=Joan |last=Leopold |title=Friedrich Max Müller and the question of the early Indo Europeans (1847–1851 |journal=Études inter-ethniques, Annales du Centre d'études supérieures et de recherches sur les relations ethniques et le racisme |place=Paris |volume=VII |date=1984 |pages=21–32 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Joan |last=Leopold |chapter=Ethnic Stereotypes in Linguistics: The Case of Friedrich Max Müller (1847–1851) |title=Papers in the History of Linguistics |orig-date=delivered at Princeton, 1984 |editor1-first=H. |editor1-last=Aarsleff |editor2-first=L. G. |editor2-last=Kelly |editor3-first=H. J. |editor3-last=Niederehe |place=Amsterdam and Philadelphia |publisher=J. Benjamins |year=1987 |pages=501–12 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-first=Joan |editor-last=Leopold |title=The Prix Volney: Contributions to Comparative Indo-European, African and Chinese Linguistics: Max Müller and Steinthal |place=Dordrecht and Boston |publisher=Springer |year=1999 |series=Prix Volney Essay Series |volume=III |isbn=978-0792325079 |ref=none}} With full bibliography of works.
* {{cite book |first=Joan |last=Leopold |chapter=Steinthal and Max Müller: Comparative Lives |title=Chajim H. Steinthal, Sprachwissenschaflter und Philosoph im 19. Jahrhundert. Linguist and Philosopher in the 19th Century |editor1-first=Hartwig |editor1-last=Wiedebach |editor2-first=Annette |editor2-last=Winkelmann |place=Leiden, Boston, Köln |publisher=Brill |year=2002 |series=Studies in European Judaism |volume=IV |pages=31–49 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Molendijk |first=Arie |year=2016 |isbn=978-0198784234 |title=Friedrich Max Müller and the Sacred Books of the East |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Subin |first=Anna Della |title=[[Accidental Gods|Accidental Gods: On Men Unwittingly Turned Divine]] |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |year=2022 |isbn=978-1250848994 |ref=none}}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/writings_prose/on_professor_max_muller.htm |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |author-link=Swami Vivekananda |title=On Professor Max Müller |newspaper=Brahmâvadin |place=London |date=June 6, 1896 |ref=none}}

==External links==

{{sister project links| wikt=no | commons=Category:Friedrich Max Müller | b=no | n=no | q=Max Müller | s=Author:Max Müller | v=no | voy=no | species=no | d=y}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=787}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Friedrich Max Müller |sopt=t}} 
* {{Librivox author |id=6535}}
* [https://oll.libertyfund.org/person/friedrich-max-muller Friedrich Max Müller] at Online Library of Liberty

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