View source for Mauna Kea

{{Short description|Hawaiian volcano}}
{{Distinguish|Mauna Loa}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Mauna Kea
| photo = File:Mauna Kea from the ocean.jpg
| photo_size = 300px
| photo_alt = 
| photo_caption = Mauna Kea in December 2007, with its seasonal snow cap visible
| map = United States Hawaii (island)#USA Hawaii
| map_alt = 
| map_caption = Position of Mauna Kea in Hawaiʻi
| location = [[Hawaii County|Hawaiʻi County]], Hawaiʻi, United States
| elevation_m = 4207.3
| elevation_ref = <ref name=NGS/>
| prominence_m = 4207.3
| prominence_ref = <ref name=NGS>{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea |url=http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_mark.prl?PidBox=TU2314 |work=NGS Station Datasheet |publisher=[[United States National Geodetic Survey]] |access-date=October 27, 2015 |archive-date=February 2, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202060910/http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_mark.prl?PidBox=TU2314 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| listing = {{unbulleted list
|[[List of islands by highest point|Highest ocean islands]] 2nd
|[[List of peaks by prominence|World most prominent]] 15th
|[[Topographic isolation|World most isolated peaks]] 8th
|[[List of peaks by prominence|Oceania highest peaks]] 2nd
|[[List of the highest major summits of the United States|US highest major peaks]] 59th
|[[List of the most prominent summits of the United States|US most prominent peaks]] 2nd
|[[List of the most isolated major summits of the United States|US most isolated peaks]] 2nd
|[[List of U.S. states by elevation|US state high point]] 6th
|[[List of the highest major summits of Hawaii|Hawaii highest major peaks]] 1st
}}
| range = [[Hawaiian Islands]]
| coordinates = {{coord|19|49|14.4|N|155|28|05.0|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI_scale:100000|display=inline,title}}
| topo = 
| coordinates_ref = <ref name=NGS/>
| type = [[Shield volcano]]
| age = Oldest dated rock: 237,000 ± 31,000 years [[Before Present|BP]]<ref name="hvo-kea">{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea Hawaiʻi's Tallest Volcano |url=https://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/ |publisher=[[Hawaiian Volcano Observatory]] – [[United States Geological Survey]] |date=May 22, 2002 |access-date=August 8, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100904174457/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/ |archive-date=September 4, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>Approximate: ~1 million years<ref name="hvo-kea"/>
| volcanic_zone = [[Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain]]
| last_eruption = 2460 BCE ± 100 years
| first_ascent = Recorded: Goodrich (1823)<ref name=esa-1940 />
| easiest_route = [[Mauna Kea Trail]]
| embedded = {{designation list|embed=yes|designation1=NNL|designation1_date=November 1972}}
| other_name = Maunakea<ref name="Maunakea1">{{cite web |url=http://www.malamamaunakea.org/articles/9/Maunakea |title=Why does OMKM spell "Maunakea" as one word? |publisher=Office of Maunakea Management |access-date=February 26, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180903061740/http://www.malamamaunakea.org/articles/9/Maunakea |archive-date=September 3, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| map_size = 
| isolation_km = 3947
| isolation_ref = <ref name=PB>{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11909 |work=Summits of the World |publisher=peakbagger.com |access-date=October 27, 2015 |archive-date=October 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023232225/http://peakbagger.com/Peak.aspx?pid=11909 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| range_coordinates = 
}}

'''Mauna Kea''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|O:|n|ə|_|ˈ|k|eɪ|ə|,_|ˌ|m|aʊ|n|ə|_|-}},<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref> {{IPA|haw|ˈmɐwnə ˈkɛjə|lang}}; abbreviation for {{langx|haw|Mauna a Wākea||White Mountain|label=none}})<ref name="Hit_Fujikane">{{cite magazine |last=Hit |first=Christine |title=The Sacred History of Maunakea |magazine=[[Honolulu (magazine)|Honolulu Magazine]] |date=August 5, 2019 |url=http://www.honolulumagazine.com/Honolulu-Magazine/August-2019/The-Sacred-History-of-Mauna-Kea/ |access-date=July 28, 2021 |archive-date=September 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924014941/http://www.honolulumagazine.com/Honolulu-Magazine/August-2019/The-Sacred-History-of-Mauna-Kea/ |url-status=live}}; {{cite magazine |first=Candace |last=Fujikane |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344210651 |title=Mapping Abundance on Mauna a Wākea as a Practice of Ea |journal=Hūlili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=1 September 2019 |pages=23–54}}</ref> is a dormant [[shield volcano]] on the [[Hawaii (island)|island of Hawaiʻi]].<ref name="usgs.gov">{{Cite web |title=Active Volcanoes of Hawaii {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoes-hawaii |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=www.usgs.gov}}</ref> Its peak is {{cvt|4207.3|m|ft|0|sp=us}} above sea level, making it the [[List of U.S. states by elevation|highest point in Hawaii]] and [[List of islands by highest point|the island with the second highest high point]], behind [[New Guinea]]. The peak is about {{cvt|38|m|0}} higher than [[Mauna Loa]], its more massive neighbor. Mauna Kea is unusually [[Topographic prominence|topographically prominent]] for its height: its prominence from sea level is [[List of mountain peaks by prominence|15th in the world]] among mountains, at {{cvt|4,207.3|m|0}}; its prominence from under the ocean is {{cvt|10,205|m|0}}, rivaled only by [[Mount Everest]]. This [[Topographic prominence#Wet prominence and dry prominence|dry prominence]] is greater than Everest's height above sea level of {{cvt|8,848.86|m|0}}, and some authorities have labeled Mauna Kea the tallest mountain in the world, from its underwater base.{{efn|Such as [[National Geographic]],<ref name="Mauna Kea"/> [[Guinness World Records]],<ref name="Guinness"/> and the [[United States Geological Survey|U.S. Geological Survey]].<ref name="How High is Mauna Loa"/> Definitions of base vary and it is less clearly defined than the concept of prominence. This is discussed further in the [[#Topographic prominence|topographic prominence]] section of this article.}} Mauna Kea is ranked 8th by [[topographic isolation]].<ref name=PB/>

It is about one million years old and thus passed the most active [[Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Shield stages|shield stage]] of life hundreds of thousands of years ago. In its current [[Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Postshield stage|post-shield]] state, its lava is more [[viscosity|viscous]], resulting in a steeper profile. Late [[volcanism]] has also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes due to construction of [[cinder cone]]s, decentralization of its [[rift zone]]s, [[glacier|glaciation]] on its peak, and weathering by the prevailing [[trade wind]]s. Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now thought to be [[Volcano#Dormant|dormant]].

In [[Hawaiian religion]], the peaks of the island of Hawaiʻi are sacred. An ancient law allowed only high-ranking [[aliʻi]] to visit its peak. [[Ancient Hawaiian]]s living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food, and quarried the dense volcano-glacial [[basalt]]s on its flanks for [[adze|tool production]]. When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century, settlers introduced cattle, sheep, and game animals, many of which became [[feral]] and began to damage the volcano's ecological balance. Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections: an [[alpine climate]] at its summit, a ''[[Sophora chrysophylla]]''–''[[Myoporum sandwicense]]'' (or māmane–naio) forest on its flanks, and an ''[[Acacia koa]]''–''[[Metrosideros polymorpha]]'' (or koa–{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a) forest, now mostly cleared by [[Sugar plantations in Hawaii|the former sugar industry]], at its base. In recent years, concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced the [[Hawai'i Department of Land and Natural Resources|Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources]] to work towards eradicating all feral species on the volcano.

With its high elevation, dry environment, and stable airflow, Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation. Since the creation of an access road in 1964, thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit. The [[Mauna Kea Observatories]] are used for scientific research across the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] and comprise the largest such facility in the world. Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to be [[Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories|a topic of debate to this day]].

==Topographic prominence==
[[File:2003-3d-hawaiian-islands-usgs-i2809.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.45|To illustrate Mauna Kea's dry prominence, imagine raising the sea level of the Pacific Ocean to submerge the top of Mauna Kea. Then slowly lower it again. The first thing to appear is the peak of Mauna Kea. Then Mauna Loa and peaks of the surrounding Hawaiian Islands will emerge from the ocean. If the ocean drains further, the island around Mauna Kea will grow and merge with the adjacent islands. Continue draining until a land bridge forms between the Hawaiian Islands and a continent so that it is possible to walk all the way there without getting wet. Stop draining at this point, and this bridge is the [[Topographic prominence|key col]] of a dry Mauna Kea, connecting it to [[Mount Everest]]. Mauna Kea's peak stands {{cvt|9,330|m|0}} above this key col.]]

Mauna Kea is unusually [[Topographic prominence|topographically prominent]] for its height, with a wet prominence [[List of mountain peaks by prominence|fifteenth in the world]] among mountains, and a dry prominence [[Topographic prominence#Wet prominence and dry prominence|second in the world]], after only [[Mount Everest]].<ref name="Prominence">{{cite book |last1=Helman |first1=Adam |title=The Finest Peaks - Prominence and Other Mountain Measures |date=2005 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=9781412059954}}</ref> It is the highest peak on its island, so its wet prominence matches its height above sea level, at {{cvt|4,207.3|m|0}}.<ref name="Prominence"/> Because the [[Hawaiian Islands]] slope deep into the ocean, Mauna Kea has a dry prominence of {{cvt|9,330|m|0}}.<ref name="Prominence"/> This dry prominence is taller than Mount Everest's height above sea level of {{cvt|8,848.86|m|0}}, so Everest would have to include whole continents in its foothills to exceed Mauna Kea's dry prominence.

Given how much Mauna Kea protrudes from the [[Hawaiian Trough]], some authorities have called it the tallest (as opposed to [[List of highest mountains|highest]]) mountain in the world, as measured from base to peak.<ref name="Mauna Kea">{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/maunakea-ngm-sept2012supp.pdf |website=National Geographic |access-date=October 10, 2021 |archive-date=August 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812233321/https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/maunakea-ngm-sept2012supp.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Guinness">{{cite web |title=Tallest Mountain |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/tallest-mountain |website=Guinness World Records |access-date=January 21, 2015 |archive-date=January 21, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121193947/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/tallest-mountain |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Schmincke 2004 71">{{cite book |authorlink=Hans-Ulrich Schmincke |first=Hans-Ulrich |last=Schmincke |title=Volcanism |publisher=Springer |year=2004 |isbn=978-3-540-43650-8 |page=71}}</ref><ref name="How High is Mauna Loa">{{cite web |title=How High is Mauna Loa? |url=https://www.usgs.gov/center-news/volcano-watch-how-high-mauna-loa |website=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=October 10, 2021 |archive-date=October 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010234959/https://www.usgs.gov/center-news/volcano-watch-how-high-mauna-loa |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=How Big Are Hawaiian Volcanoes? |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-big-are-hawaiian-volcanoes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205034730/https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-big-are-hawaiian-volcanoes |archive-date=February 5, 2022 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey}}</ref> Unlike prominence, base is loosely defined, which has resulted in numbers ranging from {{cvt|32,696|ft|0|order=flip}}<ref name="Mauna Kea"/> (roughly to the deepest point in the Hawaiian Trough) to {{cvt|17,205|m|0}}<ref name="How High is Mauna Loa"/> (to the root of the mountain deep underground). Those calculations have produced rivaling claims for other mountains, such as higher climb from base for [[Mount Lamlam]] ({{cvt|37,820|ft|0|order=flip}}, starting from nearby [[Challenger Deep]]),<ref>{{cite web |title=How Do Scientists Determine the World's Tallest Mountain? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/how-do-scientists-determine-the-worlds-tallest-mountain.htm |website=wisegeek|date=August 9, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Geography of Guam |url=http://ns.gov.gu/geography.html |access-date=2021-10-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412084221/http://ns.gov.gu/geography.html |archive-date=12 April 2020 |website=Government of Guam}}</ref> and the tremendously deep roots of the [[Himalayan Mountains]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Beneath the mountains |url=http://geoscience.wisc.edu/~chuck/Classes/Mtn_and_Plates/mtn_roots.html |access-date=January 21, 2015 |archive-date=February 21, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221122633/http://geoscience.wisc.edu/~chuck/Classes/Mtn_and_Plates/mtn_roots.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Greater rises could be measured from the [[Peru–Chile Trench|Atacama Trench]] to the [[Andes Mountains]], for example, the bottom of Richard's Deep ({{cvt|8,065|m|0}} deep<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peru-Chile Trench {{!}} trench, Pacific Ocean |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Peru-Chile-Trench |access-date=2021-10-11 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |archive-date=May 14, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514164921/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453259/Peru-Chile-Trench |url-status=live}}</ref>) to the peak of the nearby [[Llullaillaco]] ({{cvt|6,739|m|0}} high<ref>{{Cite web |title=Llullaillaco |url=https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=355110 |url-status=live |access-date=22 Nov 2021 |website=[[Global Volcanism Program]] |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |archive-date=November 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118204038/https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=355110}}</ref>) is {{cvt|14,804|m|0}}.<ref name="Abele1988">{{cite book |last1=Abele |first1=Gerhard |title=The Southern Central Andes: Contributions to Structure and Evolution of an Active Continental Margin |date=1988 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-45904-0 |page=153 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/BFb0045180 |access-date=5 September 2024 |language=en |chapter=Geomorphological west-east-section through the north chilean andes near antofagasta}}</ref> Neither Mount Lamlam nor Llullaillaco have the dry prominence of Mauna Kea, because they do not extend into trenches in every direction.

==Geology==
<imagemap>
File:Location Mauna Kea.svg|thumb|left|Clickable imagemap of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawai{{okina}}i island]] showing the location of Mauna Kea, making up 22.8&nbsp;percent of the island's surface area<ref name=hvo-kea />

poly 139 238 152 201 174 178 207 170 235 133 269 157 250 186 216 205 [[Kīlauea]]
poly 41 158 64 154 85 127 62 89 40 91 20 108 24 130 [[Hualālai]]
poly 66 55 107 55 119 33 63 2 53 8 51 28 [[Kohala (mountain)|Kohala]]
poly 65 65 97 105 138 126 229 113 236 134 207 171 174 180 151 201 139 237 121 259 97 286 57 261 48 240 56 197 39 159 60 157 85 127 63 90 47 90 54 74 [[Mauna Loa]]

desc bottom-left
</imagemap>

Mauna Kea is one of [[Hawaii (island)#Volcanism|five volcanoes]] that form the [[Hawaii (island)|island of Hawaiʻi]], the largest and youngest island of the [[Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain]].<ref name="Watson">{{cite web |last=Watson |first=Jim |title=The long trail of the Hawaiian hotspot |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/Hawaiian.html |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=August 26, 2010 |date=May 5, 1999 |archive-date=February 4, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204160200/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/Hawaiian.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Of these five [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot volcanoes]], Mauna Kea is the fourth oldest and fourth most active.<ref name="hvo-kea"/> It began as a [[Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Submarine preshield stage|preshield]] volcano driven by the [[Hawaii hotspot|Hawaiʻi hotspot]] around one million years ago, and became exceptionally active during its [[Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Shield stages|shield stage]] until 500,000 years ago.<ref name="weis et. al.-2003">{{cite journal |title=Hawaiian hotspot dynamics as inferred from Hf and Pb isotope evolution of Mauna Kea volcano |journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems |publisher=[[American Geophysical Union]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |page=8704 |author1=Blichert-Toft, J. |author2=Weis, D. |author3=Maerschalk, C. |author4=Agranier, A. |author5=Albarède, F. |name-list-style=amp |url=http://perso.ens-lyon.fr/francis.albarede/JBT_Rev_text.pdf |doi=10.1029/2002GC000340 |date=February 19, 2003 |access-date=May 22, 2002 |bibcode=2003GGG.....4.8704B |doi-access=free |archive-date=December 10, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210215219/http://perso.ens-lyon.fr/francis.albarede/JBT_Rev_text.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Mauna Kea entered its quieter [[Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Postshield stage|post-shield stage]] 250,000 to 200,000&nbsp;years ago,<ref name="usgs-database"/> and is currently active, having last erupted between 4,500 and 6,000 years ago.<ref name="usgs.gov"/> Mauna Kea does not have a visible summit [[caldera]], but contains a number of small [[Cinder cone|cinder]] and [[pumice]] cones near its summit. A former summit caldera may have been filled and buried by later summit eruption deposits.

Mauna Kea is over {{cvt|32000|km3|cumi|-1}} in volume, so massive that it and its neighbor, [[Mauna Loa]], depress the [[oceanic lithosphere|ocean crust]] beneath it by {{cvt|6|km|mi|0}}.<ref name="pp1557">{{cite book |last=Wolfe |first=E.W. |author2=Wise, W.S. |author3=Dalrymple, G.B. |title=The geology and petrology of Mauna Kea volcano, Hawaii : a study of postshield volcanism |url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/djvu/PP/pp_1557.djvu |series=Professional Paper 1557 |year=1997 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=September 18, 2010 |archive-date=June 15, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615111115/http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/djvu/PP/pp_1557.djvu |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Iotw2248a - Mauna Loa Lava and Light Pillar Caught on Camera from Gemini North.jpg|thumb|Lava flows from Mauna Loa caught by one of the International Gemini Observatory's Cloudcams, which operates 24/7 near the snow-covered summit of Maunakea (the highest point in the image).(on 27 November 2022).]]

The volcano continues to [[Slip (materials science)|slip]] and flatten under its own weight at a rate of less than {{cvt|0.2|mm|inch|2}} per year. Much of its mass lies east of its present summit. It stands {{cvt|4207.3|m|ft|0}} above sea level,<ref name="hvo-kea2">{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea: Hawaiian Volcano Observatory |url=https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/mauna_kea/ |publisher=[[Hawaiian Volcano Observatory]] – [[United States Geological Survey]] |date=January 2, 2018 |access-date=February 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106015949/https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/mauna_kea/ |archive-date=January 6, 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> about {{cvt|38|m|ft|0}} higher than its neighbor Mauna Loa,<ref name="hvo-loa">[https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/mauna_loa/ "Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, Summary"] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20190203032210/https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/mauna_loa/ archive]). ''volcanoes.usgs.gov''. [[United States Geological Survey]]. November 2, 2017. Retrieved February 12, 2019.</ref> and is the [[List of U.S. states by elevation|highest point in the state of Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Science In Your Backyard: Hawaii |url=https://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=HI |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=October 25, 2010 |date=October 2, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104233304/https://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=HI |archive-date=November 4, 2010}}</ref>

Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Kea has been created as the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific tectonic plate]] has moved over the [[Hawaiian hotspot]] in the Earth's underlying [[mantle (geology)|mantle]].<ref name="usgs-2007"/> The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has created the {{cvt|6000|km|mi}}-long Hawaiian Ridge–Emperor seamount chain.<ref name="Watson"/> The prevailing, though not completely settled, view is that the [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] has been largely stationary within the planet's mantle for much, if not all of the [[Cenozoic]] Era.<ref name="Watson"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/Hawaii.html |title=The Emperor and Hawaiian Volcanic Chains: How well do they fit the plume hypothesis? |author1=Foulger, G.R |author2=Anderson, Don L. |publisher=MantlePlumes.org |date=March 11, 2006 |access-date=April 1, 2009 |archive-date=January 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120116023549/http://www.mantleplumes.org/Hawaii.html |url-status=live}}</ref> However, while Hawaiian volcanism is well understood and extensively studied, there remains no definite explanation of the mechanism that causes the hotspot effect.<ref>{{Cite book |year=1987 |title=Volcanism in Hawaii: papers to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the founding of the Hawaii Volcano Observatory |editor-link1=Robert W. Decker |editor1-first=Robert W. |editor1-last=Decker |editor2-first=Thomas L. |editor2-last=Wright |editor3-first=Peter H. |editor3-last=Straffer |chapter=The Hawaiian-Emperor Volcanic Chain – Geological Evolution |publisher=Volcano Hazards Team, [[United States Geological Survey]], United States Government Printing Office |location=Washington, D.C. |volume=1<!-- of 2: Physiography, Tectonics and Submarine Geography; Geology of the Island of Hawaii; Petrogenesis and Volcanic Gasses bolding is annoying: full title, unnecessary --> |series=Professional Paper 1350 |chapter-url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1987/1350/pdf/pp1350_vol1.pdf |page=32 |last1=Clague |first1=David A. |last2=Dalrymple |first2=G. Brent |access-date=April 5, 2015 |archive-date=October 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023002327/http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1987/1350/pdf/pp1350_vol1.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Lava flows from Mauna Kea overlapped in complex layers with those of its neighbors during its growth. Most prominently, Mauna Kea is built upon older flows from [[Kohala (mountain)|Kohala]] to the northwest, and intersects the base of Mauna Loa to the south.<ref name="pp1557"/> The original eruptive fissures ([[rift zone]]s) in the flanks of Mauna Kea were buried by its post-shield volcanism.<ref name="usgs-database">{{cite web |title=Complete Report for Mauna Kea Volcano (Class B) No. 2601 |url=https://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?disp_cd=C&qfault_or=5107&ims_cf_cd=cf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305184251/http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?disp_cd=C&qfault_or=5107&ims_cf_cd=cf |archive-date=March 5, 2012 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=August 9, 2010 |author1=Cannon, E.C. |author2=Bürgmann, R. Roland |date=October 26, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Hilo Ridge, a prominent underwater rift zone structure east of Mauna Kea, was once believed to be a part of the volcano; however, it is now understood to be a rift zone of Kohala that has been affected by younger Mauna Kea flows.<ref name="usgs-2007"/><ref>{{cite web |title=What in the world is the Hilo Ridge? |url=https://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/1998/98_01_08.html |publisher=[[Hawaii Volcano Observatory]] – [[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=August 26, 2010 |date=January 8, 1998 |archive-date=October 22, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022135050/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/1998/98_01_08.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

The shield-stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the volcano are [[tholeiitic basalt]]s, like those of Mauna Loa, created through the mixing of primary [[magma]] and [[subduction|subducted]] oceanic crust.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Herzberg |first=Claude |title=Petrology and thermal structure of the Hawaiian plume from Mauna Kea volcano |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |volume=444 |issue=7119 |pages=605–9 |date=November 30, 2006 |pmid=17136091 |doi=10.1038/nature05254 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..605H |s2cid=4366221}}</ref> They are covered by the oldest exposed [[Stratum|rock strata]] on Mauna Kea, the post-shield [[alkali basalt]]s of the ''Hāmākua Volcanics'', which erupted between 250,000 and 70–65,000 years ago. The most recent volcanic flows are [[hawaiite]]s and [[mugearite]]s: they are the post-shield ''Laupāhoehoe Volcanics'', erupted between 65,000 and 4,000 years ago.<ref name="usgs-2007">{{cite web |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1089/Hawaii_expl_pamphlet.pdf |title=Geological Map of the State of Hawaii |first1=David R. |last1=Sherrod |first2=John M. |last2=Sinton |first3=Sarah E. |last3=Watkins |first4=Kelly M. |last4=Brunt |year=2007 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |work=Open File report 2007-1089 |pages=44–48 |access-date=April 12, 2009 |archive-date=January 18, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160118000515/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1089/Hawaii_expl_pamphlet.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Frey |first=F.A. |author2=Garcia, M. O. |author3=Wise, W. S. |author4=Kennedy, A. |author5=Gurriet, P. |author6=Albarede, F. |year=1991 |title=The Evolution of Mauna Kea Volcano, Hawaii: Petrogenesis of Tholeiitic and Alkalic Basalts |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=96 |issue=B9 |pages=14,347 |doi=10.1029/91JB00940 |bibcode=1991JGR....9614347F |s2cid=53070011}}</ref> These changes in lava composition accompanied the slow reduction of the supply of magma to the summit, which led to weaker eruptions that then gave way to isolated episodes associated with volcanic dormancy. The Laupāhoehoe lavas are more viscous and contain more [[Volatile (astrogeology)#Igneous petrology|volatiles]] than the earlier tholeiitic basalts; their thicker flows significantly steepened Mauna Kea's flanks. In addition, [[explosive eruption]]s have built [[cinder cone]]s near the summit.<ref name="hvo-kea"/> These cones are the most recent eruptive centers of Mauna Kea. Its present summit is dominated by [[lava domes]] and cinder cones up to {{cvt|1.5|km|mi|1}} in diameter and hundreds of meters tall.<ref name="usgs-database"/>
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=250|image1=Mauna Kea Summit in Winter.jpg|caption1=[[Scoria cone|Scoria]] and [[cinder cone]]s on Mauna Kea's summit in winter|image2=Mauna Kea glaciation.jpg|caption2=Glacial evidence on Mauna Kea, outlining [[terminal moraine]]s ("m") and [[till]] ("w")}}

Mauna Kea is the only Hawaiian volcano with distinct evidence of [[glacier|glaciation]].<ref name="usgs-database"/> Similar deposits probably existed on Mauna Loa, but have been covered by later lava flows.<ref name="hvo-kea"/> Despite Hawaii's tropical location, during several past [[ice age]]s a drop of a degree in temperature allowed snow to remain at the volcano's summit through summer, triggering the formation of an [[ice cap]].<ref name="geol205">{{cite web |last=Hon |first=Ken |title=GEOL205 – Fire and Ice – Mauna Kea: Lecture Notes |url=http://www.uhh.hawaii.edu/~kenhon/GEOL205/glaciers/default.htm |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo]] |access-date=September 17, 2010 |archive-date=July 28, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728021322/http://www.uhh.hawaii.edu/~kenhon/GEOL205/glaciers/default.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> There are three episodes of glaciation that have been recorded from the last 180,000 years: the ''Pōhakuloa'' (180–130&nbsp;[[Kiloannum#SI prefix multipliers|ka]]), ''Wāihu'' (80–60&nbsp;ka) and ''Mākanaka'' (40–13&nbsp;ka) series. These have extensively sculpted the summit, depositing [[moraines]] and a circular ring of [[till]] and gravel along the volcano's upper flanks.<ref name="usgs-2007"/> [[Subglacial eruption]]s built cinder cones during the Mākanaka glaciation,<ref>{{cite web |title=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory: Photo Information |url=https://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/keasnow_caption.html |work=Photo description |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=August 9, 2010 |date=March 13, 1998 |archive-date=May 28, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528020109/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/keasnow_caption.html |url-status=live}}</ref> most of which were heavily gouged by glacial action. The most recent cones were built between 9,000 and 4,500 years ago, atop the glacial deposits,<ref name="geol205"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=Holocene Eruptions of Mauna Kea Volcano, Hawaii |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=April 23, 1971 |volume=172 |pmid=17756040 |issue=3981 |pages=375–7 |doi=10.1126/science.172.3981.375 |last=Porter |first=Stephen C. |bibcode=1971Sci...172..375P |s2cid=29652647}}</ref> although one study indicates that the last eruption may have been around 3,600 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Porter |first=Stephen C. |title=Stratigraphy and Chronology of Late Quaternary Tephra along the South Rift Zone of Mauna Kea Volcano, Hawaii |journal=[[GSA Bulletin]] |volume=84 |issue=6 |pages=1923–40 |date=June 1973 |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1973)84<1923:SACOLQ>2.0.CO;2 |issn=0016-7606 |bibcode=1973GSAB...84.1923P}}</ref>

At their maximum extent, the glaciers extended from the summit down to between {{cvt|3200|and|3800|m|ft|-2}} of elevation.<ref name="gsa-glacial-1937">{{cite journal |journal=GSA Bulletin |title=General features and glacial geology of Mauna Kea, Hawaii |date=December 1937 |volume=47 |issue=12 |pages=1719–42 |doi=10.1130/gsab-48-1719 |last1=Gregory |first1=Herbert Ernest |last2=Wentworth |first2=Chester Keeler |bibcode=1937GSAB...48.1719G |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/grj1925/14/7/14_7_643/_pdf |access-date=February 27, 2022 |archive-date=November 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102183935/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/grj1925/14/7/14_7_643/_pdf |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref> A small body of [[permafrost]], less than {{cvt|25|m|ft|-1}} across, was found at the summit of Mauna Kea before 1974, and may still be present.<ref name="usgs-2007"/> Small gullies etch the summit, formed by rain- and snow-fed streams that flow only during winter melt and rain showers.<ref name=uh-2009 />
On the windward<!--is this the northeast side? if so, say so--> side of the volcano, [[Water erosion|stream erosion]] driven by [[trade wind]]s has accelerated erosion in a manner similar to that on older Kohala.<ref name="haw-2005">{{cite web |title=Hawaiʻi: Hawaii's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy |url=http://www.state.hi.us/dlnr/dofaw/cwcs/files/NAAT%20final%20CWCS/Chapters/CHAPTER%206%20hawaii%20NAAT%20final%20!.pdf |publisher=[[Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources]] |access-date=August 14, 2010 |date=October 1, 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615091612/http://www.state.hi.us/dlnr/dofaw/cwcs/files/NAAT%20final%20CWCS/Chapters/CHAPTER%206%20hawaii%20NAAT%20final%20!.pdf |archive-date=June 15, 2011}}</ref>

Mauna Kea is home to [[Lake Waiau]], the highest lake in the [[Pacific Basin]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Harold Thornton |author-link2=Gordon A. Macdonald |last2=Macdonald |first2=Gordon Andrew |title=Geology and ground-water resources of the island of Hawaii |series=Bulletin |volume=9 |year=1946 |publisher=United States Geological Survey |page=245}}</ref> At an altitude of {{cvt|3969|m|ft|0}}, it lies within the Pu{{okina}}u Waiau cinder cone and is the only [[alpine lake]] in Hawaii. The lake is very small and shallow, with a surface area of {{cvt|0.73|ha|acre|2}} and a depth of {{cvt|3|m|ft|0}} when fullest. [[Radiocarbon dating]] of samples at the base of the lake indicates that it was clear of ice 12,600&nbsp;years ago. Hawaiian lava types are typically [[Permeability (earth sciences)|permeable]], preventing lake formation due to [[infiltration (hydrology)|infiltration]]. Either sulfur-bearing steam altered the volcanic ash to low-permeability clays, or explosive interactions between rising magma and groundwater or surface water during [[phreatic eruption]]s formed exceptionally fine ash that reduced the permeability of the lake bed.<ref name="usgs-waiau">{{cite web |title=Impermeable beds trap rain and snow at Mauna Kea's Lake Waiau |url=https://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/2003/03_06_19.html |publisher=[[Hawaii Volcano Observatory]] – [[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=August 9, 2010 |date=June 19, 2003 |archive-date=June 12, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612090649/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/2003/03_06_19.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

No artesian water was known on the island of Hawaiʻi until 1993 when drilling by the [[University of Hawaiʻi]] tapped an [[artesian aquifer]] more than {{cvt|300|m}} below sea level, that extended more than {{cvt|100|m|ft}} of the [[borehole]]'s total depth. The borehole had drilled through a compacted layer of soil and lava where the flows of Mauna Loa had encroached upon the exposed Mauna Kea surface and had subsequently been subsided below sea level. Isotopic composition shows the water present to have been derived from rain coming off Mauna Kea at higher than {{cvt|2000|m}} above mean sea level. The aquifer's presence is attributed to a freshwater head within Mauna Kea's basal lens. Scientists believe there may be more water in Mauna Kea's freshwater [[Lens (hydrology)|lens]] than current models may indicate.<ref>{{cite news |title=University plans to drill for water beneath Mauna Kea |url=http://www.bigislandvideonews.com/2012/07/26/university-plans-to-drill-for-water-beneath-mauna-kea/ |access-date=April 16, 2015 |agency=Big Island Video News |publisher=Big Island Video News |date=July 26, 2012 |archive-date=September 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923185103/http://www.bigislandvideonews.com/2012/07/26/university-plans-to-drill-for-water-beneath-mauna-kea/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Two more boreholes were drilled on Mauna Kea in 2012, with water being found at much higher elevations and shallower depths than expected. Donald Thomas, director of the University of Hawaiʻi's Center for the Study of Active Volcanoes believes one reason to continue study of the aquifers is due to use and occupancy of the higher elevation areas, stating: "Nearly all of these activities depend on the availability of potable water that, in most cases, must be trucked to the Saddle from Waimea or Hilo — an inefficient and expensive process that consumes a substantial quantity of our scarce liquid fuels."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Erin |title=Mauna Kea aquifers shallower than expected |url=http://westhawaiitoday.com/news/local-news/mauna-kea-aquifers-shallower-expected |access-date=April 16, 2015 |agency=West Hawaii Today |publisher=Oahu Publications, Inc. |date=February 18, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150805081528/http://westhawaiitoday.com/news/local-news/mauna-kea-aquifers-shallower-expected |archive-date=August 5, 2015}}</ref>

===Future activity===
The last eruption of Mauna Kea was about 4,600&nbsp;years ago (about 2600 BC);<ref name=usgs-2007 /> because of this inactivity, Mauna Kea is assigned a [[United States Geological Survey]] hazard listing of 7 for its summit and 8 for its lower flanks, out of the lowest possible hazard rating of 9 (which is given to the [[extinct volcano]] [[Kohala (mountain)|Kohala]]). Since 8000 BC lava flows have covered 20% of the volcano's summit and virtually none of its flanks.<ref>{{cite web |last=Watson |first=John |title=Lava Flow Hazard Maps: Kohala and Mauna Kea |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/hazards/maunakea-kohala.html |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=August 9, 2010 |date=July 18, 1997 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129201618/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/hazards/maunakea-kohala.html |archive-date=January 29, 2009}}</ref>

Despite its dormancy, Mauna Kea is expected to erupt again. Based on earlier<!-- not recent: see para *just*above--> eruptions, such an event could occur anywhere on the volcano's upper flanks and would likely produce long lava flows, mostly of [[a'a|{{okina}}a{{okina}}ā]], {{cvt|15|-|25|km|mi|0}} long. Long periods of activity could build a cinder cone at the source. Although not likely in the next few centuries, such an eruption would probably result in little loss of life but significant damage to infrastructure.<ref name="usgs-future">{{cite web |title=The next eruption of Mauna Kea |url=https://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/2000/00_06_01.html |publisher=[[Hawaii Volcano Observatory]] – [[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=August 10, 2010 |date=June 5, 2000 |archive-date=June 13, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613132905/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/2000/00_06_01.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{multiple image
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|caption1=Geologically recent Mauna Kea cinder cones and lava flows
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|caption2=[[Lava Flow Hazard Zones|Hazard mapping]] of Mauna Kea and nearby [[Kohala (mountain)|Kohala]]
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==Human history==
===Native history===
[[File:SaddleLele.JPG|thumb|left|A stone structure or ''[[Heiau|Ahu]]'' facing Mauna Kea, on Saddle Road between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa]]

The first [[Ancient Hawaiian]]s to arrive on Hawaiʻi island lived along the shores, where food and water were plentiful. Settlement expanded inland to the Mauna Loa – Mauna Kea region in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Archaeological evidence suggests that these regions were used for hunting, collecting stone material, and possibly for spiritual reasons or for astronomical or navigational observations.<ref name="nasa-outrigger">{{cite web |title=Final Environmental Statement for the Outrigger Telescopes Project: Volume II |url=http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/Outrigger/finalDocuments/fullDocument/OTP-FEIS-Volume-II.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421000952/http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/Outrigger/finalDocuments/fullDocument/OTP-FEIS-Volume-II.pdf |archive-date=April 21, 2009 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=August 22, 2010 |page=C–9 |url-status=dead |date=February 2005}}</ref> The mountain's plentiful forest provided plants and animals for food and raw materials for shelter. Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source.<ref name="haw-culture">{{cite web |title=Culture: The First Arrivals: Native Hawaiian Uses |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/maunakea/5_culture.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011113028/http://www.hawaii.edu/maunakea/5_culture.pdf |archive-date=October 11, 2012 |work=Mauna Kea Mountain Reserve Master Plan |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi |access-date=August 17, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Early settlement of the Hawaiian islands led to major changes to local ecosystems and many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species. Ancient Hawaiians brought foreign plants and animals, and their arrival was associated with increased rates of erosion.<ref name="ps-1982">{{cite journal |last=Kirch |first=Patrick V. |title=The Impact of the Prehistoric Polynesians on the Hawaiian Ecosystem |journal=[[Pacific Science]] |date=January 1982 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/406 |access-date=October 24, 2010 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |hdl=10125/406 |archive-date=June 11, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611095859/http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/406 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change was caused by the use of fire, but the prevailing cause of forest [[ecosystem collapse]] and avian extinction on Hawaiʻi appears to have been the introduction of the [[Rattus exulans|Polynesian (or Pacific) rat]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Athens |first=Stephen |author2=Tuggle, H. David |author3=Ward, Jerome V. |author4=Welch, David J. |year=2002 |title=Avifaunal Extinctions, Vegetation Change and Polynesian Impacts in Prehistoric Hawai'i |journal=Archaeology in Oceania |volume=37 |url=http://www2.hawaii.edu/~khayes/Journal_Club/spring2007/Athens_et_al_2002_Arch_Ocean.pdf |issue=2 |page=57 |doi=10.1002/j.1834-4453.2002.tb00507.x |access-date=April 5, 2015 |archive-date=April 14, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414014902/http://www2.hawaii.edu/~khayes/Journal_Club/spring2007/Athens_et_al_2002_Arch_Ocean.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

The five volcanoes of Hawaiʻi are revered as [[sacred mountains]]. For this reason, a ''[[Kapu (Hawaiian culture)|kapu]]'' (ancient Hawaiian law) restricted visitor rights to high-ranking aliʻi. Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities. In [[Hawaiian mythology]], the summit of Mauna Kea was seen as the "region of the gods", a place where benevolent spirits reside. [[Poliahu|Poli{{okina}}ahu]], deity of snow, also resides there.<ref name="haw-culture"/> "Mauna Kea" is an abbreviation for {{lang|haw|Mauna a Wākea}}<ref name="Hit_Fujikane" /> and means 'white mountain' in reference to its seasonally snow-capped summit;<ref name=Pukui1986>{{cite book |last1=Pukui |first1=Mary Kawena |last2=Elbert |first2=Samuel H. |title=Hawaiian dictionary |year=1986 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=0-8248-0703-0 |page=242}}</ref> [[Wākea]] is also the Hawaiian sky god.

Around AD&nbsp;1100, natives established [[adze]] [[Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve|quarries]] high up on Mauna Kea to extract the uniquely dense [[basalt]] (generated by the quick cooling of lava flows meeting glacial ice during [[subglacial eruption]]s) to make tools. [[Volcanic glass]] and [[gabbro]] were collected for blades and fishing gear, and [[Sophora chrysophylla|māmane]] wood was preferred for the handles. At peak quarry activity after AD&nbsp;1400, there were separate facilities for rough and fine cutting; shelters with food, water, and wood to sustain the workers; and workshops creating the finished product.<ref name="haw-culture"/>

Lake Waiau provided drinking water for the workers. Native chiefs would also dip the umbilical cords of newborn babies in its water, to give them the strength of the mountain. Use of the quarry declined between this period and contact with Americans and Europeans. As part of the ritual associated with quarrying, the workers erected shrines to their gods; these and other quarry artifacts remain at the sites, most of which lie within what is now the [[Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve]].<ref name="haw-culture"/>

This early era was followed by cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century. Land was divided into regions designed for the immediate needs of the populace. These [[ahupuaa|''ahupua{{okina}}a'']] generally took the form of<!-- but were not NECESSARILY --> long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast<!-- there were many per mountain -->. Mauna Kea's summit was encompassed in the ahupua{{okina}}a of Ka{{okina}}ohe, with part of its eastern slope reaching into the nearby Humu{{okina}}ula. Principal sources of nutrition for Hawaiians living on the slopes of the volcano came from the māmane–[[Myoporum sandwicense|naio]] forest of its upper slopes, which provided them with vegetation and bird life. Bird species hunted included the [[Pterodroma sandwichensis|{{okina}}ua{{okina}}u]] (''Pterodroma sandwichensis''), [[nēnē]] (''Branta sandvicensis''), and [[palila]] (''Loxioides bailleui''). The lower [[acacia koa|koa]]–[[Metrosideros polymorpha|{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a]] forest gave the natives wood for canoes and ornate bird feathers for decoration.<ref name="haw-culture"/>

===Modern era===
[[File:Mauna Kea from Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii - 20100913 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|View of the mountain from [[Mauna Loa Observatory]]]]
There are three accounts of foreigners visiting Hawaiʻi before the arrival of [[James Cook]], in 1778.<ref name="Ellis1827">{{cite book |author=William Mission Ellis |title=Narrative of a Tour Through Hawaii, Or, Owhyhee, with Observations on the Natural History of the Sandwich Islands |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1glfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA446 |year=1827 |publisher=H. Fisher, son, and P. Jackson |pages=446–448 |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-date=June 17, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617112818/https://books.google.com/books?id=1glfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA446 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Pryor2004">{{cite book |author=Alton Pryor |title=Little Known Tales in Hawaii History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WFCewWiDeOwC&pg=PA145 |year=2004 |publisher=Stagecoach Pub. |isbn=978-0-9747551-1-3 |pages=144–147 |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-date=April 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424073407/https://books.google.com/books?id=WFCewWiDeOwC&pg=PA145 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Chapman2010">{{cite book |author=Daniel Ethan Chapman |title=Examining Social Theory: Crossing Borders/reflecting Back |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgxDKYLG6eUC&pg=PA8 |year=2010 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-1-4331-0479-4 |page=8 |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-date=May 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519013151/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgxDKYLG6eUC&pg=PA8 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, the earliest Western depictions of the isle, including Mauna Kea, were created by explorers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Contact with Europe and America had major consequences for island residents. Native Hawaiians were devastated by introduced diseases; port cities including [[Hilo, Hawaii|Hilo]], [[Kealakekua, Hawaii|Kealakekua]], and [[Kailua-Kona, Hawaii|Kailua]] grew with the establishment of trade<!-- which did not exist beforehand-->; and the adze quarries on Mauna Kea were abandoned after the introduction of metal tools.<ref name="haw-culture"/>

In 1793, cattle were brought by [[George Vancouver]] as a tribute to King [[Kamehameha I]]. By the early 19th century, they had escaped confinement and roamed the island freely, greatly damaging its ecosystem. In 1809 [[John Palmer Parker (rancher)|John Palmer Parker]] arrived and befriended Kamehameha&nbsp;I, who put him in charge of cattle management on the island. With an additional [[land grant]] in 1845, Parker established [[Parker Ranch]] on the northern slope of Mauna Kea, a large cattle ranch that is still in operation today.<ref name="haw-culture"/> Settlers to the island burned and cut down much of the lower native forest for sugarcane plantations and houses.<ref name="ims-1984"/>

[[File:High, Dry and Covered in Snow (iotw2304a).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|Maunakea, one of the volcanoes constituting the island of Hawai‘i, is an inactive shield volcano and one of the tallest mountains on Earth at an elevation of 4205 meters (13,786 feet).]]

The [[Saddle Road]], named for its crossing of the saddle-shaped plateau between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, was completed in 1943, and eased travel to Mauna Kea considerably.<ref name=uh-2009 />

The [[Pohakuloa Training Area]] on the plateau is the largest military training ground in Hawaiʻi. The {{cvt|108863|acre|ha|0|adj=on}} base extends from the volcano's lower flanks to {{cvt|2070|m|ft|-1}} elevation, on state land leased to the US Army since 1956. There are 15&nbsp;threatened and endangered plants, three endangered birds, and one endangered bat species in the area.<ref name=uh-2009 />

Mauna Kea has been the site of extensive archaeological research since the 1980s. Approximately 27&nbsp;percent of the Science Reserve had been surveyed by 2000, identifying 76&nbsp;shrines, 4&nbsp;adze manufacturing workshops, 3&nbsp;other markers, 1&nbsp;positively identified burial site, and 4&nbsp;possible burial sites.<ref name="haw-culture"/> By 2009, the total number of identified sites had risen to 223, and archaeological research on the volcano's upper flanks is ongoing.<ref name=uh-2009 /> It has been suggested that the shrines, which are arranged around the volcano's summit along what may be an ancient [[snow line]], are markers for the transition to the sacred part of Mauna Kea. Despite many references to burial around Mauna Kea in Hawaiian oral history, few sites have been confirmed. The lack of shrines or other artifacts on the many cinder cones dotting the volcano may be because they were reserved for burial.<ref name="haw-culture"/>

===Ascents===
[[File:David Douglass00.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[David Douglas (botanist)|David Douglas]], a Scottish [[Botany|botanist]] who died on Mauna Kea in 1834]]

In pre-contact times, natives traveling up Mauna Kea were probably guided more by landscape than by existing trails, as no evidence of trails has been found. It is possible that natural ridges and water sources were followed instead. Individuals likely took trips up Mauna Kea's slopes to visit family-maintained shrines near its summit, and traditions related to ascending the mountain exist to this day. However, very few natives reached the summit, because of the strict ''[[Kapu (Hawaiian culture)|kapu]]'' placed on it.<ref name=haw-culture />

In the early 19th century, the earliest notable ''recorded'' ascents of Mauna Kea included the following:
*On August 26, 1823, [[List of Missionaries to Hawaii|Joseph F. Goodrich]], an American missionary, made the first recorded ascent in a single day; however, a small arrangement of stones he observed suggested he was not the first human on the summit.<ref name=haw-culture /> He recorded four ecosystems as he travelled from base to summit, and also visited Lake Waiau.<ref name="esa-1940">{{cite journal |last1=Hartt |first1=Constance E |first2=Marie C. |last2=Neal |title=The Plant Ecology of Mauna Kea, Hawaii |journal=[[Ecology (journal)|Ecology]] |date=April 1940 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=237–266 |doi=10.2307/1930491 |publisher=[[Ecological Society of America]] |jstor=1930491}} {{Subscription required}}</ref>
*On June 17, 1825, an expedition from [[HMS Blonde (1819)|HMS ''Blonde'']], led by botanist James Macrae, reached the summit of Mauna Kea. Macrae was the first person to record the [[Mauna Kea silversword]] (''Argyroxiphium sandwicense''), saying: "The last mile was destitute of vegetation except one plant of the Sygenisia tribe, in growth much like a Yucca, with sharp pointed silver coloured leaves and green upright spike of three or four feet producing pendulous branches with brown flowers, truly superb, and almost worth the journey of coming here to see it on purpose."<ref name=esa-1940 />
*In January 1834, [[David Douglas (botanist)|David Douglas]] climbed the mountain and described extensively the division of plant species by altitude. On an unrelated traverse, from Kamuela to Hilo in July, he was found dead in a pit intended to catch wild cattle. Although murder was suspected, it was probably an accidental fall. The site, ''Ka lua kauka'' {{Coord|19|53|17|N|155|20|17|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:US-HI |name=Kaluakauka}}, is marked by the [[Douglas fir]] trees named for him.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Kaluakauka Revisited: the Death of David Douglas in Hawaii |journal=Hawaiian Journal of History |year=1988 |publisher=Hawaiian Historical Society, Honolulu |volume=22 |pages=147–69 |hdl=10524/246}}</ref>
*In 1881, [[Queen Emma of Hawaii|Queen Emma]] traveled to the peak to bathe in the waters of Lake Waiau during competition for the role of ruling chief of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Kingdom of Hawaiʻi]].<ref name=haw-culture />
*On August 6, 1889, E.D. Baldwin left Hilo and followed cattle trails to the summit.<ref name=esa-1940 />
*In February 2021, [[Victor Vescovo]] and Clifford Kapono made the first ascent of Mauna Kea from its subaerial base 16,785&nbsp;ft below sea level using the submersible ''Limiting Factor'', then ocean kayaks from above the mountain base 27 miles to the shoreline, then bicycles to a camp at about 9000&nbsp;ft altitude from which they then walked to the 13,802&nbsp;ft summit (a total gain of 30,587&nbsp;ft).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.sfgate.com/hawaii/article/Men-climb-Earths-tallest-mountain-16784886.php |title=Earth's tallest mountain is in Hawaii. Here's what it took to ascend it. |date=January 25, 2022 |work=[[SFGate]] |access-date=January 11, 2022 |archive-date=January 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125122414/https://www.sfgate.com/hawaii/article/Men-climb-Earths-tallest-mountain-16784886.php |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries trails were formed, often by the movement of game herds, that could be traveled on horseback.<ref name=haw-culture /> However, vehicular access to the summit was practically impossible until the construction of a road in 1964, and it continues to be restricted.<ref name="haw-recreation">{{cite web |title=Recreation: Enjoying Mauna Kea's Unique Natural Resources |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/maunakea/7_recreation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920101000/http://www.hawaii.edu/maunakea/7_recreation.pdf |archive-date=September 20, 2009 |work=Mauna Kea Mountain Reserve Master Plan |publisher=[[Institute for Astronomy (Hawaii)|Institute for Astronomy]] – University of Hawaiʻi |access-date=August 17, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Today, multiple trails to the summit exist, in various states of use.<ref name=uh-2009 />

==Ecology==
===Background===
Hawaiʻi's [[geographical isolation]] strongly influences its ecology. Remote islands like Hawaiʻi have a large number of species that are found nowhere else (see [[Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sakai |first1=Ann K. |last2=Wagner |first2=Warren L. |last3=Mehrhoff |first3=Loyal A. |year=2002 |title=Patterns of Endangerment in the Hawaiian Flora |url=http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstream/10088/7588/1/bot_Sakai_et_al_2002_endangerment.pdf |journal=[[Systematic Biology]] |pmid=12028733 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=276–302 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1080/10635150252899770 |doi-access=free |access-date=October 14, 2010 |archive-date=March 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312041043/http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstream/10088/7588/1/bot_Sakai_et_al_2002_endangerment.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The remoteness resulted in evolutionary lines distinct from those elsewhere and isolated these [[Endemism|endemic species]] from external biotic influence, and also makes them especially vulnerable to [[extinction]] and the effects of [[invasive species]]. In addition the ecosystems of Hawaiʻi are under threat from human development including the clearing of land for agriculture; an estimated third of the island's endemic species have already been wiped out. Because of its elevation, Mauna Kea has the greatest diversity of biotic ecosystems anywhere in the Hawaiian archipelago. Ecosystems on the mountain form concentric rings along its slopes due to changes in temperature and precipitation with elevation.<ref name="ims-1984">{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/3673140 |last1=Juvik |first1=J. O |first2=S. P. |last2=Juvik |title=Mauna Kea and the Myth of Multiple Use: Endangered Species and Mountain Management in Hawaii |date=August 1984 |journal=Mountain Research and Development |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=191–202 |publisher=[[International Mountain Society]] |jstor=3673140}} {{Subscription required}}</ref> These ecosystems can be roughly divided into three sections by elevation: [[Alpine climate|alpine]]–[[subalpine]], [[montane forest|montane]], and [[Hawaiian tropical dry forests|basal forest]].<ref name=esa-1940 />

Contact with Americans and Europeans in the early 19th century brought more settlers to the island, and had a lasting negative ecological effect. On lower slopes, vast tracts of koa–{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a forest were converted to farmland. Higher up, [[feral]] animals that escaped from ranches found refuge in, and damaged extensively, Mauna Kea's native māmane–naio forest.<ref name="botany-1990" /> Non-native plants are the other serious threat; there are over 4,600 introduced species on the island, whereas the number of native species is estimated at just 1,000.<ref name="botany-1990b">{{cite book |title=Alteration of native Hawaiian vegetation-Effects of humans, their activities and introductions |year=1990 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=0-8248-1308-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u0RFAQAAIAAJ |first1=Charles P. |last1=Stone |first2=Linda W. |last2=Cuddihy |chapter=Alien Plants |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-date=June 17, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617104817/https://books.google.com/books?id=u0RFAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Alpine environment===
[[File:Mauna Kea silversword3.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mauna Kea silversword]] (''Argyroxiphium sandwicense sandwicense'') growing near the volcano's summit]]

The summit of Mauna Kea lies above the [[tree line]], and consists of mostly lava rock and [[alpine tundra]]. An area of heavy snowfall, it is inhospitable to vegetation, and is known as the [[Hawaiian tropical high shrublands]]. Growth is restricted here by extremely cold temperatures, a short growing season, low rainfall, and snow during winter months. A lack of soil also retards root growth, makes it difficult to absorb nutrients from the ground, and gives the area a very low [[Water retention curve|water retention capacity]].<ref name=esa-1940 />

Plant species found at this elevation include ''[[Styphelia tameiameiae]]'', ''[[Taraxacum officinale]]'', ''[[Tetramolopium]] humile'', ''[[Agrostis]] sandwicensis'', ''[[Anthoxanthum odoratum]]'', ''[[Trisetum]] glomeratum'', ''[[Poa annua]]'', ''[[Sonchus oleraceus]]'', and ''[[Coprosma]] ernodiodes''. One notable species is [[Mauna Kea silversword]] (''Argyroxiphium sandwicense'' var. ''sandwicense''), a highly [[endangered]] endemic plant species that thrives in Mauna Kea's high elevation cinder deserts. At one stage reduced to a population of just 50 plants,<ref>{{cite journal |first=Lawrence R. |last=Walker |author2=Powell, Elizabeth Ann |title=Regeneration of the Mauna Kea silversword Argyroxiphium sandwicense (Asteraceae) in Hawaii |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222036366 |journal=[[Biological Conservation (journal)|Biological Conservation]] |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=61–70 |date=July 1999 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00132-3 |access-date=September 4, 2017 |archive-date=February 27, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227225027/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222036366_Regeneration_of_the_Mauna_Kea_silversword_Argyroxiphium_sandwicense_Asteraceae_in_Hawaii |url-status=live}}</ref> Mauna Kea silversword was thought to be restricted to the alpine zone, but in fact has been driven there by pressure from livestock, and can grow at lower elevations as well.<ref name=esa-1940 />

The [[Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve]] on the southern summit flank of Mauna Kea was established in 1981. The reserve is a region of sparsely vegetated cinder deposits and lava rock, including areas of [[Aeolian landform|aeolian desert]] and Lake Waiau.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea Ice Age |url=http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/ecosystems/nars/reserves/hawaii-island/mauna-kea-ice-age/ |publisher=[[Hawai'i Department of Land and Natural Resources|Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources]] |access-date=August 13, 2010 |archive-date=October 30, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030055952/http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/ecosystems/nars/reserves/hawaii-island/mauna-kea-ice-age/ |url-status=live}}</ref> This ecosystem is a likely haven for the [[threatened]] [[Pterodroma sandwichensis|{{okina}}ua{{okina}}u]] (''Pterodroma sandwichensis'') and also the center of a study on [[wēkiu bug]]s (''Nysius wekiuicola'').<ref name=haw-2005 />
[[File:Undescribed Mauna Kea Wolf Spider.jpg|thumb|Undescribed [[Lycosa]] wolf spider endemic to the summit alpine desert on Mauna Kea]]
Wēkiu bugs feed on dead insect carcasses that drift up Mauna Kea on the wind and settle on snow banks. This is a highly unusual food source for a species in the genus ''[[Nysius]]'', which consists of predominantly seed-eating insects. They can survive at extreme elevations of up to {{cvt|4200|m|ft|0}}<ref name="bishop-1983">{{cite journal |first1=Peter D. |last1=Ashlock |first2=Wayne C. |last2=Gagné |title=A Remarkable New Micropterous Nysius Species from the Aelion Zone of Mauna Kea, Hawaii island |journal=[[International Journal of Entomology]] |date=April 26, 1983 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=47–55 |url=http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pi/pdf/25%281%29-47.pdf |access-date=August 14, 2010 |archive-date=November 22, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122101710/http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pi/pdf/25%281%29-47.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> because of [[Antifreeze protein|natural antifreeze]] in their blood. They also stay under heated surfaces most of the time. Their conservation status is unclear, but the species is no longer a candidate for the [[Endangered species#Endangered Species Act|Endangered Species List]]; studies on the welfare of the species began in 1980. The closely related ''[[Nysius aa]]'' lives on Mauna Loa. [[Wolf spider]]s (Lycosidae) and [[forest tent caterpillar moth]]s have also been observed in the same Mauna Kea ecosystem; the former survive by hiding under heat-absorbing rocks, and the latter through cold-resistant chemicals in their bodies.<ref name="usgs-wekiu">{{cite web |title=Wekiu bugs-life on top of a volcano |url=https://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/1999/99_05_20.html |work=Volcano Watch |publisher=[[Hawaiian Volcano Observatory]] – [[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=August 14, 2010 |archive-date=June 14, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614020313/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/1999/99_05_20.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Several native moths are also present near the summit including ''[[Agrotis helela]]'' and ''[[Agrotis kuamauna]]''. 

===Māmane–naio forest===
[[File:Starr 020221-0023 Sophora chrysophylla.jpg|thumb|right|A pair of [[Sophora chrysophylla|māmane]] (''Sophora chrysophylla'') trees]]

The [[Hawaiian tropical dry forests|forested zone]] on the volcano, at an elevation of {{cvt|2000|-|3000|m|ft}}, is dominated by māmane (''[[Sophora chrysophylla]]'') and naio (''[[Myoporum sandwicense]]''), both endemic tree species, and is thus known as māmane–naio forest. Māmane seeds and naio fruit are the chief foods of the birds in this zone, especially the [[palila]] (''Loxioides bailleui''). The palila was formerly found on the slopes of Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and [[Hualālai]], but is now confined to the slopes of Mauna Kea—only 10% of its former range—and has been declared [[critically endangered]].<ref name="ims-1984"/>

The largest threat to the ecosystem is [[grazing]] by feral sheep, cattle (''Bos primigenius''),<ref name="ps-text">{{cite journal |author=Scrowcroft, Paul G. |year=1983 |url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/651/3/v37n2-109-119.pdf.txt |format=PDF |title=Tree Cover Changes in Mamane (Sophora chrysophylla) Forests Grazed by Sheep and Cattle |journal=[[Pacific Science]] |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=109–20 |access-date=August 11, 2010 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303192837/http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/651/3/v37n2-109-119.pdf.txt |url-status=live}}</ref><!-- the reason this ref is done manually is because the {{ref}} version breaks for some reason. --> and goats (''Capra hircus'') introduced to the island in the late 18th century. Feral animal competition with commercial grazing was severe enough that a program to eradicate them existed as far back as the late 1920s,<ref name="ims-1984"/> and continued through to 1949. One of the results of this grazing was the increased prevalence of [[herbaceous]] and [[woody plant|woody]] plants, both endemic and introduced, that were resistant to browsing.<ref name="ps-text"/> The feral animals were almost eradicated, and numbered a few hundred in the 1950s. However, an influx of local hunters led to the feral species being valued as [[game animal]]s, and in 1959 the [[Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources|Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources]], the governing body in charge of conservation and land use management, changed its policy to a sustained-control program designed to facilitate the sport.<ref name="ims-1984"/>

[[Mouflon]] (''Ovis aries orientalis'') was introduced from 1962 to 1964,<ref>{{cite web |author1=Hess, Steven |author2=Kawakami Jr, Ben |author3=Okita, David |author4=Medeiros, Keola |year=2006 |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1193/ |title=A Preliminary Assessment of Mouflon Abundance at the Kahuku Unit of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park |publisher=United States Geological Survey |page=1 |access-date=February 23, 2018 |archive-date=February 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224112902/https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1193/ |url-status=live}} See: {{cite report |last=Giffin |first=J.G. |year=1982 |title=Ecology of mouflon sheep on Mauna Kea |publisher=Department of Land and Natural Resources, Division of Forestry and Wildlife |location=Honolulu, HI}}</ref> and a plan to release [[axis deer]] (''Axis axis'') in 1964 was prevented only by protests from the ranching industry, who said that they would damage crops and spread disease. The hunting industry fought back, and the back-and-forth between the ranchers and hunters eventually gave way to a rise in public environmental concern. With the development of astronomical facilities on Mauna Kea commencing, conservationists demanded protection of Mauna Kea's ecosystem. A plan was proposed to fence 25% of the forests for protection, and manage the remaining 75% for game hunting. Despite opposition from conservationists the plan was put into action. While the land was partitioned no money was allocated for the building of the fence. In the midst of this wrangling the [[Endangered Species Act]] was passed; the [[National Audubon Society]] and [[Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund]] filed a lawsuit against the [[Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources|Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources]], claiming that they were violating federal law, in the landmark case ''[[Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources]]'' (1978).<ref name="ims-1984"/><ref>{{cite court |litigants=[[Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources|Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land & Natural Resources]] |vol=639 F.2d 495 |pinpoint=79-4636 |court=[[United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit]] |date=February 9, 1981 |url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=8158542596159694344&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr |access-date=August 29, 2010}}</ref>

The court ruled in favor of conservationists and upheld the precedence of federal laws before state control of wildlife. Having violated the Endangered Species Act, Hawaiʻi state was required to remove all feral animals from the mountainside.<ref name="ims-1984"/> This decision was followed by a second court order in 1981. A public hunting program removed many of the feral animals,<ref name=botany-1990 /> at least temporarily. An active control program is in place,<ref name=uh-2009 /> though it is not conducted with sufficient rigor to allow significant recovery of the māmane-naio ecosystem.<ref>Banko, Paul et al. Surveys reveal decline of the palila. Endangered Species Bulletin, Fall 2008.</ref> There are many other species and ecosystems on the island, and on Mauna Kea, that remain threatened by human development and invasive species.<ref name="ims-1984"/>

The Mauna Kea Forest Reserve protects {{cvt|52500|acre|km2}} of māmane-naio forest under the jurisdiction of the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources. [[Ungulate]] hunting is allowed year-round.<ref name=uh-2009 /> A small part of the māmane–naio forest is encompassed by the [[Mauna Kea State Recreation Area]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea State Recreation Area |url=http://www.hawaiistateparks.org/parks/hawaii/maunakea.cfm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070419215525/http://www.hawaiistateparks.org/parks/hawaii/maunakea.cfm |archive-date=April 19, 2007 |work=Hawaii State Parks |publisher=[[Hawai'i Department of Land and Natural Resources|Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources]] |access-date=August 15, 2010}}</ref><!-- see height, map from esa-1984 -->

===Lower environment===
[[File:Corvus hawaiiensis FWS.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The [[Corvus hawaiiensis|{{okina}}alalā]] or Hawaiian crow (''Corvus hawaiiensis'') is a bird in the crow family. It is extinct in the wild, with plans to reintroduce the species into the [[Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge]].]]

A band of ranch land on Mauna Kea's lower slopes was formerly ''[[Acacia koa]]'' – ''[[Metrosideros polymorpha]]'' (koa-{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a) forest.<ref name=esa-1940 /> Its destruction was driven by an influx of European and American settlers in the early 19th century, as extensive logging during the 1830s provided lumber for new homes. Vast swathes of the forest were burned and cleared for sugarcane plantations. Most of the houses on the island were built of koa, and those parts of the forest that survived became a source for firewood to power boilers on the sugarcane plantations and to heat homes. The once vast forest had almost disappeared by 1880, and by 1900, logging interests had shifted to [[Kona District, Hawaii|Kona]] and the island of [[Maui]].<ref name="botany-1990">{{cite book |title=Alteration of native Hawaiian vegetation-Effects of humans, their activities and introductions |year=1990 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=0-8248-1308-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u0RFAQAAIAAJ |format=PDF |first1=Charles P. |last1=Stone |first2=Linda W. |last2=Cuddihy |chapter=Changes in Vegetation Since 1850 |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-date=June 17, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617104817/https://books.google.com/books?id=u0RFAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> With the collapse of the sugar industry in the 1990s, much of this land lies [[fallow]] but portions are used for cattle grazing, small-scale farming and the cultivation of [[eucalyptus]] for [[wood pulp]].<ref name=uh-2009 /><ref>{{cite web |title=Economic Impact of Shutting Down Hawaii's Sugar Industry |url=http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/EI-6.pdf |work=Economic Issues |publisher=College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources |access-date=September 27, 2010 |first1=Junning |last1=Cai |first2=Ping Sun |last2=Leung |date=April 2004 |archive-date=June 11, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611230248/http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/EI-6.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge]] is a major koa forest reserve on Mauna Kea's windward slope. It was established in 1985, covering {{cvt|32733|acre|ha|0}} of ecosystem remnant. Eight endangered bird species, twelve endangered plants, and the endangered [[Hawaiian hoary bat]] (''Lasiurus cinereus semotus'') have been observed in the area, in addition to many other rare biota. The reserve has been the site of an extensive replanting campaign since 1989.<ref name="hakalau">{{cite web |title=Welcome to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge |url=http://www.fws.gov/hakalauforest/ |publisher=[[US Fish and Wildlife Service]] |access-date=August 16, 2010 |date=April 6, 2010 |archive-date=September 13, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913002327/http://www.fws.gov/hakalauforest/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Parts of the reserve show the effect of agriculture on the native ecosystem,<ref name="botany-1990"/> as much of the land in the upper part of the reserve is abandoned farmland.<ref name="hakalau"/>

Bird species native to the acacia koa–{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a forest include the [[ʻAlalā|Hawaiian crow]] (''Corvus hawaiiensis''), the [[Loxops coccineus|{{okina}}akepa]] (''Loxops coccineus''), [[Hawaii creeper]] (''Oreomystis mana''), [[ʻAkiapolaʻau|ʻakiapōlāʻau]] (''Hemignathus munroi''), and [[Hawaiian hawk]] (''Buteo solitarius''), all of which are endangered, threatened, or near threatened; the Hawaiian crow in particular is [[extinct in the wild]], but there are plans to reintroduce the species into the Hakalau reserve.<ref name="hakalau"/>

==Summit observatories==
{{Main|Mauna Kea Observatories|Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories}}
[[File:Mauna Kea observatory.jpg|thumb|left|Sunset over four telescopes of the [[Mauna Kea Observatories]]. From left to right: the [[Subaru Telescope]], the twin [[W. M. Keck Observatory|Keck I and II telescope]]s, and the [[NASA Infrared Telescope Facility]].]]

Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world for [[Observational astronomy|astronomical observation]] due to favorable observing conditions.<ref name="uh-2009"/><ref name="mko-about"/><ref name="uh-2000"/> The arid conditions are important for [[Submillimetre astronomy|submillimeter]] and [[Infrared astronomy|infrared]] astronomy for this region of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]. The summit is above the [[Inversion (meteorology)|inversion layer]], keeping most [[cloud cover]] below the summit and ensuring the air on the summit is dry, and free of [[atmospheric pollution]]. The summit atmosphere is exceptionally stable, lacking [[turbulence]] for some of the world's best [[astronomical seeing]]. The very dark skies resulting from Mauna Kea's distance from city lights are preserved by legislation that minimizes [[light pollution]] from the surrounding area; the darkness level allows the observation of faint [[astronomical object]]s.<ref name="mko-about">{{cite web |title=About Mauna Kea Observatories |url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko/about_maunakea.shtml |publisher=Institute for Astronomy – University of Hawaiʻi |access-date=August 19, 2010 |archive-date=June 10, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610142632/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko/about_maunakea.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> These factors historically made Mauna Kea an excellent spot for stargazing.<ref name=haw-recreation />

In the early 1960s, the Hawaiʻi Island [[Chamber of Commerce]] encouraged astronomical development of Mauna Kea, as economic stimulus; this coincided with [[University of Arizona]] astronomer [[Gerard Kuiper]]'s search for sites to use newly improved detectors of [[infrared astronomy|infrared light]]. Site testing by Kuiper's assistant Alika Herring in 1964 confirmed the summit's outstanding suitability. An intense three-way competition for [[NASA]] funds to construct a large telescope began between Kuiper, [[Harvard University]], and the University of Hawaiʻi (UH), which only had experience in solar astronomy. This culminated in funds being awarded to the "upstart" UH proposal.<ref name="astro-timeline">{{cite web |title=Timeline of Astronomy in Hawaiʻi |url=http://mkooc.org/css-timeline.html |publisher=Mauna Kea Observatories Outreach Committee |access-date=October 2, 2010 |first=Andrew |last=Pickles |year=2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727090520/http://mkooc.org/css-timeline.html |archive-date=July 27, 2011}}</ref> UH rebuilt its small astronomy department into a new [[Institute for Astronomy (Hawaii)|Institute for Astronomy]], and in 1968 the Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources gave it a 65-year lease for all land within a {{cvt|4|km|mi|1}} radius of its telescope, essentially that above {{cvt|11500|ft|m|0}}.<ref name="uh-2009"/><ref name="mko-about"/> On its completion in 1970, the [[UH88|UH {{cvt|88|in|m|1}}]] was the seventh largest optical/infrared telescope in the world.<ref name="astro-timeline"/>

[[File:Mauna Kea.jpg|thumb|Mauna Kea from the summit of [[Haleakalā]] on [[Maui]], approximately {{cvt|78|mi|km}} away]]
By 1970, two {{cvt|24|in|m|1}} telescopes had been constructed by the [[US Air Force]] and [[Lowell Observatory]]. In 1973, Canada and France agreed to build the 3.6&nbsp;m [[Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope]] on Mauna Kea.<ref name="astro-timeline"/> However, local organisations started to raise concerns about the environmental impact of the observatory. This led the Department of Land and Natural Resources to prepare an initial management plan, drafted in 1977 and supplemented in 1980. In January 1982, the UH [[Board of Regents]] approved a plan to support the continued development of scientific facilities at the site.<ref name="uh-2009"/> In 1998, {{cvt|2033|acre|ha|0}} were transferred from the observatory lease to supplement the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve. The 1982 plan was replaced in 2000 by an extension designed to serve until 2020: it instituted an Office of Mauna Kea Management,<ref name="uh-2000">{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea Science Reserve Astronomy Development Plan 2000–2020 – Summary |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/maunakea/appendix_a.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920100909/http://www.hawaii.edu/maunakea/appendix_a.pdf |archive-date=September 20, 2009 |publisher=Institute for Astronomy – University of Hawaiʻi |access-date=August 19, 2010 |date=August 1999 |url-status=dead}}</ref> designated {{cvt|525|acre|ha|0}} for astronomy, and shifted the remaining {{cvt|10763|acre|ha|0}} to "natural and cultural preservation". This plan was further revised to address concern expressed in the Hawaiian community that a lack of respect was being shown toward the cultural values of the mountain.<ref name="uh-2009">{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea Comprehensive Management Plan: UH Management Areas |url=http://archive.jan2013.hawaii.gov/dlnr/occl/mauna-kea-management-plan/comprehensive-management-plan |format=PDF |last=Institute for Astronomy – University of Hawaiʻi |publisher=Hawaiʻi State Department of Land and Natural Resources |access-date=August 19, 2010 |date=January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045751/http://archive.jan2013.hawaii.gov/dlnr/occl/mauna-kea-management-plan/comprehensive-management-plan |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref>

Today the Mauna Kea Science Reserve has 13 observation facilities, each funded by as many as 11 countries.<!---ref has not been updated, other observatories now numerically more telescopes<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko/ |title=Mauna Kea Observatories |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Institute for Astronomy |access-date=January 18, 2012}}</ref><---><ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.jan2013.hawaii.gov/dlnr/occl/random-files/mauna-kea-files/Mauna_Kea_CMP-Sect5-7.pdf |title=Mauna Kea Comprehensive Management Plan |last=University of Hawaiʻi |date=January 2009 |publisher=Hawaiʻi State Department of Land and Natural Resources |pages=6–1 |access-date=January 18, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071537/http://archive.jan2013.hawaii.gov/dlnr/occl/random-files/mauna-kea-files/Mauna_Kea_CMP-Sect5-7.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> There are nine telescopes working in the visible and infrared spectrum, three in the submillimeter spectrum, and one in the radio spectrum, with mirrors or dishes ranging from {{cvt|0.9|to|25|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="telescope-table"/> In comparison, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] has a {{cvt|2.4|m|ft|1}} mirror, similar in size to the UH88, now the second smallest telescope on the mountain.<ref name="telescope-table">{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea Telescopes |url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko/telescope_table.shtml |publisher=Institute for Astronomy – University of Hawaiʻi |access-date=August 29, 2010 |archive-date=July 2, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702044615/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko/telescope_table.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref>

A "Save Mauna Kea" movement believes development of the mountain to be sacrilegious.<ref name="Oaks2003">{{cite book |author=Robert F. Oaks |title=Hawaii:: A History of the Big Island |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HDVNJ5wzcisC&pg=PA131 |date=November 1, 2003 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=978-1-4396-1403-7 |page=131}}</ref> Native Hawaiian non-profit groups such as Kahea, concerned with cultural heritage and the environment, also oppose development for cultural and religious reasons.<ref name="Kaufman2009">{{cite book |author=Ned Kaufman |title=Place, Race, and Story: Essays on the Past and Future of Historic Preservation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5fCTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |date=September 11, 2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-88972-2 |page=14 |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-date=May 2, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502010211/https://books.google.com/books?id=5fCTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |url-status=live}}</ref> The multi-telescope "outrigger" proposed in 2006 was eventually canceled.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ruling could block Mauna Kea projects |url=http://www.bizjournals.com/pacific/stories/2006/08/07/daily18.html?jst=b_ln_hl |access-date=November 4, 2010 |newspaper=Pacific Business News |date=August 8, 2006 |archive-date=February 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110204220924/http://www.bizjournals.com/pacific/stories/2006/08/07/daily18.html?jst=b_ln_hl |url-status=live}}</ref> A planned new telescope, the [[Thirty Meter Telescope]] (TMT), has attracted controversy including the [[Thirty Meter Telescope protests]].<ref name="tmt">{{cite web |title=Thirty Meter Telescope Selects Mauna Kea |url=http://www.tmt.org/news-center/thirty-meter-telescope-selects-mauna-kea |work=Press release |publisher=[[Caltech]], [[University of California]], and the Association of Canadian Universities for Research in Astronomy |access-date=August 29, 2010 |date=August 21, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100810235601/http://www.tmt.org/news-center/thirty-meter-telescope-selects-mauna-kea |archive-date=August 10, 2010}}</ref><ref name="pan-starrs">{{cite web |title=University of Hawaii Develop New Telescope for "Killer" Asteroid Search |url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~kaiser/pan-starrs/pressrelease/ |work=Press release |publisher=[[Institute for Astronomy (Hawaii)|Institute for Astronomy]] – University of Hawaiʻi |date=October 8, 2002 |access-date=August 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323020630/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/%7Ekaiser/pan-starrs/pressrelease/ |archive-date=March 23, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The TMT was approved in April 2013.<ref name="3news">{{cite news |url=http://www.3news.co.nz/Massive-telescope-to-be-built-in-Hawaii/tabid/1160/articleID/294296/Default.aspx |work=3 News NZ |title=Massive telescope to be built in Hawaii |date=April 15, 2013 |access-date=April 15, 2013 |archive-date=October 8, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008070749/http://www.3news.co.nz/environmentsci/massive-telescope-to-be-built-in-hawaii-2013041512 |url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2014, the groundbreaking ceremony for the telescope was interrupted by protesters causing the project to temporarily halt.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kelleher |first1=Jennifer Sinco |title=Protesters halt Mauna Kea telescope groundbreaking |url=http://www.staradvertiser.com/news/breaking/20141007_Groundbreaking_delayed_for_Hawaii_telescope.html?id=278448831 |access-date=April 4, 2015 |agency=Honolulu Star Advertiser |work=Star Advertiser |date=October 7, 2014 |archive-date=April 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417012339/http://www.staradvertiser.com/news/breaking/20141007_Groundbreaking_delayed_for_Hawaii_telescope.html?id=278448831 |url-status=live}}</ref> In late March 2015, demonstrators blocked access of the road to the summit again.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Davis |first1=Chelsea |title=Thirty Meter Telescope protesters continue to block construction on Mauna Kea |url=http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/story/28619239/thirty-meter-telescope-protesters-continue-to-block-construction-on-mauna-kea |access-date=April 4, 2015 |agency=KHNL |publisher=WorldNow and KHNL |date=March 26, 2015 |archive-date=April 3, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403071928/http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/story/28619239/thirty-meter-telescope-protesters-continue-to-block-construction-on-mauna-kea |url-status=live}}</ref> On April 2, 2015, 300 protestors were gathered near the visitor center when 12 people were arrested with 11 more arrested at the summit.<ref name="usnews1">{{cite news |title=Clash in Hawaii Between Science and Sacred Land |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/science/news/articles/2015/04/03/clash-over-telescope-at-sacred-hawaiian-site-intensifies |access-date=April 4, 2015 |agency=Associated Press |work=AP/U.S. News & World Report |date=April 3, 2015 |archive-date=April 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411070747/http://www.usnews.com/news/science/news/articles/2015/04/03/clash-over-telescope-at-sacred-hawaiian-site-intensifies |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Police, TMT Issue Statements on Mass Arrests on Mauna Kea |url=http://www.bigislandvideonews.com/2015/04/02/police-tmt-issue-statements-on-mass-arrests-on-mauna-kea/ |access-date=April 4, 2015 |agency=Big Island Video News |publisher=Big Island Video News |date=April 2, 2015 |archive-date=April 7, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407003405/http://www.bigislandvideonews.com/2015/04/02/police-tmt-issue-statements-on-mass-arrests-on-mauna-kea/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Among the concerns of the protest groups are the land appraisals and Native Hawaiians consultation.<ref name="usnews1"/> Construction was halted on April 7, 2015, after protests expanded over the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/science/news/articles/2015/04/07/amid-controversy-construction-of-telescope-in-hawaii-halted |title=Amid controversy, construction of telescope in Hawaii halted - US News |access-date=April 7, 2015 |archive-date=April 14, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414101526/http://www.usnews.com/news/science/news/articles/2015/04/07/amid-controversy-construction-of-telescope-in-hawaii-halted |url-status=live}}</ref> After several halts, the project has been voluntarily postponed. Governor Ige announced substantial changes to the management of Mauna Kea in the future but stated the project can move forward.<ref name=KITV>{{cite news |title=Gov: Hawaii has 'failed' Mauna Kea; telescope can continue |url=http://www.kitv.com/news/gov-hawaii-has-failed-mauna-kea-telescope-can-continue/33231448 |access-date=July 24, 2015 |agency=Associated Press/KITV |publisher=Hearst Stations Inc. on behalf of KITV-TV |date=May 26, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150725013933/http://www.kitv.com/news/gov-hawaii-has-failed-mauna-kea-telescope-can-continue/33231448 |archive-date=July 25, 2015}}</ref> The [[Supreme Court of Hawaii|Supreme Court of Hawaiʻi]] approved the resumption of construction on October 31, 2018.<ref name="bbc201810313">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-46046864 Hawaii top court approves controversial Thirty Meter Telescope] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811175530/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-46046864 |date=August 11, 2019}} BBC News, October 31, 2018.</ref> Protestors have posted online petitions as a reaction against the Thirty Meter Telescope. The online petition titled "The Immediate Halt to the Construction of the TMT Telescope" was posted to [[Change.org]] on July 14, 2019. The online petition has currently gathered over 278,057 signatures worldwide.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.staradvertiser.com/2019/07/18/breaking-news/online-petition-demands-immediate-halt-to-thirty-meter-telescope-project/ |title=Online petition demanding halt to Thirty Meter Telescope project collects 100K signatures |last=Wu |first=Nina |date=July 18, 2019 |work=[[Honolulu Star-Advertiser]] |access-date=December 11, 2019 |archive-date=December 7, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207215752/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2019/07/18/breaking-news/online-petition-demands-immediate-halt-to-thirty-meter-telescope-project/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Some protesters have also called for the [[Impeachment by state and territorial governments of the United States|impeachment]] of Hawaiian Governor [[David Ige]] because of his support for the Thirty Meter Telescope. On July 18, 2019, an online petition titled "Impeach Governor David Ige" had been posted to Change.org and has currently gathered over 62,562 signatures.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.kitv.com/story/40814201/petition-on-changeorg-calls-for-impeachment-of-governor-david-ige |title=Petition on change.org calls for impeachment of Governor David Ige |date=July 19, 2019 |work=[[KITV]] |access-date=December 11, 2019 |archive-date=December 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211234043/https://www.kitv.com/story/40814201/petition-on-changeorg-calls-for-impeachment-of-governor-david-ige |url-status=live}}</ref>

As of late 2021, construction plans are currently on hold due to the ongoing effects of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and a shift in funding for the project that may see federal funds made available through the [[National Science Foundation]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/11/national-panel-recommends-federal-funding-for-the-thirty-meter-telescope/ |title=National Panel Recommends Federal Funding For The Thirty Meter Telescope |first=Blaze |last=Lovell |date=Nov 4, 2021 |work=[[Honolulu Civil Beat]] |access-date=November 14, 2021 |archive-date=November 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114220323/https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/11/national-panel-recommends-federal-funding-for-the-thirty-meter-telescope/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The controversy surrounding construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope continues. Independent polls commissioned by local media organizations<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.civilbeat.org/2019/08/civil-beat-poll-strong-support-for-tmt-but-little-love-for-ige/ |title=Strong Support for TMT |last=Blair |first=Chad |date=August 7, 2019 |work=[[Honolulu Civil Beat]] |access-date=November 14, 2021 |archive-date=August 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812043510/https://www.civilbeat.org/2019/08/civil-beat-poll-strong-support-for-tmt-but-little-love-for-ige/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.westhawaiitoday.com/2020/05/28/hawaii-news/ward-research-shows-citizens-2-to-1-favor-of-telescope/ |title=Poll shows majority support for TMT |last=Staff |date=May 28, 2020 |work=[[West Hawaii Today]] |access-date=November 14, 2021 |archive-date=November 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114220323/https://www.westhawaiitoday.com/2020/05/28/hawaii-news/ward-research-shows-citizens-2-to-1-favor-of-telescope/ |url-status=live}}</ref> show consistent support for the project in the islands with over two thirds of local residents supporting the project. These same polls indicate Native Hawaiian community support remains split with about half of Hawaiian respondents supporting construction of the new telescope.

A July 2022 state law responds to the protests by shifting control over the master land lease from the University of Hawaiʻi to the new Mauna Kea Stewardship and Oversight Authority (MKSOA).<ref>[https://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/measure_indiv.aspx?billtype=HB&billnumber=2024&year=2022 HB2024 HD1 SD2 CD1]</ref> The MKSOA is a 12-member board (11 voting members and 1 non-voting member) which includes representatives from the university, astronomers and native Hawaiians<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2022/07/31/1114314076/hawaii-mauna-kea-telescope-space-observatory On a stunning Hawaiian mountain, the fight over telescopes is nearing a peaceful end]</ref> and it was created with the aim of finding a balance between the conflicting interests of astronomers and native Hawaiians. It is placed within the [[Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources|Hawaii department of land and natural resources]] and will be the principal authority for the management of state-managed lands within the Mauna Kea lands after a 5-year transition period from the university starting on July 1, 2023.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Hawaii Revised Statutes {{!}} Chapter 195H - MAUNA KEA STEWARDSHIP AND OVERSIGHT AUTHORITY {{!}} Casetext |url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-12-conservation-and-resources/subtitle-6-general-and-miscellaneous-programs/chapter-195h-mauna-kea-stewardship-and-oversight-authority |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223225132/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-12-conservation-and-resources/subtitle-6-general-and-miscellaneous-programs/chapter-195h-mauna-kea-stewardship-and-oversight-authority |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 23, 2023 |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=casetext.com}}</ref> During the transition period, the MKSOA and the university will jointly manage the land while the authority develops a management plan to govern land uses, human activities, and overall operations.<ref name=":0" /> Once the transition period is up in 2028, the authority's responsibilities will include issuing new land use permits which will be important as the current master lease ends in 2033, and any observatories which don't come up with new leases by the time of its expiration will be decommissioned.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A New Stewardship Paradigm for Maunakea |url=https://aas.org/posts/news/2022/08/new-stewardship-paradigm-maunakea |access-date=2023-03-01 |website=aas.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Climate==
Mauna Kea has an [[alpine climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|ET]]). Due to the influence of its tropical latitude, temperature swings are very low. Frosts are common year round, but the average monthly temperature remains above freezing throughout the year.

Snow may fall at an altitude of {{cvt|11,000.|ft|m}} and above in any month, but occurs most often from October to April.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.weather.gov/hfo/faq|title=Frequently Asked Questions|access-date=September 15, 2020|archive-date=September 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916212459/https://www.weather.gov/hfo/faq|url-status=live}}</ref>

A weather station was operated from 1972 to 1982; however, only 33 months within this period have temperature records. Many years only have data for two months. The temperatures presented below are [[smoothing|smoothed averages]], not the raw numbers recorded by NOAA.
{{Weather box |location=Mauna Kea Observatory, elevation: {{cvt|13,800.|ft|m}}
|single line=y
|Jan record high F=55
|Feb record high F=56
|Mar record high F=54
|Apr record high F=55
|May record high F=59
|Jun record high F=58
|Jul record high F=75
|Aug record high F=57
|Sep record high F=60
|Oct record high F=59
|Nov record high F=54
|Dec record high F=55
|Jan record low F=19
|Feb record low F=12
|Mar record low F=18
|Apr record low F=18
|May record low F=12
|Jun record low F=23
|Jul record low F=22
|Aug record low F=17
|Sep record low F=23
|Oct record low F=20
|Nov record low F=20
|Dec record low F=17
|Jan high F=42.0
|Feb high F=42.5
|Mar high F=40.3
|Apr high F=41.4
|May high F=47.5
|Jun high F=49.3
|Jul high F=50.9
|Aug high F=49.9
|Sep high F=50.5
|Oct high F=43.8
|Nov high F=45.1
|Dec high F=42.7
|Jan low F=26.3
|Feb low F=26.1
|Mar low F=24.9
|Apr low F=26.2
|May low F=29.0
|Jun low F=29.4
|Jul low F=30.3
|Aug low F=30.9
|Sep low F=31.3
|Oct low F=29.5
|Nov low F=27.8
|Dec low F=27.6
|Jan precipitation inch=0.81
|Feb precipitation inch=0.24
|Mar precipitation inch=1.05
|Apr precipitation inch=0.50
|May precipitation inch=0.92
|Jun precipitation inch=0.14
|Jul precipitation inch=0.29
|Aug precipitation inch=0.77
|Sep precipitation inch=0.51
|Oct precipitation inch=0.58
|Nov precipitation inch=1.04
|Dec precipitation inch=0.52
|source 1=[http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/ Western Regional Climate Center]<ref>{{cite web |author=WRCC |title=Western U.S. Climate Historical Summaries Weather |url=http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?hi6183 |publisher=Western Regional Climate Center |access-date=September 15, 2020 |archive-date=May 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516134916/https://wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?hi6183 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|date=September 2020}}

==Recreation==
[[File:A173, Hawaii, USA, Mauna Kea, from outskirts of Hilo, 2007.JPG|thumb|right|Mauna Kea from the [[Saddle Road]] near Hilo]]
Mauna Kea's coastline is dominated by the [[Hamakua]] Coast, an area of rugged terrain created by frequent slumps and landslides on the volcano's flank.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Juvik |first1=Sonia P. |last2=Juvik |first2=James O. |last3=Paradise |first3=Thomas R. |title=Atlas of Hawaii |edition=3rd |year=1998 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |location=Hilo |isbn=0-8248-2125-4 |page=71}}</ref> The area includes several recreation parks including [[Kalopa State Recreation Area]], [[Wailuku River State Park]] and [[Akaka Falls State Park]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hawaii Island |publisher=[[Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources]] |url=http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/dsp/parks/hawaii/ |access-date=July 27, 2017 |archive-date=July 26, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170726122232/http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/dsp/parks/hawaii/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

There are over 3,000 registered hunters on Hawaii island, and hunting, for both recreation and sustenance, is a common activity on Mauna Kea. A public hunting program is used to control the numbers of introduced animals including pigs, sheep, goats, turkey, pheasants, and quail.<ref name=uh-2009 /><ref name=ims-1984 /> The [[Mauna Kea State Recreation Area]] functions as a base camp for the sport.<ref name="haw-recreation"/> [[Birdwatching]] is also common at lower levels on the mountain.<ref name="mko-about" /> A popular site is ''[[Pu'u Huluhulu (Hawaii Route 200)|Kīpuka Pu{{okina}}u Huluhulu]]'', a [[kīpuka]] on Mauna Kea's flank that formed when lava flows isolated the forest on a hill.<ref name="lp-2005">{{cite book |title=Hawaiʻi: The big island |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |isbn=978-1-74059-691-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanethawa00luci/page/145 145–46]|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T83kOvN6aTYC&q=Pu%E2%80%99u%20Huluhulu%20Native%20Tree%20Refuge&pg=PA145 |first1=Alan |last1=Tarbell |first2=Luci |last2=Yamamoto |chapter=Around Mauna Kea |date=August 1, 2005 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanethawa00luci/page/145}}</ref>

[[File:A152, Hawaii, USA, Mauna Kea observatories, from summit, 2007.JPG|thumb|Four observatories from the summit (left to right): [[United Kingdom Infrared Telescope]], [[UH88]], [[Gemini Observatory|Gemini North]], and the [[Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope]]]]
Mauna Kea's great height and the steepness of its flanks provide a better view and a shorter hike than the adjacent Mauna Loa. The height with its risk of [[altitude sickness]], weather concerns, steep road grade, and overall inaccessibility make the volcano dangerous and summit trips difficult. Until the construction of roads in the mid-20th century, only the hardy visited Mauna Kea's upper slopes; hunters tracked game animals, and hikers traveled up the mountain. These travelers used stone cabins constructed by the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] in the 1930s as base camps, and it is from these facilities that the modern mid-level [[Onizuka Center for International Astronomy]] telescope support complex is derived. The first Mauna Kea summit road was built in 1964, making the peak accessible to more people.<ref name="haw-recreation" />

Today, multiple hiking trails exist, including the [[Mauna Kea Trail]], and by 2007 over 100,000 tourists and 32,000 vehicles were going each year to the Visitor Information Station (VIS) adjacent to the Onizuka Center for International Astronomy. The Mauna Kea Access Road is paved up to the Center at {{cvt|2804|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="uh-2009"/> One study reported that around a third of visitors and two-thirds of professional astronomers working on the mountain have experienced symptoms of acute altitude sickness.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1089/ham.2007.8307 |author1=Onopa, J. |author2=Haley, A. |author3=Yeow, M. E. |title=Survey of acute mountain sickness on Mauna Kea |journal=High Altitude Medicine & Biology |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=200–5 |year=2007 |pmid=17824820}}</ref> Visitors to the mountain should prepare ahead of time by acclimating at a lower elevation or using a prescription medicine like Diamox.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dziezynski |first1=James |title=Hike Mauna Kea: The Expert Guide to Hiking Hawaii’s Highest Point |journal=Backpacker Magazine |date=October 25, 2023 |url=https://www.backpacker.com/trips/trips-by-state/hawaii-trails/hike-mauna-kea/ |access-date=26 October 2023}}</ref> It is strongly recommended to use a [[four-wheel drive]] vehicle to drive all the way to the top. Brakes often overheat on the way down and there is no fuel available on Mauna Kea.<ref name="sl-hazards">{{cite web |title=Mauna Kea Hazards: Please Read Before Travelling Above Hale Pohaku |url=http://irtfweb.ifa.hawaii.edu/observing/safety/MK_Hazards.pdf |work=Safety Leaflet |publisher=Institute for Astronomy – University of Hawaiʻi |access-date=August 28, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609215514/http://irtfweb.ifa.hawaii.edu/observing/safety/MK_Hazards.pdf |archive-date=June 9, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> A free Star Gazing Program was previously held at the VIS every night from 6-10 pm, with the program canceled due to both a change in operating hours and closure due to the ongoing [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Star Gazing Program |publisher=[[Mauna Kea Support Services]] |url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/info/vis/visiting-mauna-kea/star-gazing-program.html |access-date=September 18, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820032021/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/info/vis/visiting-mauna-kea/star-gazing-program.html |archive-date=August 20, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Maunakea Visitor Information Station |publisher=[[Mauna Kea Support Services]] |url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/info/vis/ |access-date=June 11, 2020 |archive-date=February 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211034901/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/info/vis/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Between 5,000 and 6,000 people visit the summit of Mauna Kea each year, and to help ensure safety, and protect the integrity of the mountain, a [[Park ranger|ranger program]] was implemented in 2001.<ref name=uh-2009 />
<!-- Because of snow cover in January and February, (not accurate) Mauna Kea can occasionally be skied. There are no facilities,<ref name=uh-2009 /> and winds can reach speeds of {{cvt|80|-|110|km/h|mph|0}}, but skiing remains a common pastime for some island residents. The most popular location is the ''Poi Bowl'', just east of the [[Caltech Submillimeter Observatory]],<ref name=uh-2009 /> where competitions are held once or twice a year, depending on weather conditions. (Not anymore, needs current citations) <ref name="haw-recreation"/> -->

==See also==
{{Portal|Oceania|United States|Hawaii|Mountains|Volcanoes}}
*[[Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes]]
*[[List of mountain peaks of the United States]]
**[[List of volcanoes of the United States]]
***[[List of mountain peaks of Hawaii|List of mountain peaks of Hawaiʻi]]
*[[List of tallest mountains in the Solar System]]
*[[List of the highest major summits of the United States]]
*[[List of the most isolated major summits of the United States]]
*[[List of the most prominent summits of the United States]]
*[[List of Ultras of Oceania]]

==Footnotes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Ciotti, Joseph E. (2011). [https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/items/9d28969e-058a-475a-9f61-e51f5ac36d8d "Historical Views of Mauna Kea: From the Vantage Points of Hawaiian Culture and Astronomical Research]". ''Hawaiian Journal of History''. '''45''', pages 147–66.

==External links==
{{Commons and category}}
; Geology
*https://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/ {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061021204300/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/|date=October 21, 2006}}
*[http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1302-03- Mauna Kea Summary]—[[Global Volcanism Program]]
*[http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/HCV/maunakea.html Mauna Kea]. [[Hawaii Center for Volcanology]].

; Astronomy and culture
*[http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko/ Mauna Kea Observatories]. Tour of Mauna Kea's summit facilities.
*[http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/info/vis/ Mauna Kea Visitor Information]. Information pertaining to visiting the summit telescopes.

; Ecology and management
*[http://www.malamamaunakea.org/ Office of Mauna Kea Management]. Plan for land management.
*[http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/ecosystems/nars/reserves/hawaii-island/mauna-kea-ice-age/ Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve]. Department of Land and Natural Resources.

{{Hawaii highest}}
{{Hawaiian volcanism}}
{{U.S. State Highest Points}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cenozoic Hawaii]]
[[Category:Four-thousanders of Oceania]]
[[Category:Four-thousanders of the United States]]
[[Category:Hawaiian religion]]
[[Category:Hawaiian words and phrases]]
[[Category:Highest points of U.S. states]]
[[Category:Holocene Oceania]]
[[Category:Holocene shield volcanoes]]
[[Category:Inactive volcanoes]]
[[Category:Mountains of Hawaii]]
[[Category:National Natural Landmarks in Hawaii]]
[[Category:Pleistocene Oceania]]
[[Category:Pleistocene shield volcanoes]]
[[Category:Polygenetic shield volcanoes]]
[[Category:Sacred mountains of the United States]]
[[Category:Shield volcanoes of the United States]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of the Island of Hawaii]]
[[Category:Ultra-prominent peaks of Oceania]]