View source for Mary, Queen of Scots

{{Short description|Queen of Scotland from 1542 to 1567}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Mary
| image        = François Clouet - Mary%2C Queen of Scots %281542-87%29 - Google Art Project.jpg
| caption      = Portrait of Mary at about 17 years old, {{circa|1558–1560}}
| succession   = <!--Consensus is to use ''Queen of Scotland''-->[[List of Scottish monarchs|Queen of Scotland]]
| reign        = 14 December 1542 – 24 July 1567
| coronation   = 9 September 1543
| cor-type     = [[Coronation of Mary, Queen of Scots|Coronation]]
| predecessor  = [[James V]]
| successor    = [[James VI]]
| regent       = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}
| [[James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran]] (1542–54)
| [[Mary of Guise]] (1554–60)}}
| reg-type     = [[Regent]]s
| succession1  = [[Queen consort of France]]
| reign1       = 10 July 1559&nbsp;– 5 December 1560
| reign-type1  = Tenure
| birth_date   = 8 December 1542
| birth_place  = [[Linlithgow Palace]], Linlithgow, Scotland
| death_date   = 8 February 1587 (aged 44){{Efn|While Catholic Europe switched to the [[New Style]] [[Gregorian calendar]] in the 1580s, England and Scotland retained the Old Style [[Julian calendar]] until 1752. In this article, dates before 1752 are Old Style, with the exception that years are assumed to start on 1 January rather than 25 March.}}
| death_place  = [[Fotheringhay Castle]], Northamptonshire, England
| death_cause  = [[Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots|Execution]]
| burial_date  = 30 July 1587
| burial_place = {{hanging indent|[[Peterborough Cathedral]]}} {{Br separated entries|28 October 1612|{{hanging indent|[[Westminster Abbey]]}}}}
| spouses      = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Francis II of France]]|24 April 1558|5 December 1560|end=died}}
* {{marriage|[[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]]|29 July 1565|10 February 1567|end=died}}
* {{marriage|[[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]]|15 May 1567|14 April 1578|end=died}}
}}
| issue        = [[James VI and I]]
| house        = [[House of Stuart|Stuart]]
| father       = [[James V of Scotland]]
| mother       = [[Mary of Guise]]
| religion     = [[Catholic Church in Scotland|Roman Catholicism]]
| signature    = MaryIofScotlandSig.svg
}}

'''Mary, Queen of Scots''' (8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587), also known as '''Mary Stuart'''{{Efn|Also spelled as Marie and as [[House of Stuart|Steuart or Stewart]]}} or '''Mary I of Scotland''',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/research/learning/hall-of-fame/hall-of-fame-a-z/mary-queen-of-scots |title=National Records of Scotland; Hall of Fame A-Z – Mary Queen of Scots |publisher=NRS |date= 31 May 2013|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> was [[List of Scottish monarchs|Queen of Scotland]] from 14 December 1542 until her forced [[abdication]] on 24 July 1567.

The only surviving legitimate child of [[James V of Scotland]], Mary was six days old when her father died and she inherited the throne. During her childhood, [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] was governed by [[regent]]s, first by the heir to the throne, [[James Hamilton, Earl of Arran]], and then by her mother, [[Mary of Guise]]. In 1548, she was betrothed to [[Francis II of France|Francis]], the [[Dauphin of France]], and was sent to be brought up in [[Kingdom of France|France]], where she would be safe from invading [[Kingdom of England|English]] forces during the [[Rough Wooing]]. Mary [[Wedding of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Francis, Dauphin of France|married Francis]] in 1558, becoming [[queen consort of France]] from his accession in 1559 until his death in December 1560. Widowed, Mary [[Entry of Mary, Queen of Scots, into Edinburgh|returned to Scotland]] in August 1561. The tense religious and political climate following the [[Scottish Reformation]] that Mary encountered on her return to Scotland was further agitated by prominent Scots such as [[John Knox]], who openly questioned whether her subjects had a duty to obey her. The early years of her personal rule were marked by pragmatism, tolerance, and moderation. She issued a proclamation accepting the religious settlement in Scotland as she had found it upon her return, retained advisers such as [[James Stewart, Earl of Moray]] (her illegitimate half-brother), and [[William Maitland of Lethington]], and governed as the [[Catholic]] monarch of a [[Protestant]] kingdom.

In 1565, [[Wedding of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley|Mary married]] her half-cousin [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]]; they had a son, [[James VI and I|James]]. Their marriage soured after Darnley orchestrated the murder of Mary's Italian secretary and close friend [[David Rizzio]]. In February 1567, Darnley's residence was destroyed by an explosion, and he [[Murder of Lord Darnley#Darnley's murder|was found murdered]] in the nearby garden. [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]], was generally believed to have orchestrated Darnley's death, but he was acquitted of the charge in April 1567 and in the following month he married Mary. Following an uprising against the couple, Mary was imprisoned in [[Lochleven Castle]]. In July 1567, she was forced to abdicate in favour of her one-year-old son James VI. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southward seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, [[Elizabeth I of England]].

As a great-granddaughter of [[Henry VII of England]], Mary had once claimed Elizabeth's throne as her own and was considered the legitimate sovereign of England by many [[English Catholics]], including participants in a rebellion known as the [[Rising of the North]]. Perceiving Mary as a threat, Elizabeth had her confined in various castles and manor houses in the interior of England. After eighteen and a half years in captivity, Mary was found guilty of [[Babington Plot|plotting to assassinate Elizabeth]] in 1586 and [[Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots|was beheaded]] the following year at [[Fotheringhay Castle]]. Mary's life and execution established her [[Cultural depictions of Mary, Queen of Scots|in popular culture]] as a romanticised historical character.

== Childhood and early reign ==

[[File:Linlithgow Palace NW 03.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Both Mary and her father [[James V of Scotland|King James V]] were born at [[Linlithgow Palace]] in [[West Lothian]], Scotland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=14}}</ref>]]

Mary was born on 8 December 1542<ref>Bishop [[John Lesley]] said Mary was born on the 7th, but Mary and [[John Knox]] claimed the 8th, which was the [[feast day]] of the [[Feast of the Immaculate Conception|Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary]] ({{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=13}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=11}}).</ref> at [[Linlithgow Palace]], Scotland, to King [[James V]] and his French second wife, [[Mary of Guise]]. She was said to have been born prematurely and was the only legitimate child of James to survive him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=13}}</ref> She was the great-granddaughter of King [[Henry VII of England]] through her paternal grandmother, [[Margaret Tudor]]. Margaret was [[Henry VIII]]'s older sister so Mary was Henry VIII's great-niece. On 14 December, six days after her birth, she became [[List of Scottish monarchs|Queen of Scotland]] when her father died, perhaps from the effects of a nervous collapse following the [[Battle of Solway Moss]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=11}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=46}}</ref> or from drinking contaminated water while on campaign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=16}}</ref>

A popular tale, first recorded by [[John Knox]], states that James, upon hearing on his deathbed that his wife had given birth to a daughter, ruefully exclaimed, "It cam wi' a lass and it will 	[[wikt:gang#Scots|gang]] wi' a lass!"<ref>This version is taken from [[Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie]]'s ''The History of Scotland from 21 February 1436 to March 1565'' written in the 1570s. The phrase was first recorded by [[John Knox]] in the 1560s as "The devil go with it! It will end as it began: it came from a woman, and it will end in a woman" ({{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=11–12}}).</ref> His [[House of Stuart]] had gained the throne of Scotland in the 14th century through "a lass"—via the marriage of [[Marjorie Bruce]], daughter of [[Robert the Bruce]], to [[Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland]]—and it would be lost from his family "wi' a lass". This legendary statement came true much later—not through Mary, but through her great-great-granddaughter [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=12}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=11}}</ref>

Mary was christened at the nearby [[St Michael's Parish Church, Linlithgow|Church of St Michael]] shortly after she was born.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=12}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=17}}</ref> Rumours spread that she was weak and frail,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=13}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=17}}</ref> but an English diplomat, [[Ralph Sadler]], saw the infant at Linlithgow Palace in March 1543, unwrapped by her nurse [[Jean Sinclair]], and wrote, "it is as goodly a child as I have seen of her age, and as like to live."<ref>Sadler to Henry VIII, 23 March 1543, quoted in {{Harvnb|Clifford|1809|p=88}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=18}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=22}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=43}}</ref>

As Mary was an infant when she inherited the throne, Scotland was ruled by regents until she became an adult. From the outset, there were two claims to the regency: one from the Catholic [[Cardinal Beaton]], and the other from the Protestant [[James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran|Earl of Arran]], who was next in line to the throne. Beaton's claim was based on a version of the king's [[will (law)|will]] that his opponents dismissed as a forgery.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=15}}; [[John Knox]] claimed the king had signed a blank sheet of paper that Beaton had then filled in, while Arran claimed that Beaton had taken the dying king's hand in his own and traced out the signature ({{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=46–47}}). The disputed will is printed in {{cite book |author=Historical Manuscripts Commission |year=1887 |title=The Manuscripts of the Duke of Hamilton, KT |chapter=Eleventh Report, Appendix, Part VI |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |location=London |pages=205, 219–220}}</ref> Arran, with the support of his friends and relations, became the regent until 1554 when Mary's mother managed to remove and succeed him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=17, 60}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=20, 60}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=49–50}}</ref>

=== Treaty of Greenwich ===

[[File:Scottish 22 shillings coin 1553.jpg|thumb|[[Scottish coinage|Gold coin]] (22 Shillings) of 1553: obverse, [[coat of arms of Scotland]]; reverse, [[royal monogram]]]]

Henry VIII of England took the opportunity of the regency to propose marriage between Mary and his own son and heir, [[Edward VI of England|Edward]], hoping for a union of Scotland and England. On 1 July 1543, when Mary was six months old, the [[Treaty of Greenwich]] was signed, which promised that, at the age of ten, Mary would marry Edward and move to England, where Henry could oversee her upbringing.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=17–18}};{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=55}}</ref><ref name="Weirp8"/> The treaty provided that the two countries would remain legally separate and, if the couple failed to have children, the temporary union would dissolve.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=18}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=25}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=55}}</ref>  Cardinal Beaton rose to power again and began to push a pro-Catholic pro-French agenda, angering Henry, who wanted to break the [[Auld Alliance|Scottish alliance with France]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=19}}</ref><ref name="Weirp8"/>

Beaton wanted to move Mary away from the coast to the safety of [[Stirling Castle]]. Regent Arran resisted the move but backed down when Beaton's [[Secret Bond|armed supporters gathered at Linlithgow]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=19–20}}</ref> The [[Matthew Stuart, 4th Earl of Lennox|Earl of Lennox]] escorted Mary and her mother to [[Stirling]] on 27 July 1543 with 3,500 armed men.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=26}}</ref> Mary was [[Coronation of Mary, Queen of Scots|crowned]] in the castle chapel on 9 September 1543,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=21}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=27}}</ref><ref name="Weirp8">{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=8}}</ref> with "such solemnity as they do use in this country, which is not very costly", according to the report of Ralph Sadler and [[Berwick Pursuivant|Henry Ray]].<ref>Sadler to Henry VIII, 11 September 1543, quoted in {{Harvnb|Clifford|1809|p=289}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=21}}</ref>

Shortly before Mary's coronation, Henry arrested Scottish merchants headed for France and impounded their goods. The arrests caused anger in Scotland, and Arran joined Beaton and became a Catholic.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=20–21}}</ref> The Treaty of Greenwich was rejected by the [[Parliament of Scotland]] in December.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=22}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=32}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=58}}</ref> The rejection of the marriage treaty and the renewal of the alliance between France and Scotland prompted Henry's "[[Rough Wooing]]", a military campaign designed to impose the marriage of Mary to his son. English forces mounted a series of raids on Scottish and French territory.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=58–59}}</ref> In May 1544, the English [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset|Earl of Hertford]] (later [[Duke of Somerset]]) raided Edinburgh, and the Scots took Mary to [[Dunkeld]] for safety.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=23–24}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=33–34}}</ref>

In May 1546, Beaton was murdered by Protestant [[laird]]s,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=26}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=36}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=59}}</ref> and on 10 September 1547, nine months after the death of Henry VIII, the Scots suffered a heavy defeat at the [[Battle of Pinkie]]. Mary's guardians, fearful for her safety, sent her to [[Inchmahome Priory]] for no more than three weeks and turned to the French for help.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=29–30}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=10}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=61}}</ref>

King [[Henry II of France]] proposed to unite France and Scotland by marrying the young queen to his three-year-old son, the [[Dauphin of France|Dauphin]] [[Francis II of France|Francis]]. On the promise of French military help and a French dukedom for himself, Arran agreed to the marriage.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=10–11}}</ref> In February 1548, Mary was moved, again for her safety, to [[Dumbarton Castle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=30}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=11}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=61}}</ref> The English left a trail of devastation behind them once more and seized the strategic town of [[Haddington, East Lothian|Haddington]]. In June, the much-awaited French help arrived at [[Leith]] to [[Siege of Haddington|besiege and ultimately take Haddington]]. On 7 July 1548, a Scottish Parliament held at a nunnery near the town agreed to [[Treaty of Haddington|the French marriage treaty]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=40–41}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=62}}</ref>

=== Life in France ===

With her marriage agreement in place, five-year-old Mary was sent to France to spend the next thirteen years at the French court. The French fleet sent by Henry II, commanded by [[Nicolas de Villegagnon]], sailed with Mary from [[Dumbarton]] on 7 August 1548 and arrived a week or more later at [[Roscoff]] or [[Saint-Pol-de-Léon]] in [[Brittany]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=41–42}}; "[[Jean de St Mauris|St Mauris]] to [[Mary of Hungary (governor of the Netherlands)|the Queen Dowager]]", 25 August 1548, quoted in {{cite book |title=Calendar of State Papers, Spain: Volume IX: 1547–1549 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |year=1912 |editor1-last=Hume |editor1-first=Martin A. S. |editor1-link=Martin Sharp (journalist) |location=London |page=577 |chapter=Appendix: Miscellaneous 1548 |editor2-last=Tyler |editor2-first=Royall |editor2-link=Royall Tyler (historian) |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/spain/vol9/pp531-581}}; {{cite journal |author=Lord Guthrie |year=1907 |title=Mary Stuart and Roscoff |url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_042/42_013_018.pdf |journal=Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland |volume=42 |pages=13–18}}</ref>

Mary was accompanied by her own court including two illegitimate half-brothers, and the "four Marys" (four girls her own age, all named Mary), who were the daughters of some of the noblest families in Scotland: [[Mary Beaton|Beaton]], [[Mary Seton|Seton]], [[Mary Fleming|Fleming]], and [[Mary Livingston|Livingston]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=31–32}}</ref> [[Lady Janet Stewart|Janet, Lady Fleming]], who was Mary Fleming's mother and James V's half-sister, was appointed governess.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=31–32}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=43}}</ref> When Lady Fleming left France in 1551, she was succeeded by a French governess, [[Françoise de Paroy]].

[[File:BnF, NAL 83, folio 154 v - Francis II and Mary, Queen of Scots.jpg|thumb|upright|Mary and [[Francis II of France|Francis]] in [[Catherine de' Medici]]'s [[book of hours]], {{circa}} 1574. {{Lang|fr|[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]|italic=no}}, Paris.]]

Vivacious, beautiful, and clever (according to contemporary accounts), Mary had a promising childhood.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=36, 44–45, 50}}</ref> At the French court, she was a favourite with many people, except Henry II's wife [[Catherine de' Medici]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=12}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=77}}; Catherine's dislike of Mary became apparent only after Henry II's death ({{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=102–103, 115–116, 119}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=46}}). Catherine's interests competed with those of the Guise family, and there may have been an element of jealousy or rivalry between the two queens ({{Harvnb|Donaldson|1974|pp=50–51}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=102–103, 116, 119}}).</ref> Mary learned to play [[lute]] and [[virginals]], was competent in prose, poetry, horsemanship, falconry, and needlework, and was taught French, Italian, [[Latin]], Spanish, and [[Greek language|Greek]], in addition to her native [[Scots language|Scots]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=178–182}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=71–80}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=13}}</ref> Jehan Paulle, a ''balladin'', taught her to dance.<ref>[[Margaret M. McGowan]], ''Dance in the Renaissance: European Fashion, French Obsession'' (Yale, 2008), p. 152.</ref> Her future sister-in-law, [[Elisabeth of Valois]], became a close friend of whom Mary "retained nostalgic memories in later life".<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=43}}</ref> Mary's maternal grandmother, [[Antoinette de Bourbon]], was another strong influence on her childhood<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=37}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=80}}</ref> and acted as one of her principal advisors.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=80}}</ref>

Portraits of Mary show that she had a small, oval-shaped head, a long, graceful neck, bright auburn hair, hazel-brown eyes, under heavy lowered eyelids and finely arched brows, smooth pale skin, a high forehead, and regular, firm features. She was considered a pretty child and later, as a woman, strikingly attractive.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=39–40, 43, 75–80}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=30}}</ref> At some point in her infancy or childhood, she caught [[smallpox]], but it did not mark her features.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=62}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=67}}</ref>

Mary was eloquent, and especially tall by 16th-century standards (she attained an adult height of 5 feet 11 inches or 1.80 m),<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=76}}</ref> while Henry II's son and heir, Francis, stuttered and was unusually short. Henry commented: "from the very first day they met, my son and she got on as well together as if they had known each other for a long time".<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=47–48}}</ref> On 4 April 1558, Mary signed a secret agreement bequeathing Scotland and her claim to England to the French crown if she died without issue.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=90–91}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=17}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=21}}</ref> Twenty days later, [[Wedding of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Francis, Dauphin of France|she married the Dauphin]] at [[Notre Dame de Paris]], and he became king consort of Scotland.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://special-1.bl.uk/treasures/festivalbooks/BookDetails.aspx?strFest=0021 |author=Anonymous |title=Discours du grand et magnifique triumphe faict au mariage du tresnoble & magnifique Prince Francois de Valois Roy Dauphin, filz aisné du tres-chrestien Roy de France Henry II du nom & de treshaulte & vertueuse Princesse madame Marie d'Estreuart Roine d'Escosse |year=1558 |location=Paris |publisher=Annet Briere |language=fr |access-date=9 June 2010 |archive-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214223317/http://special-1.bl.uk/treasures/festivalbooks/BookDetails.aspx?strFest=0021 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UYVCAAAAcAAJ |author=Teulet, Alexandre |title=Relations politiques de la France et de l'Espagne avec l'Écosse au XVIe siècle |volume=1 |year=1862 |pages=302–311 |publisher=Renouard |location=Paris |language=fr}}</ref>

=== Claim to the English throne ===

[[File:Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland (1559).svg|thumb|upright|Coat of arms sent from France in July 1559.<ref>{{cite web |title=Elizabeth and Mary, Royal Cousins, Rival Queens: Curators' Picks |date=8 October 2021 |access-date=4 February 2022 |website=British Library |url=https://blogs.bl.uk/digitisedmanuscripts/2021/10/elizabeth-and-mary-royal-cousins-rival-queens-curators-picks.html}}</ref> [[Dexter and sinister|Sinister]]: Mary's arms as Queen of Scotland quartered with the arms of England, reflecting her claim to the English throne. Dexter: Francis's arms as Dauphin of France and king consort of Scotland, with an [[Escutcheon (heraldry)#Inescutcheon|inescutcheon]] of England.]]

In November 1558, [[Henry VIII]]'s elder daughter, [[Mary I of England]], was succeeded by her only surviving sibling, [[Elizabeth I]]. Under the [[Third Succession Act]], passed in 1543 by the [[Parliament of England]], Elizabeth was recognised as her sister's heir, and Henry VIII's [[last will and testament]] had excluded the Stuarts from succeeding to the English throne. Yet, in the eyes of many Catholics, Elizabeth was illegitimate and Mary Stuart was the rightful queen of England, as the senior surviving legitimate descendant of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] through her grandmother, [[Margaret Tudor]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=83}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=18}}</ref> Henry II of France proclaimed his eldest son and daughter-in-law king and queen of England. In France, the [[royal arms of England]] were [[Quartering (heraldry)|quartered]] with those of Francis and Mary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=83}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=95–96}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=18}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=21}}</ref> Mary's claim to the English throne was a perennial sticking point between her and Elizabeth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=85}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=18}}</ref>

When Henry II died on 10 July 1559, from injuries sustained in a [[joust]], fifteen-year-old Francis and sixteen-year-old Mary became king and queen of France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=86–88}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=100}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=19}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=93}}</ref> Two of the Queen's uncles, the [[Francis, Duke of Guise|Duke of Guise]] and the [[Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine|Cardinal of Lorraine]], were now dominant in French politics,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=88}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=80, 93}}</ref> enjoying an ascendancy called by some historians ''la tyrannie Guisienne''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=James |author-link=James Westfall Thompson |title=The Wars of Religion in France |date=2005 |orig-date=1909 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=22 |isbn=978-1-4179-7435-1}}</ref>

In Scotland, the power of the Protestant [[Lords of the Congregation]] was rising at the expense of Mary's mother, Mary of Guise, who maintained effective control only through the use of French troops.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=96–97}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=108–109}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=14}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=94–100}}</ref> In early 1560, the Protestant lords [[Treaty of Berwick (1560)|invited English troops into Scotland]] in an attempt to secure Protestantism. A [[Huguenot]] uprising in France, the [[Tumult of Amboise]], made it impossible for the French to send further support.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=97}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=100}}</ref> Instead, the Guise brothers sent ambassadors to negotiate a settlement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=100–101}}</ref> On 11 June 1560, their sister, Mary's mother, died, and so the question of future Franco-Scots relations was a pressing one. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Edinburgh]], signed by Mary's representatives on 6 July 1560, France and England undertook to withdraw troops from Scotland. France recognised Elizabeth's right to rule England, but the seventeen-year-old Mary, still in France and grieving for her mother, refused to ratify the treaty.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=97–101}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=114–115}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=20}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=102–103}}</ref>

== Return to Scotland ==

[[File:MaryQueenofScotsMourning.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Mary's all-white mourning garb earned her the sobriquet {{lang|fr|La Reine Blanche}} ("the White Queen").<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=183}}</ref> Portrait by [[François Clouet]], 1560.]]

Francis II died on 5 December 1560 of a middle-ear infection that led to an abscess in his brain. Mary was grief-stricken.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=105–107}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=21}}</ref> Her mother-in-law, [[Catherine de' Medici]], became regent for the late king's ten-year-old brother [[Charles IX of France|Charles IX]], who inherited the French throne.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=119–120}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=21–22}}</ref> Mary [[Entry of Mary, Queen of Scots, into Edinburgh|returned to Scotland]] nine months later, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=137}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=134}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=25}}</ref> Having lived in France since the age of five, Mary had little direct experience of the dangerous and complex political situation in Scotland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=22}}</ref>

As a devout Catholic, she was regarded with suspicion by many of her subjects, as well as by the Queen of England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=24}}</ref> Scotland was torn between Catholic and Protestant factions. Mary's illegitimate half-brother, the [[James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray|Earl of Moray]], was a leader of the Protestants.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=126}}</ref> The Protestant reformer [[John Knox]] preached against Mary, condemning her for hearing [[Mass in the Catholic Church|Mass]], dancing, and dressing too elaborately.<ref>Knox, John, ''History of the Reformation of Religion in Scotland'', 4th Book, various editions, e.g., Lennox, Cuthbert (editor) (1905). London: Andrew Melrose, pp. 225–337 [https://archive.org/details/thehistoryofther00knoxuoft]</ref> She summoned him to her presence to remonstrate with him but was unsuccessful. She later charged him with treason, but he was acquitted and released.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=155–156, 215–217}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=140–143, 176–177, 186–187}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=125, 145–146}}</ref>

To the surprise and dismay of the Catholic party, Mary tolerated the newly established Protestant ascendancy,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=167}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=125}}</ref> and kept her half-brother Moray as her chief advisor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=145}}</ref> Her [[Privy Council of Scotland|privy council]] of 16 men, appointed on 6 September 1561, retained those who already held the offices of state. The council was dominated by the Protestant leaders from the reformation crisis of 1559–1560: the Earls of [[Archibald Campbell, 5th Earl of Argyll|Argyll]], [[Alexander Cunningham, 4th Earl of Glencairn|Glencairn]], and Moray. Only four of the councillors were Catholic: the Earls of [[John Stewart, 4th Earl of Atholl|Atholl]], [[George Hay, 7th Earl of Erroll|Erroll]], [[William Graham, 2nd Earl of Montrose|Montrose]], and [[George Gordon, 4th Earl of Huntly|Huntly]], who was [[Lord Chancellor of Scotland|Lord Chancellor]].<ref>The other members were [[Lord Justice Clerk]] [[John Bellenden of Auchinoul]], [[Lord Clerk Register]] [[James MacGill of Nether Rankeillour]], [[Secretary of State, Scotland|Secretary of State]] [[William Maitland of Lethington]], [[Treasurer of Scotland|Lord High Treasurer]] [[Robert Richardson (Lord Treasurer)|Robert Richardson]], [[Lord High Admiral of Scotland|Lord High Admiral]] [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell|the Earl of Bothwell]], the Earls of [[James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran|Arran]] and [[James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton|Morton]], the [[William Keith, 4th Earl Marischal|Earl Marischal]], and [[John Erskine, 6th Lord Erskine|Lord Erskine]] (later the [[Earl of Mar]]) ({{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=30}}).</ref>

Modern historian [[Jenny Wormald]] found this remarkable and suggested that Mary's failure to appoint a council sympathetic to Catholic and French interests was an indication of her focus on the English throne, over the internal problems of Scotland. Even the one significant later addition to the council, [[Patrick Ruthven, 3rd Lord Ruthven|Lord Ruthven]] in December 1563, was another Protestant whom Mary personally disliked.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=114–116}}</ref> In this, she was acknowledging her lack of effective military power in the face of the Protestant lords, while also following a policy that strengthened her links with England. She joined with Moray in the destruction of Scotland's leading Catholic magnate, Lord Huntly, in 1562, after he led a rebellion against her in the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=192–203}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=42}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=123–124}}</ref>

[[File:Mary, Queen of Scots arms, South Leith Parish Church.JPG|thumb|upright|Mary's royal arms from the [[Tolbooth]] in [[Leith]] (1565), now in [[South Leith Parish Church]]]]

Mary sent [[William Maitland of Lethington]] as an ambassador to the English court to put the case for Mary as the [[heir presumptive]] to the English throne. Elizabeth refused to name a potential heir, fearing that would invite conspiracy to displace her with the nominated successor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=162}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=157}}</ref> However, she assured Maitland that she knew no one with a better claim than Mary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=162}}</ref> In late 1561 and early 1562, arrangements were made for the two queens to meet in England at York or Nottingham in August or September 1562. In July, Elizabeth sent [[Henry Sidney]] to cancel Mary's visit because of the [[French Wars of Religion|civil war in France]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=168–169}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=157–161}}</ref>

Mary then turned her attention to finding a new husband from the royalty of Europe. When her uncle, the [[Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine|Cardinal of Lorraine]], began negotiations with [[Charles II, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Charles of Austria]] without her consent, she angrily objected and the negotiations foundered.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=212}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=175, 181}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=134}}</ref> Her own attempt to negotiate a marriage to [[Carlos, Prince of Asturias|Don Carlos]], the mentally unstable [[heir apparent]] of King [[Philip II of Spain]], was rebuffed by Philip.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=114–117}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=173–174}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=133–134}}</ref> Elizabeth attempted to neutralise Mary by suggesting that she marry English Protestant [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester]]. Dudley was Henry Sidney's brother-in-law and the English queen's own [[favourite]], whom Elizabeth trusted and thought she could control.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=193}}</ref> She sent an ambassador, [[Thomas Randolph (ambassador)|Thomas Randolph]], to tell Mary that if she married an English nobleman, Elizabeth would "proceed to the inquisition of her right and title to be our next cousin and heir".<ref>{{cite book |author=Rennie, James (published anonymously) |title=Mary, Queen of Scots: Her Persecutions, Sufferings, and Trials from her Birth till her Death |year=1826 |publisher=W. R. McPhun |location=Glasgow |page=114}}</ref> The proposal came to nothing, not least because the intended bridegroom was unwilling.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=220}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=202}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=52}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=147}}</ref>

In contrast, a French poet at Mary's court, [[Pierre de Boscosel de Chastelard]], was apparently besotted with Mary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=178}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=44}}</ref> In early 1563, he was discovered during a security search hidden underneath her bed, apparently planning to surprise her when she was alone and declare his love for her. Mary was horrified and banished him from Scotland. He ignored the edict. Two days later, he forced his way into her chamber as she was about to disrobe. She reacted with fury and fear. When Moray rushed into the room after hearing her cries for help, she shouted, "Thrust your dagger into the villain!" Moray refused, as Chastelard was already under restraint. Chastelard was tried for treason and beheaded.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=45}}</ref> Maitland claimed that Chastelard's ardour was feigned and that he was part of a Huguenot plot to discredit Mary by tarnishing her reputation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=206}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=45–46}}</ref>

== Marriage to Lord Darnley ==

[[File:Mary Stuart James Darnley.jpg|thumb|right|Mary with her second husband, [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley|Lord Darnley]]]]

Mary had briefly met her English-born half-cousin [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]], in February 1561 when she was in mourning for Francis. Darnley's parents, the [[Matthew Stuart, 4th Earl of Lennox|Earl]] and [[Margaret Douglas|Countess of Lennox]], were Scottish aristocrats as well as English landowners. They sent him to France ostensibly to extend their condolences, while hoping for a potential match between their son and Mary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=118}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=23}}</ref> Both Mary and Darnley were grandchildren of Margaret Tudor, sister of Henry VIII of England, and [[patrilineal]] descendants of the [[High Stewards of Scotland]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hunter|2022|p=136}}</ref>

Darnley shared a more recent Stewart lineage with the [[Clan Hamilton|Hamilton family]] as a descendant of [[Mary Stewart, Countess of Arran]], a daughter of [[James II of Scotland]]. They next met on Saturday 17 February 1565 at [[Wemyss Castle]] in Scotland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bain|1900|p=125}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=204}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=58}}</ref> Mary fell in love with the "long lad", as Queen Elizabeth called him since he was over six feet tall.<ref>For the quote and his height see {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=221}} and {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=49, 56}}; for falling in love see {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=224}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=63}} and {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=149}}</ref> [[Wedding of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry, Lord Darnley|They married]] at [[Holyrood Palace]] on 29 July 1565, even though both were Catholic and a papal dispensation for the marriage of first cousins had not been obtained.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=230}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=150}}</ref>{{Efn|A dispensation, backdated to 25 May, was granted in Rome on 25 September.{{Sfn|Weir|2008|p=82}}}}

English statesmen [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|William Cecil]] and the [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester|Earl of Leicester]] had worked to obtain Darnley's licence to travel to Scotland from his home in England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bain|1900|p=124}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=219}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=52}}</ref> Although her advisors had brought the couple together, Elizabeth felt threatened by the marriage because as descendants of her aunt, both Mary and Darnley were claimants to the English throne.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=219}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=64}}</ref> Their children, if any, would inherit an even stronger, combined claim.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=64, 91}}</ref> Mary's insistence on the marriage seems to have stemmed from passion rather than calculation; the English ambassador [[Nicholas Throckmorton]] stated "the saying is that surely she [Queen Mary] is bewitched",<ref>{{Harvnb|Bingham|1995|p=101}}</ref> adding that the marriage could only be averted "by violence".<ref>{{Harvnb|Bingham|1995|p=100}}</ref> The union infuriated Elizabeth, who felt the marriage should not have gone ahead without her permission, as Darnley was both her cousin and an English subject.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=64}}</ref>

[[File:James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, c 1535 - 1578. Third husband of Mary Queen of Scots - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]]]]

Mary's marriage to a leading Catholic precipitated Mary's half-brother, the Earl of Moray, to join with other Protestant lords, including Lords [[Archibald Campbell, 5th Earl of Argyll|Argyll]] and [[Alexander Cunningham, 4th Earl of Glencairn|Glencairn]], in open rebellion.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=78}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=151–153}}</ref> Mary set out from Edinburgh on 26 August 1565 to confront them. She carried a pistol, known as a "dagg", on her saddle.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gilbert|2024|p=99}}</ref> On the 30th, Moray entered Edinburgh but left soon afterwards, having failed to take the castle. Mary returned to Edinburgh the following month to raise more troops.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=79–82}}</ref> In what became known as the [[Chaseabout Raid]], Mary with her forces and Moray with the rebellious lords roamed around Scotland without ever engaging in direct combat. Mary's numbers were boosted by the release and restoration to favour of [[George Gordon, 5th Earl of Huntly|Lord Huntly's son]] and the return of [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]], from exile in France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=229–230}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=77, 79}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=151–152}}</ref> Unable to muster sufficient support, Moray left Scotland in October for asylum in England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=234}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=231}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=83}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=151–154}}</ref> Mary broadened her privy council, bringing in both Catholics ([[Bishop of Ross (Scotland)|Bishop of Ross]] [[John Lesley]] and [[Provost of Edinburgh]] [[Simon Preston of Craigmillar]]) and Protestants (the new Lord Huntly, [[Bishop of Galloway]] [[Alexander Gordon (archbishop of Glasgow)|Alexander Gordon]], [[John Maxwell, 4th Lord Herries of Terregles|John Maxwell of Terregles]] and [[James Balfour, Lord Pittendreich|James Balfour]]).<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=156}}</ref>

Before long, Darnley grew arrogant. Not content with his position as [[king consort]], he demanded the [[Crown Matrimonial]], which would have made him a co-sovereign of Scotland with the right to keep the Scottish throne for himself, if he outlived his wife.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=239}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=87–88}}</ref> Mary refused his request, claiming he needed to wait until he was of age<ref>Greig, E.  (2008, January 03). Stewart, Henry, duke of Albany [known as Lord Darnley] (1545/6–1567), second consort of Mary, queen of Scots. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Retrieved 12 Sep. 2025, from https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-26473.</ref> and their marriage grew strained, although they conceived by October 1565. He was jealous of her friendship with her Catholic private secretary, [[David Rizzio]], who was rumoured to be the father of her child.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=245–246}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=88–97}}</ref> By March 1566, Darnley had entered into a secret conspiracy with Protestant lords, including the nobles who had rebelled against Mary in the Chaseabout Raid.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=247}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=245}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=95}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=158}}</ref> On 9 March, a group of the conspirators accompanied by Darnley stabbed Rizzio to death in front of the six months pregnant Mary at a dinner party in Holyrood Palace.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=249–252}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=248–249}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=105–107}}</ref> Over the next two days, a disillusioned Darnley switched sides and Mary received Moray at Holyrood.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=255–256}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=253–258}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=113}}</ref> On the night of 11–12 March, Darnley and Mary escaped from the palace. They took temporary refuge in [[Dunbar Castle]] before returning to Edinburgh on 18 March.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=256–258}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=259}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=116–117, 121}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=159}}</ref> The former rebels Lords Moray, Argyll and Glencairn were restored to the council.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=259}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=260}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=160}}</ref>

=== Murder of Darnley ===

{{main|Murder of Lord Darnley}}

[[File:Kirk o' Field contemporary sketch.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kirk o' Field]] drawn for [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|William Cecil]] shortly after the murder of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, 1567]]

Mary's son by Darnley, [[James VI and I|James]], was born on 19 June 1566 in [[Edinburgh Castle]]. However, the murder of Rizzio led to the breakdown of her marriage.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=259 ff}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=160}}</ref> In October 1566, while staying at [[Jedburgh]] in the [[Scottish Borders]], Mary made a journey on horseback of at least four hours each way to visit the Earl of Bothwell at [[Hermitage Castle]], where he lay ill from wounds sustained in a skirmish with [[Little Jock Elliot|John Elliot of Park]].<ref>[[Lorna Hutson]], ''England's Insular Imagining: The Elizabethan Erasure of Scotland'' (Cambridge, 2023), pp. 149–151.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bingham|1995|pp=158–159}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=273–274}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=274–275}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=157–160}}</ref> The ride was later used as evidence by Mary's enemies that the two were lovers, though no suspicions were voiced at the time and Mary had been accompanied by her councillors and [[Guard and archers of Mary, Queen of Scots|guards]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=274–275}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=158–159}}</ref>

Immediately after her return to Jedburgh, she suffered a serious illness that included frequent vomiting, loss of sight, loss of speech, convulsions and periods of unconsciousness. She was thought to be dying. Her recovery from 25 October onwards was credited to the skill of her French physicians.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=275–276}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=274}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=161–163}}</ref> The cause of her illness is unknown. Potential diagnoses include physical exhaustion and mental stress,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=276}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=161}}</ref> haemorrhage of a gastric ulcer,<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=275}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=161}}</ref> and [[porphyria]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=161}}</ref>

At [[Craigmillar Castle]], near Edinburgh, at the end of November 1566, Mary and leading nobles held a meeting to discuss the "problem of Darnley".<ref>{{Harvnb|Bingham|1995|p=160}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=160}}</ref> Divorce was discussed, but a bond was probably sworn between the lords present to remove Darnley by other means:<ref>{{Harvnb|Bingham|1995|pp=160–163}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=277–279}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=176–178, 261}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=161}}</ref> "It was thought expedient and most profitable for the common wealth&nbsp;... that such a young fool and proud tyrant should not reign or bear rule over them;&nbsp;... that he should be put off by one way or another; and whosoever should take the deed in hand or do it, they should defend."<ref>Confession of James Ormiston, one of Bothwell's men, 13 December 1573, quoted (from [[Robert Pitcairn (antiquary)|Robert Pitcairn]]'s ''Ancient Criminal Trials in Scotland from AD 1488 to AD 1624'') in {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=177}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=279}}</ref> Darnley feared for his safety, and after the [[Baptism of James VI|baptism of his son at Stirling]] and shortly before Christmas, he went to Glasgow to stay on his father's estates.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=189}}</ref> At the start of the journey, he was afflicted by a fever: possibly smallpox, syphilis or the result of poison. He remained ill for some weeks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=190–192}}</ref>

In late January 1567, Mary prompted her husband to return to Edinburgh. He recuperated from his illness in a house belonging to the brother of [[James Balfour, Lord Pittendreich|James Balfour]] at the former abbey of [[Kirk o' Field]], just within the city wall.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=285–292}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=292–294}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=227–233}}</ref> Mary visited him daily, so that it appeared a reconciliation was in progress.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=232–233}}</ref> On the night of 9–10 February 1567, Mary visited her husband in the early evening and then attended the wedding celebrations of a member of her household, [[Bastian Pagez]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=296–297}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=297–299}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=244–247}}</ref> In the early hours of the morning, an explosion devastated Kirk o' Field. Darnley was found dead in the garden, apparently smothered.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=296}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=161}}</ref> There were no visible marks of strangulation or violence on the body.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=252}}; {{Harvnb|Greig|2004}}</ref>{{Efn|A post-mortem revealed internal injuries, thought to have been caused by the explosion. [[John Knox]] claimed the surgeons who examined the body were lying and that Darnley had been strangled, but all the sources agree that there were no marks on the body, and there was no reason for the surgeons to lie as Darnley was murdered either way.{{Sfn|Weir|2008|p=255}}}} [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell|Bothwell]], [[James Stewart, Earl of Moray|Moray]], [[William Maitland of Lethington|Secretary Maitland]], the [[James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton|Earl of Morton]] and Mary herself were among those who came under suspicion.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=298–299}}</ref> Elizabeth wrote to Mary of the rumours:

{{blockquote|I should ill fulfil the office of a faithful cousin or an affectionate friend if I did not&nbsp;... tell you what all the world is thinking. Men say that, instead of seizing the murderers, you are looking through your fingers while they escape; that you will not seek revenge on those who have done you so much pleasure, as though the deed would never have taken place had not the doers of it been assured of impunity. For myself, I beg you to believe that I would not harbour such a thought.<ref>The original letter is in French, this translation is from {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=308–309}}. For other versions see {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=312}} and {{Harvnb|Lewis|1999|p=86}}.</ref>}}

By the end of February, Bothwell was generally believed to be guilty of Darnley's assassination.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=304}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=312–313}}</ref> Lennox, Darnley's father, demanded that Bothwell be tried before the [[Estates of Parliament]], to which Mary agreed, but Lennox's request for a delay to gather evidence was denied. In the absence of Lennox and with no evidence presented, Bothwell was acquitted after a seven-hour trial on 12 April.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=311–312}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=336–340}}</ref> A week later, Bothwell managed to convince more than two dozen lords and bishops to sign the [[Ainslie Tavern Bond]], in which they agreed to support his aim to marry the queen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=313}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=343–345}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=163}}</ref>

== Imprisonment in Scotland and abdication ==

[[File:Mary Stuart James.jpg|thumb|Mary depicted with her son, [[James VI and I]]; in reality, Mary saw her son for the last time when he was ten months old.]]

Between 21 and 23 April 1567, Mary visited her son at [[Stirling]] for the last time. On her way back to Edinburgh on 24 April, Mary was abducted, willingly or not, by Lord Bothwell and his men and taken to [[Dunbar Castle]], where he may have raped her.<ref>[[James Melville of Halhill]], who was in the castle, wrote that Bothwell "had ravished her and lain with her against her will" (quoted in {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=314–317}}). Other contemporaries dismissed the abduction as bogus ({{Harvnb|Donaldson|1974|p=117}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=317}}). See also {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=328–329}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=351–355}}; and {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=163}}.</ref> On 6 May, Mary and Bothwell returned to Edinburgh. On 15 May, at either [[Holyrood Palace]] or [[Holyrood Abbey]], they were married according to Protestant rites.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=367, 374}}</ref> Bothwell and his first wife, [[Jean Gordon, Countess of Bothwell|Jean Gordon]], who was the sister of Lord Huntly, had divorced twelve<!--12 days before the divorce in the Protestant Commissary Court of Edinburgh; 8 days before [[John Hamilton (archbishop of St Andrews)|Archbishop Hamilton's]] Catholic annulment--> days previously.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=319}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=330–331}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=366–367}}</ref>

Originally, Mary believed that many nobles supported her marriage, but relations quickly soured between the newly elevated Bothwell (created [[Duke of Orkney]]) and his former peers and the marriage proved to be deeply unpopular. Catholics considered the marriage unlawful since they did not recognise Bothwell's divorce or the validity of the Protestant service. Both Protestants and Catholics were shocked that Mary should marry the man accused of murdering her husband.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=382}}</ref> The marriage was tempestuous, and Mary became despondent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=322–323}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=336–337}}</ref>

Twenty-six [[Scottish peers]], known as the confederate lords, turned against Mary and Bothwell and raised their own army. Mary and Bothwell confronted the lords at [[Carberry Hill]] on 15 June, but there was no battle, as Mary's forces dwindled away through desertion during negotiations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=383–390}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=165}}</ref> Bothwell was given safe passage from the field. The lords took Mary to Edinburgh, where crowds of spectators denounced her as an adulteress and murderer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=391–393}}</ref> The following night, she was imprisoned in [[Lochleven Castle]] on an island in the middle of [[Loch Leven (Kinross)|Loch Leven]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=335}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=351}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=398}}</ref> Between 20 and 23 July, Mary miscarried twins.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=411}}</ref> On 24 July, she was forced to [[Act Anent the demission of the Crown in favour of our Sovereign Lord, and his Majesty's Coronation 1567|abdicate in favour of her one-year-old son James]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=364}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=413}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=165}}</ref> Moray was made regent,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=347}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=366}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=421}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=166}}</ref> while Bothwell was driven into exile. He was imprisoned in Denmark, became insane, and died in 1578.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=422, 501}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=171}}</ref>

== Escape and imprisonment in England ==

{{Location map+|United Kingdom|AlternativeMap=United_Kingdom_relief_location_map.jpg|alt=Map of the UK with location of Mary's places of imprisonment|caption=Mary's places of imprisonment|float=right|width=300|places=
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=56.20|long=-3.39|position=top|label=[[Lochleven Castle]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=54.64|long=-3.54|position=left|label=[[Workington Hall]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=54.90|long=-2.94|position=top|label=[[Carlisle Castle]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=54.32|long=-1.95|position=right|label=[[Bolton Castle]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=52.86|long=-1.69|position=right|label=[[Tutbury Castle|Tutbury]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=53.38|long=-1.46|position=top|label=[[Sheffield]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=53.09|long=-1.44|position=right|label=[[Wingfield Manor|Wingfield]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=53.23|long=-1.61|position=left|label=[[Chatsworth House|Chatsworth]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=53.26|long=-1.91|position=right|label=[[Buxton]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=52.85|long=-1.99|position=left|label=[[Chartley Castle|Chartley]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=52.80|long=-2.03|position=bottom|label=[[Tixall Gatehouse|Tixall]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom|lat=52.52|long=-0.44|position=bottom|label=[[Fotheringhay Castle|Fotheringhay]]}}
}}

On 2 May 1568, Mary escaped from [[Lochleven Castle]] with the aid of [[George Douglas of Helenhill|George Douglas]], brother of [[William Douglas, 6th Earl of Morton|William Douglas]], the castle's owner.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=357–359}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=367}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=432}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=172}}</ref> Managing to raise an army of 6,000 men, she met Moray's smaller forces at the [[Battle of Langside]] on 13 May.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=368}}; {{Harvnb|Hunter|2022|p=229}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=433}}</ref> Defeated, she fled south, planning to seek asylum from Elizabeth. After spending the night at [[Dundrennan Abbey]], she crossed the [[Solway Firth]] into England by fishing boat on 16 May.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=369}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=433–434}}: {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=173}}</ref> She landed at [[Workington]] in [[Cumberland]] in the [[north of England]] and stayed overnight at [[Workington Hall]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=368–369}}</ref> On 18 May, local officials led by [[Richard Lowther (1532–1608)|Richard Lowther]] took her into protective custody at [[Carlisle Castle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=369}}; {{Harvnb|Scott|2024|p=75}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=435}}</ref>

Mary apparently expected Elizabeth to help her regain her throne.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=369}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=435}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=434}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=174}}</ref> Elizabeth was cautious, ordering an inquiry into the conduct of the confederate lords and the question of whether Mary was guilty of Darnley's murder.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=430}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=445}}</ref> In mid-July 1568, English authorities moved Mary to [[Bolton Castle]], because it was farther from the Scottish border but not too close to London.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=444}}</ref> Mary's clothes, sent from Lochleven Castle, arrived on 20 July.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bain|1900|p=460}}; {{Harvnb|Hunter|2022|p=233}}</ref> A commission of inquiry, or conference, as it was known, was held in York and later Westminster between October 1568 and January 1569.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=385–390}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=174}}</ref> In Scotland, her supporters fought a [[Marian civil war|civil war]] against Regent Moray and his successors.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=184}}</ref>

=== Casket letters ===

{{main|Casket letters}}

As an anointed queen, Mary refused to acknowledge the power of any court to try her. She refused to attend the inquiry at York personally but sent representatives. Elizabeth forbade her attendance anyway.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=447}}; Mary later requested to attend the conference at Westminster, but Elizabeth refused permission. In response, Mary's commissioners withdrew from the inquiry ({{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=461–463}}).</ref> As evidence against Mary, Moray presented the so-called [[casket letters]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=432}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=464}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=175}}</ref>—eight unsigned letters purportedly from Mary to Bothwell, two marriage contracts, and a love sonnet or sonnets. All were said to have been found in a silver-gilt casket just less than {{convert|1|ft|cm|spell=in}} long and decorated with the monogram of King Francis II.<ref>For the list of documents see, for example, {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=397}} and {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=176}}; for the casket description see {{cite book |author=Robertson, Joseph |author-link=Joseph Robertson (historian) |title=Inventaires de la Royne d'Ecosse |publisher=Bannatyne Club |location=Edinburgh |year=1863 |page=lviii}} and {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=432}}.</ref> Mary denied writing them and insisted they were forgeries,<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=435}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=446–447}}</ref> arguing that her handwriting was not difficult to imitate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=407}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=221}}</ref> They are widely believed to be crucial as to whether Mary shared the guilt for Darnley's murder.<ref>e.g., {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=395}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=453, 468}}</ref> The head of the commission of inquiry, the [[Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk|Duke of Norfolk]], described them as horrible letters and diverse fond ballads. He sent copies to Elizabeth, saying that if they were genuine, they might prove Mary's guilt.<ref>[[Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk|Norfolk]], [[Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex|Sussex]] and [[Ralph Sadler|Sadler]] to Elizabeth, 11 October 1568, quoted in {{Harvnb|Bain|1900|p=527}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=451–452}}</ref>

The authenticity of the casket letters has been the source of much controversy among historians. It is impossible now to prove either way. The originals, written in French, were possibly destroyed in 1584 by Mary's son.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bingham|1995|p=193}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=465}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=176}}</ref> The surviving copies, in French or translated into English, do not form a complete set. There are incomplete printed transcriptions in English, Scots, French, and Latin from the 1570s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=392}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=466–467}}</ref> Other documents scrutinised included Bothwell's divorce from Jean Gordon. Moray had sent a messenger in September to Dunbar to get a copy of the proceedings from the town's registers.<ref>{{Harvnb|McInnes|1970|p=145}}</ref>

Mary's biographers, such as [[Antonia Fraser]], [[Alison Weir]], and [[John Guy (historian)|John Guy]], have concluded that either the documents were complete forgeries,<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=400, 416}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=465–474}}</ref> or incriminating passages were inserted into genuine letters,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=396–397}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=400–404, 408–412, 416}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=465–474}}</ref> or the letters were written to Bothwell by a different person or written by Mary to a different person.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=404, 410, 420–426}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=287, 396–401}}</ref> Guy points out that the letters are disjointed and that the French language and grammar employed in the sonnets are too poor for a writer with Mary's education<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=399, 401–417}}</ref> but certain phrases in the letters, including verses in the style of [[Ronsard]], and some characteristics of style are compatible with known writings by Mary.<ref>{{cite book |first=George Malcolm |last=Thomson |author-link=George Malcolm Thomson (1899–1996) |year=1967 |title=The Crime of Mary Stuart |publisher=Hutchinson |location=London |isbn=978-0-09-081730-6 |pages=148–153, 159–165}}</ref>

[[File:Mary Queen of Scots portrait.jpg|thumb|left|A portrait of Mary from the latter half of the 16th century]]

The casket letters did not appear publicly until the Conference of 1568, although the Scottish privy council had seen them by December 1567.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=352}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=171, 176}}</ref> Mary had been forced to abdicate and held captive for the better part of a year in Scotland; the letters were never made public to support her imprisonment and forced abdication. Historian [[Jenny Wormald]] believes this reluctance on the part of the Scots to produce the letters and their destruction in 1584, whatever their content, constitute proof that they contained real evidence against Mary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=470}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=177–178}}</ref> In contrast, Weir thinks it demonstrates that the lords required time to fabricate them.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=471}}</ref> At least some of Mary's contemporaries who saw the letters had no doubt that they were genuine. Among them was the Duke of Norfolk,<ref>{{Harvnb|Williams|1964|pp=137–139}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=453}}</ref> who secretly conspired to marry Mary in the course of the commission, although he denied it when Elizabeth alluded to his marriage plans, saying "he meant never to marry with a person, where he could not be sure of his pillow".<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=459}}; {{Harvnb|Williams|1964|p=141}}</ref>

The majority of the commissioners accepted the casket letters as genuine after a study of their contents and a comparison of the penmanship with examples of Mary's handwriting.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=475–476}}</ref> Elizabeth, as she had wished, concluded the inquiry with a verdict that nothing was proven against either the Confederate lords or Mary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=390}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=481}}</ref> For overriding political reasons, Elizabeth wished neither to convict nor to acquit Mary of murder. There was never any intention to proceed judicially; the conference was intended as a political exercise. In the end, Moray returned to Scotland as regent and Mary remained in custody in England. Elizabeth succeeded in maintaining a Protestant government in Scotland, without either condemning or releasing her fellow sovereign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=481}}</ref> In Fraser's opinion, it was one of the strangest "trials" in legal history, ending with no finding of guilt against either party, one of whom was allowed to return home to Scotland while the other remained in custody.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=391}}</ref>

=== Plots ===

[[File:Mary, Queen of Scots - A catte - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|"A•CATTE". Embroidery done by Mary in captivity (now in the [[Royal Collection]])<ref>{{Royal Collection|28224|A catte|Mary, Queen of Scots}}</ref><ref>[[Oxburgh Hangings|Embroideries]] by Mary are also kept in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] ([https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O137608/the-marian-hanging-hanging-mary-queen-of/ Marian Hangings], [https://collections.vam.ac.uk/search/?listing_type=&offset=0&limit=15&narrow=&extrasearch=&q=Oxburgh+Hangings&commit=Search&quality=0&objectnamesearch=&placesearch=&after=&after-adbc=AD&before=&before-adbc=AD&namesearch=&materialsearch=&mnsearch=&locationsearch= Oxburgh Hangings]) and [[Hardwick Hall]].</ref>]]

On 26 January 1569, Mary was moved to [[Tutbury Castle]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=484}}</ref> and placed in the custody of [[George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury]], and his formidable wife [[Bess of Hardwick]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=410–411}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=441}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=184}}</ref> Elizabeth considered Mary's designs on the English throne to be a serious threat and so confined her to Shrewsbury's properties, including Tutbury, [[Sheffield Castle]], [[Sheffield Manor Lodge]], [[Wingfield Manor]], and [[Chatsworth House]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=442}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=484}}</ref> all located in the interior of England, halfway between Scotland and London and distant from the sea.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=440–441}}</ref>

Mary was permitted her own domestic staff, which never numbered fewer than 16.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=438}}</ref> She needed 30 carts to transport her belongings from house to house.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=439}}</ref> Her chambers were decorated with fine tapestries and carpets, as well as her [[cloth of state]] on which she had the French phrase, ''En ma fin est mon commencement'' ("In my end lies my beginning"), embroidered.<ref>It had been her mother's motto ({{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=443–444}}).</ref> Her bed linen was changed daily,<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=443}}</ref> and her own chefs prepared meals with a choice of 32 dishes served on silver plates.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=444–445}}</ref> She was occasionally allowed outside under strict supervision,<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=453–454}}</ref> spent seven summers at the spa town of [[Buxton]], and spent much of her time doing embroidery.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=448–450, 518}}</ref> Her health declined, perhaps through [[porphyria]] or lack of exercise. By the 1580s, she had severe [[rheumatism]] in her limbs, rendering her lame.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=443–446, 511}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=447, 458}}</ref>

In May 1569, Elizabeth attempted to mediate the restoration of Mary in return for guarantees of the Protestant religion, but a convention held at [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] rejected the deal overwhelmingly.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=179}}</ref> Norfolk continued to scheme for a marriage with Mary, and Elizabeth imprisoned him in the [[Tower of London]] between October 1569 and August 1570.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=415–424}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=487}}</ref> Early the following year, Moray was assassinated. His death occurred soon after an unsuccessful [[Rising of the North|rebellion in the North of England]], led by Catholic earls, which persuaded Elizabeth that Mary was a threat. English troops then intervened in the Scottish civil war, consolidating the power of the anti-Marian forces.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=496}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=180}}</ref> Elizabeth's [[Secretary of State (England)|principal secretary]] [[William Cecil, Lord Burghley]], and [[Francis Walsingham]] watched Mary carefully with the aid of spies placed in her household.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=469}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=451}}</ref>

[[File:Mary Queen of Scots by Nicholas Hilliard 1578.jpg|thumb|Mary in captivity, by [[Nicholas Hilliard]], ''c.'' 1578]]

In 1571, Cecil and Walsingham (at that time England's ambassador to France) uncovered the [[Ridolfi Plot]], a plan to replace Elizabeth with Mary with the help of Spanish troops and the Duke of Norfolk. Norfolk was executed and the English Parliament introduced a bill barring Mary from the throne, to which Elizabeth refused to give royal assent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=464–470}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=492–494}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=183}}</ref> To discredit Mary, the casket letters were published in London.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=467}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=493}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=184}}</ref> Plots centred on Mary continued. [[Pope Gregory XIII]] endorsed one plan in the latter half of the 1570s to marry her to the governor of the [[Low Countries]] and illegitimate half-brother of [[Philip II of Spain]], [[John of Austria]], who was supposed to organise the invasion of England from the [[Spanish Netherlands]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=446}}</ref>

Mary sent letters in cipher to the French ambassador to England, [[Michel de Castelnau]], scores of which were discovered and decrypted in 2022–2023.<ref>{{Harvnb|Scott|2024|p=29}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/01611194.2022.2160677 |title=Deciphering Mary Stuart's lost letters from 1578-1584 |year=2023 |last1=Lasry |first1=George |last2=Biermann |first2=Norbert |last3=Tomokiyo |first3=Satoshi |journal=Cryptologia |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=101–202 |s2cid=256720092 |doi-access=free|issn=0161-1194 }}</ref> After the [[Throckmorton Plot]] of 1583, Walsingham (now the queen's principal secretary) introduced the [[Bond of Association]] and the [[Safety of the Queen, etc. Act 1584|Act for the Queen's Safety]], which sanctioned the killing of anyone who plotted against Elizabeth and aimed to prevent a putative successor from profiting from her murder.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=473}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=474–476}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=506}}</ref>

In 1584, Mary proposed an "[[Association of Mary, Queen of Scots, and James VI|association]]" with her son, James. She announced that she was ready to stay in England, to renounce the Pope's bull of excommunication, and to retire, abandoning her pretensions to the English Crown. She also offered to join an offensive league against France. For Scotland, she proposed a general amnesty, agreed that James should marry with Elizabeth's knowledge, and accepted that there should be no change in religion. Her only condition was the immediate alleviation of the conditions of her captivity. James went along with the idea for a while, but eventually rejected it and signed an alliance treaty with Elizabeth, abandoning his mother.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=458–462}}</ref> Elizabeth also rejected the association because she did not trust Mary to cease plotting against her during the negotiations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=458–462}}</ref>

In February 1585, [[William Parry (spy)|William Parry]] was convicted of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth, without Mary's knowledge, although her agent [[Thomas Morgan (of Llantarnam)|Thomas Morgan]] was implicated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=472}}</ref> In April, Mary was placed in the stricter custody of [[Amias Paulet]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=457}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=507}}</ref> At Christmas, she was moved to a moated manor house at [[Chartley Castle|Chartley]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=479}}</ref>

=== Trial ===

[[File:Trial of Mary, Queen of Scots - Documents relating to Mary, Queen of Scots (1586), f.569* - BL Add MS 48027.jpg|thumb|A drawing of the trial of Mary, Queen of Scots, 14–15 October 1586, in the great hall of [[Fotheringhay Castle]], Northamptonshire, where she was later beheaded.]]

On 11 August 1586, after being implicated in the [[Babington Plot]], Mary was arrested while out riding and taken to [[Tixall Hall]] in Staffordshire.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=484–485}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=493}}</ref> In a successful attempt to entrap her, Walsingham had deliberately arranged for Mary's letters to be smuggled out of Chartley.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=482–483}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=477–480}}; {{Harvnb|Scott|2024|p=212}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=507}}</ref> Mary was misled into thinking her letters were secure, while in reality they were deciphered and read by Walsingham.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=482–483}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=477–480}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=507}}</ref> From these letters it was clear that Mary had sanctioned the attempted assassination of Elizabeth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=483–485}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=507}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=185}}</ref>

Mary was moved to [[Fotheringhay Castle]] in a four-day journey ending on 25 September. In October, she was put on trial for treason under the Act for the Queen's Safety before a court of 36 noblemen,<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=508}}</ref> including Cecil, Shrewsbury, and Walsingham.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=509}}</ref>{{Efn|Two of the commissioners were Catholics.{{Sfn|Lewis|1999|p=22}}}} Spirited in her defence, Mary denied the charges.<ref>{{Harvnb|Boyd|1915|pp=59–65, 143–145, 309–314}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=506–512}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=488–489, 492}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=508}}</ref> She told her triers, "Look to your consciences and remember that the theatre of the whole world is wider than the kingdom of England."<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=488}}</ref> She protested that she had been denied the opportunity to review the evidence, that her papers had been removed from her, that she was denied access to legal counsel, and that as a foreign anointed queen she had never been an English subject and therefore could not be convicted of treason.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=506–512}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=489–493}}</ref>

She was convicted on 25 October and sentenced to death with only one commissioner, [[Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche|Lord Zouche]], expressing any form of dissent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=517}}</ref> Nevertheless, Elizabeth hesitated to order her execution, even in the face of pressure from the English Parliament to carry out the sentence. She was concerned that the killing of a queen set a discreditable precedent and was fearful of the consequences, especially if, in retaliation, Mary's son, James, formed an alliance with the Catholic powers and invaded England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=521–522}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=508}}</ref>

Elizabeth asked Paulet, Mary's final custodian, if he would contrive a clandestine way to "shorten the life" of Mary, which he refused to do on the grounds that he would not make "a shipwreck of my conscience, or leave so great a blot on my poor posterity".<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=529}}</ref> On 1 February 1587, Elizabeth signed the death warrant, and entrusted it to [[William Davison (diplomat)|William Davison]], a [[privy councillor]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=528}}</ref> On 3 February,<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=519}}</ref> ten members of the [[Privy Council of England]], having been summoned by Cecil without Elizabeth's knowledge, decided to carry out the sentence at once.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=496}}</ref>

=== Execution ===

{{Main|Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots}}

[[File:ExecutionOf MaryQueenOfScots DrawingBy RobertBeale 1587.png|thumb|The execution scene, drawn by eyewitness [[Robert Beale (diplomat)|Robert Beale]]]]

At Fotheringhay, on the evening of 7 February 1587, Mary was told she was to be executed the next morning.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=531}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=498}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=508}}</ref> She spent the last hours of her life in prayer, distributing her belongings to her household, and writing her will and a letter to the King of France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=533–534}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=500}}</ref> The [[Scaffold (execution site)|scaffold]] that was erected in the [[Great Hall]] was draped in black cloth. It was reached by two or three steps, and furnished with the block, a cushion for her to kneel on, and three stools for her and the earls of [[George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury|Shrewsbury]] and [[Henry Grey, 6th Earl of Kent|Kent]], who were there to witness the execution.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=537}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=4}}</ref>

The executioner Bull and his assistant knelt before her and asked forgiveness, as it was typical for the executioner to request the pardon of the one being put to death. Mary replied, "I forgive you with all my heart, for now, I hope, you shall make an end of all my troubles."<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=7}}; {{Harvnb|Lewis|1999|p=118}}</ref> Her servants, [[Jane Kennedy (courtier)|Jane Kennedy]] and [[Gilbert Curle|Elizabeth Curle]], and the executioners helped Mary remove her outer garments, revealing a velvet petticoat and a pair of sleeves in crimson brown, the [[liturgical colour]] of martyrdom in the Catholic Church,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=538}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=7}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=209}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=187}}</ref> with a black satin bodice and black trimmings.<ref>Morris, John (ed.) (1874). [https://archive.org/details/letterbooksofsir00poulrich ''Letter Book of Amias Paulet''], pp. 368–369</ref> She was blindfolded by Kennedy with a white veil embroidered in gold, knelt down on the cushion in front of the block on which she positioned her head, and stretched out her arms. Her last words were, ''In manus tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum'' ("Into thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit").<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=7–8}}</ref>

Mary was not beheaded with a single strike. The first blow missed her neck and struck the back of her head. The second blow severed the neck, except for a small bit of sinew, which the executioner cut through using the axe. Afterwards, he held her head aloft and declared "God save the Queen." At that moment, the auburn tresses in his hand turned out to be a wig and the head fell to the ground, revealing that Mary had very short, grey hair.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=539}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=8}}</ref> Cecil's nephew, who was present at the execution, reported to his uncle that after her death, "Her lips stirred up and down a quarter of an hour after her head was cut off" and that a small dog owned by the queen emerged from hiding among her skirts<ref name="Fraser540">{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=540}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=9}}</ref>—though Emanuel Tomascon does not include those details in his contemporary account.<ref name=fugger>{{cite book |last=Tomascon |first=Emanuel |chapter=79. Execution of Mary Stuart |editor-last=von Klarwill |editor-first=Victor |title=The Fugger Newsletters |publisher=John Lane The Bodley Head |location=London |year=1924 |pages=97–105}}</ref>

[[File:Tomb effigy of Mary, Queen of Scots (copy).jpg|thumb|A copy of Mary's effigy, [[National Museum of Scotland]]. The original, by [[Cornelius Cure]] and his son [[William Cure the Younger|William]] is in [[Westminster Abbey]].]]

When the news of the execution reached Elizabeth, she became indignant and asserted that Davison had disobeyed her instructions not to part with the warrant and that the Privy Council had acted without her authority.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=541}}</ref> Elizabeth's vacillation and deliberately vague instructions gave her [[plausible deniability]] to attempt to avoid the direct stain of Mary's blood.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=497}}</ref> Davison was arrested, thrown into the [[Tower of London]], and found guilty of [[Misprision#Positive misprision|misprision]]. He was released nineteen months later, after Cecil and Walsingham interceded on his behalf.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hutchinson |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Hutchinson (historian) |year=2006 |title=Elizabeth's Spy Master: Francis Walsingham and the secret war that saved England |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84613-0 |pages=196–201}}</ref>

Mary's request to be buried in France was refused by Elizabeth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=532}}</ref> Her body was embalmed and left in a secure lead coffin until her [[Funeral of Mary, Queen of Scots|burial in a Protestant service]] at [[Peterborough Cathedral]] in late July 1587.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=542, 546–547}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=509}}</ref> Her entrails, removed as part of the embalming process, were buried secretly within Fotheringhay Castle.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=541}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=9}}</ref> Her body was exhumed in 1612 when her son, [[James VI and I]], ordered that she be reinterred in [[Westminster Abbey]] in a chapel opposite the tomb of Elizabeth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=504}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=509}}</ref> In 1867, her tomb was opened in an attempt to ascertain the resting place of her son, James I of England. He was ultimately found with [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]. Many of her other descendants, including [[Elizabeth of Bohemia]], [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]] and the children of [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain]], were interred in her vault.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=554}}</ref>

== Legacy ==

{{Further|Cultural depictions of Mary, Queen of Scots}}

[[File:Execution-of-Mary-Queen-of-Scots.jpg|thumb|''La mort de Marie Stuart'', 19th-century painting by [[Abel de Pujol]]]]
Assessments of Mary in the 16th century divided between Protestant reformers such as [[George Buchanan]] and [[John Knox]], who vilified her mercilessly, and Catholic apologists such as [[Adam Blackwood (writer)|Adam Blackwood]], who praised, defended and eulogised her.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|pp=505–506}}; {{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=13–14, 192}}</ref> After the accession of James I in England, historian [[William Camden]] wrote an officially sanctioned biography that drew from original documents. It condemned Buchanan's work as an invention,<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=505}}</ref> and "emphasized Mary's evil fortunes rather than her evil character".<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=14}}</ref> Differing interpretations persisted into the 18th century: [[William Robertson (historian)|William Robertson]] and [[David Hume]] argued that the casket letters were genuine and that Mary was guilty of adultery and murder, while [[William Tytler]] argued the reverse.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=15}}</ref> In the latter half of the 20th century, the work of [[Antonia Fraser]] was acclaimed as "more objective&nbsp;... free from the excesses of adulation or attack" that had characterised older biographies,<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|p=16}}</ref> and her contemporaries [[Gordon Donaldson]] and Ian B. Cowan also produced more balanced works.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=17, 192–193}}</ref>

Historian [[Jenny Wormald]] concluded that Mary was a tragic failure, who was unable to cope with the demands placed on her,<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|1988|pp=188–189}}</ref> but hers was a rare dissenting view in a post-Fraser tradition that Mary was a pawn in the hands of scheming noblemen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=4}}</ref> There is no concrete proof of her complicity in Darnley's murder or of a conspiracy with Bothwell. Such accusations rest on assumptions,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|pp=269–270}}; {{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=313}}: {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|p=510}}</ref> and Buchanan's biography is today discredited as "almost complete fantasy".<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=391}}; see also {{Harvnb|Fraser|1994|p=269}}</ref> Mary's courage at her execution helped establish her popular image as the heroic victim in a dramatic tragedy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guy|2004|p=502}}; {{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=3–4, 509}}</ref>

== Genealogical chart ==

{{chart top|Mary's relationship to the houses of Stuart, Guise, and Tudor<ref>{{Harvnb|Warnicke|2006|pp=xvi–xvii}}</ref>}}
{{tree chart/start}}
{{tree chart|border=0| | | | | | | | | | | Js2 |y| MaG |Js2=[[James II of Scotland]]|MaG=[[Mary of Guelders]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| }}
{{tree chart|border=0| | | | | | | | | | | Js3 | | MaS | |MaS=[[Mary Stewart, Countess of Arran|Mary Stewart]]|Js3=[[James III of Scotland]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!| |,|-|^|-|.| }}
{{tree chart|border=0| | | | | | | | | | | |!| JsH | | ElH | | | | | | |ElH=Elizabeth Hamilton|JsH=[[James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Arran]]|}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!| |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | | }}
{{tree chart|border=0| | | | | | | | | | | |!| JsH | | JnS | | Hy7 |y| ElY | | |ElY=[[Elizabeth of York]]|Hy7=[[Henry VII of England]]|JnS=[[John Stewart, 3rd Earl of Lennox]]|JsH=[[James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | |!| |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| |}}
{{tree chart|border=0| | | ClG |y| AtB | | Js4 |y|~|~|~|b| MgT |y| ArD | |Hy8| | |Hy8=[[Henry VIII of England]]|MgT=[[Margaret Tudor]]|Js4=[[James IV of Scotland]]|ArD=[[Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus]]|AtB=[[Antoinette de Bourbon]]|ClG=[[Claude, Duke of Guise]]}}
{{tree chart| |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | | | |!| | | |}}
{{tree chart|border=0| FrG | | ChL | | MaG |v| Js5 | | MwS |y| MgD | | | | |!| | | |Js5=[[James V of Scotland]]|MgD=[[Margaret Douglas]]|MwS=[[Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox]]|MaG=[[Mary of Guise]]|FrG=[[Francis, Duke of Guise]]|ChL=[[Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.|}}
{{tree chart|border=0| | | | | | Fr2 |~|~| MaS |~|~|y|~|~| HyS | | Ed6 | | Ma1 | | El1| | | |Fr2=[[Francis II of France]]|MaS='''Mary, Queen of Scots'''|HyS=[[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]]|JsS=[[James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray]]|Ma1=[[Mary I of England]]|Ed6=[[Edward VI of England]]|El1=[[Elizabeth I of England]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!|}}
{{tree chart|border=0| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Js6 | |Js6={{nowrap|[[James VI and I]]}}}}
{{tree chart/end}}
{{chart bottom}}

== See also ==

* [[Jewels of Mary, Queen of Scots]]
* [[Wardrobe of Mary, Queen of Scots]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Bain |editor-first=Joseph |year=1900 |title=Calendar State Papers, Scotland: Volume II |publisher=General Register Office (Scotland) |location=Edinburgh}}
* {{cite book |last=Bingham |first=Caroline |title=Darnley: A Life of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, Consort of Mary Queen of Scots |location=London |publisher=[[Constable & Robinson]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-09-472530-0}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Boyd |editor-first=William K. |title=Calendar of State Papers, Scotland: Volume IX |publisher=General Register Office (Scotland) |year=1915 |location=Glasgow}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Clifford |editor-first=Arthur |year=1809 |title=The State Papers and Letters of Sir Ralph Sadler |publisher=[[Archibald Constable and Co]] |location=Edinburgh}}
* {{cite book |last=Donaldson |first=Gordon |author-link=Gordon Donaldson |year=1974 |title=Mary, Queen of Scots |publisher=English Universities Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-340-12383-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/maryqueenofscots00dona}}
* {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Antonia |author-link=Antonia Fraser |year=1994 |orig-year=1969 |title=Mary Queen of Scots |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-17773-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=John |year=2024 |title=Elite Hunting Culture and Mary Queen of Scots |publisher=Boydell |location=Woodbridge |isbn=978-1-83765-229-7}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Greig |first=Elaine Finnie |title=Stewart, Henry, duke of Albany <nowiki>[</nowiki>Lord Darnley<nowiki>]</nowiki> (1545/6–1567) |volume=1 |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxfordshire |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/26/101026473/ |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/26473 |access-date=3 March 2012|url-access=subscription }} {{ODNBsub}}
* {{cite book |last=Guy |first=John |author-link=John Guy (historian) |title="My Heart Is My Own": The Life of Mary Queen of Scots |location=London |publisher=Fourth Estate |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-84115-753-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Hunter |first=Clare |title=Embroidering Her Truth: Mary, Queen of Scots and the Language of Power |location=London |publisher=Sceptre |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-52934-628-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Jayne Elizabeth |year=1999 |title=The Trial of Mary Queen of Scots: A Brief History with Documents |publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-312-21815-7}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=McInnes |editor-first=Charles T. |title=Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland Volume 12 |publisher=General Register Office (Scotland) |year=1970 |location=Edinburgh}}
* {{cite book |last=Scott |first=Jade |title=Captive Queen: The Decrypted History of Mary Queen of Scots |location=London |publisher=Michael O'Mara |year=2024 |isbn=978-1-78929-646-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Warnicke |first=Retha M. |author-link=Retha Warnicke |title=Mary Queen of Scots |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-29182-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |author-link=Alison Weir |year=2008 |orig-year=2003 |title=Mary, Queen of Scots and the Murder of Lord Darnley |publisher=Random House |location=London |isbn=978-0-09-952707-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Neville |year=1964 |title=Thomas Howard, Fourth Duke of Norfolk |publisher=Barrie & Rockliff |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Wormald |first=Jenny |author-link=Jenny Wormald |year=1988 |title=Mary, Queen of Scots |publisher=George Philip |location=London |isbn=978-0-540-01131-5}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==

{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite book |last=Bath |first=Michael |title=Emblems for a Queen: The Needlework of Mary Queen of Scots |location=London |publisher=Archetype Publications |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-904982-36-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goring |first1=Rosemary |title=Homecoming: the Scottish years of Mary, Queen of Scots |date=2022 |publisher=Birlinn |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1780277233 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Labanov |first=A. I. (Prince Lobanov-Rostovsky) |year=1844 |title=Lettres et Mémoires de Marie, Reine d'Écosse |publisher=Charles Dolman |location=London |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Marshall |first=Rosalind |title=Queen Mary's Women: Female Relatives, Servants, Friends and Enemies of Mary, Queen of Scots |location=Edinburgh |publisher=John Donald |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-85976-667-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Marshall |first=Rosalind |title=Mary, Queen of Scots |location=Edinburgh |publisher=National Museums of Scotland |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-905267-78-1 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Merriman |first=Marcus |author-link=Marcus Merriman |year=2000 |title=The Rough Wooings: Mary Queen of Scots 1542–1551 |publisher=Tuckwell Press |location=East Linton |isbn=978-1-862-32090-1 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Read |first=Conyers |author-link=Conyers Read |title=The Bardon Papers: Documents relating to the imprisonment and trial of Mary, Queen of Scots |url=https://archive.org/details/thebardonpapers17royauoft |location=London |publisher=Camden Series |year=1909 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Swain |first=Margaret |year=1973 |title=The Needlework of Mary Queen of Scots |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |location=New York |isbn=978-0-442-29962-0 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Alexander S. |title=Mary Queen of Scots and French Public Opinion, 1542–1600 |location=Basingstoke |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-230-28615-3 |doi=10.1057/9780230286153 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
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{{Sister project links |wikt=no|commons=Mary, Queen of Scots|b=no|n=no|q=Mary, Queen of Scots|s=Mary, Queen of Scots|v=no|species=no|voy=no|display= Mary, Queen of Scots}}
* [https://www.royal.uk/mary-queen-scots-r1542-1567 Mary, Queen of Scots] at the official website of the [[British monarchy]]
* [https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/trails/mary-queen-of-scots-1542-1587 Mary, Queen of Scots] at the official website of the [[Royal Collection Trust]]
* {{NPG name}}
* [https://www.historicenvironment.scot/archives-and-research/publications/publication/?publicationId=b78493b8-3cf3-4b47-a7c2-a9eb00f39ad1 ''Edinburgh Castle Research: The Dolls of Mary Queen of Scots'' (Historic Environment Scotland, 2019).]
* {{Librivox author |id=14175}}
* [https://www.ft.com/content/bb1fe5d4-6059-4a98-8a6d-19a0009e6693?accessToken=zwAF__ohguaYkdO7H-XUYFlKmNOKbRmgAJ5mkw.MEQCIEhW8I3rbd94t4k5318lGjdD7LeF7lOOgD-1qynTU6wrAiBDJc2ZF_J-s5vBAKdjeyVDSDEVACvYa-vV4ElNjinegg&sharetype=gift&token=a1acd4b0-907b-44a8-9d62-5a2e8371c2e6 How three amateurs cracked a 445-year-old code to reveal Mary Queen of Scots' secrets]

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Stuart]]||8 December 1542||8 February 1587}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=[[James V]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Queen of Scotland]]|years=1542–1567}}
{{s-aft|after=[[James VI]]}}
{{s-roy|fr}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Catherine de' Medici]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Queen consort of France]]|years=1559–1560}}
{{s-vac|next=[[Elisabeth of Austria, Queen of France|Elisabeth of Austria]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Mary, Queen of Scots}}
{{English, Scottish and British monarchs}}
{{Pictish and Scottish Monarchs}}
{{Dauphines of France}}
{{French consorts}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mary, Queen Of Scots}}
[[Category:Mary, Queen of Scots| ]]
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