View source for Maria Carolina of Austria

{{Short description|Queen of Naples and Sicily from 1768 to 1814}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Distinguish|text=her two sisters of the same name who died in infancy, [[Archduchess Maria Carolina of Austria (born 1740)|born 1740]] and [[Archduchess Maria Carolina of Austria (stillborn 1748)|1748]]}}
{{Infobox royalty
| consort      = yes
| image        = Maria-carolina-regina-napol.jpg
| caption      = Portrait by [[Anton Raphael Mengs]], 1768
| succession   = [[Queen consort of Naples]]
| reign        = {{plainlist|
* 12 May 1768 – 23 January 1799 
* 13 June 1799 – 30 March 1806}}
| succession2  = [[Queen consort of Sicily]]
| reign2       = 12 May 1768 – 8 September 1814
| birth_date   = {{Birth date|1752|08|13|df=y}}
| birth_place  = [[Schönbrunn Palace]], [[Vienna]], [[Archduchy of Austria]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| death_date   = {{Death date and age|1814|09|8|1752|08|13|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Hetzendorf Palace]], [[Vienna]], [[Austrian Empire]]
| burial_place = [[Imperial Crypt]], [[Austria]]
| spouse       = {{marriage|[[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand IV and III]]|1768}}
| issue        = {{plainlist |
*[[Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily|Maria Theresa, Holy Roman Empress]]
*[[Princess Luisa of Naples and Sicily|Luisa Maria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany]]
*[[Carlo, Duke of Calabria]]
*[[Maria Anna of Naples and Sicily|Princess Maria Anna]]
*[[Francis I, King of the Two Sicilies]]
*[[Maria Cristina of Naples and Sicily|Maria Cristina, Queen of Sardinia]]
*[[Prince Gennaro of Naples and Sicily|Prince Gennaro]]
*[[Prince Giuseppe of Naples and Sicily|Prince Giuseppe]]
*[[Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily|Maria Amalia, Queen of the French]]
*[[Princess Maria Antonia of Naples and Sicily|Maria Antonia, Princess of Asturias]]
*[[Maria Clotilde of Naples and Sicily|Princess Maria Clotilde]]
*[[Maria Henrietta of Naples and Sicily|Princess Maria Enrichetta]]
*[[Leopold, Prince of Salerno]]
*[[Prince Alberto of Naples and Sicily|Prince Alberto]]
*[[Maria Isabelle of Naples and Sicily|Princess Maria Isabella]]}}
| issue-link   = #Issue
| issue-pipe   = more...
| full name    = German: Maria Carolina Luise Josefa Johanna Antonia
| house        = [[Habsburg-Lorraine]]
| father       = [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]]
| mother       = [[Maria Theresa]]
| signature    = Signature of Maria Carolina of Austria signing as Charlotte in 1790.jpg
}}

'''Maria Carolina of Austria''' (Maria Carolina Louise Josepha Johanna Antonia; 13 August 1752 – 8 September 1814) was [[List of Neapolitan royal consorts|Queen of Naples]] and [[List of Sicilian royal consorts|Sicily]] as the wife of King [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand IV and III]], who later became [[King of the Two Sicilies]]. As ''de facto'' ruler of her husband's kingdoms, Maria Carolina oversaw the [[promulgation]] of many reforms, including the revocation of the ban on [[Freemasonry]], the enlargement of the navy under her [[Favourite|favorite]], [[Sir John Acton, 6th Baronet|Sir John Acton]], and the expulsion of Spanish influence. She was a proponent of [[enlightened absolutism]] until the advent of the [[French Revolution]], when, in order to prevent its ideas gaining currency, she made Naples a [[police state]].

Born an [[archduchess of Austria]], the thirteenth child of [[Empress Maria Theresa]] and  [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Francis I]], Maria Carolina married Ferdinand as part of an Austrian alliance with Spain, of which [[Charles III of Spain|Ferdinand's father]] was king. Following the birth of a male heir in 1775, Maria Carolina was admitted to the [[Privy Council]]. She dominated the Council until 1812, when she was sent back to [[Vienna]]. Like her mother, Maria Carolina arranged politically advantageous marriages for her children. Maria Carolina promoted Naples as a centre of the arts, patronising painters [[Jacob Philipp Hackert]] and [[Angelica Kauffman]], and academics [[Gaetano Filangieri]], [[Domenico Cirillo]] and [[Giuseppe Maria Galanti]]. 

Maria Carolina, abhorring how the French treated their queen, her sister [[Marie Antoinette]], allied Naples with Britain and Austria during the [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic]] and [[French Revolutionary War]]s. As a result of a failed Neapolitan invasion of French-occupied Rome, she fled to Sicily with her husband in December 1798. One month later, the [[Parthenopean Republic]] was declared, which repudiated Bourbon rule in Naples for six months. Deposed as Queen of Naples for a second time by French forces, in 1806, Maria Carolina died in Vienna in 1814, a year before her husband's restoration to Naples.

Maria Carolina was the last surviving child of Maria Theresa. She was also the last [[queen consort of Naples|queen of Naples]] and [[queen consort of Sicily|Sicily]] before the unification of the two into the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]].

==Early life==
[[File:Meister der Erzherzoginnen-Porträt - Erzherzogin Maria Carolina.jpg|thumb|left|Archduchess Maria Carolina holding a portrait of her father, [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]]|alt=A young blue-eyed girl wears a blue rococo bodice with frilled sleeves while holding a portrait of her father.]]
Born on 13 August 1752 at the [[Schönbrunn Palace]] in Vienna, Maria Carolina Louise Josepha Johanna Antonia was the thirteenth and sixth surviving child of [[Maria Theresa]], Queen of Hungary and Bohemia and ruler of the Habsburg dominions, and [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]]. She was a namesake of her elder sisters – [[Archduchess Maria Carolina of Austria (born 1740)|Maria Carolina]], who died two weeks after her first birthday, and [[Archduchess Maria Carolina of Austria (stillborn 1748)|Maria Carolina]], who died several hours after being baptised – but she was known as Charlotte by her family. Her godparents were [[Louis XV|King Louis XV of France]] and his wife, [[Marie Leszczyńska|Maria Leszczyńska]].<ref>Lever, p. 315.</ref> Maria Carolina was the daughter who resembled her mother most.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

Maria Carolina formed a very close bond with her youngest sister, [[Marie Antoinette|Maria Antonia]].<ref name="Fraser27" /> From very early on they shared the same governess, [[Countess Lerchenfeld]]. A testament to their closeness is the fact that when one caught an illness the other did too.<ref name="Fraser27">Fraser, p. 27.</ref> In August 1767 Maria Theresa separated the two girls, hitherto raised together under the auspices of Countess Marie von Brandis, because of their bad behaviour.<ref>Fraser, p. 38.</ref> Soon after in October of the same year, Maria Carolina's sister [[Archduchess Maria Josepha of Austria|Maria Josepha]], destined to marry [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand IV of Naples]] as part of an alliance with Spain, died during a [[smallpox]] epidemic before she could leave for Naples to marry him. Just five years earlier, Maria Josepha's older sister, [[Archduchess Maria Johanna Gabriela of Austria|Maria Johanna]] was previously engaged to the young king, but she too had died from smallpox.<ref>Crankshaw, p. 274.</ref> Anxious to save the Austro-Spanish alliance, [[Charles III of Spain]], father of Ferdinand IV, requested one of Maria Josepha's sisters as a replacement.<ref>Acton, p. 126.</ref><ref>Bearne, p. 57.</ref> The empress offered the court of Madrid, negotiating on behalf of that of Naples, [[Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma|Maria Amalia]] or Maria Carolina.<ref name="Bearne60">Bearne, p. 60.</ref> Because Maria Amalia was five years older than his son, Charles III opted for the latter.<ref name="Bearne60" /> Maria Carolina reacted badly to her engagement, crying, entreating and saying that Neapolitan marriages were unlucky, considering that two of her sisters had died before they could marry Ferdinand.<ref name="Bearne60" /> Her objections, however, did not delay her preparation for her new role as Queen of Naples by the [[Countess Lerchenfeld|Countess of Lerchenfeld]].<ref>Bearne, p. 62.</ref> Nine months later, on 7 April 1768, Maria Carolina married Ferdinand IV of Naples [[Proxy marriage|by proxy]], her brother [[Ferdinand Karl, Archduke of Austria-Este|Ferdinand]] representing the bride-groom.<ref>Bearne, p. 66.</ref>

==Early reign==
The fifteen-year-old Queen of Naples journeyed at leisure from Vienna to Naples, making stops at [[Mantua]], [[Bologna]], [[Florence]], and Rome on the way.<ref>Acton, p. 129.</ref><ref name=Acton130>Acton, p. 130.</ref><ref>Bearne, p. 67.</ref> She entered the [[Kingdom of Naples]] on 12 May 1768, disembarking at [[Terracina]], where she took leave of her native attendants.<ref name=Acton130/> From Terracina, she and her remaining suite, comprising her brother, [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|the Grand Duke of Tuscany]], and his wife [[Maria Luisa of Spain]], ventured to [[Poztella]], where she met her husband, whom she found "very ugly".<ref name=Bearne71>Bearne, p. 71.</ref> To the Countess of Lerchenfeld, she wrote, "I love him only out of duty..."<ref name=Bearne71/> Ferdinand was not taken with her either, declaring, after their first night together, "She sleeps like the dead and sweats like a pig."<ref>Acton, p. 131.</ref>

Maria Carolina's dislike of her husband, however, did not get in the way of her bearing children, as her most important wifely duty was to perpetuate the dynasty. In total, Maria Carolina bore Ferdinand eighteen children within twenty-one years, from 1772 to 1793. Seven of these children survived into adulthood including his successor, [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies|Francis I]], [[Maria Theresa of Naples|the last Holy Roman Empress]], [[Princess Luisa of Naples|a Grand Duchess of Tuscany]], [[Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily|the last Queen of the French]], and [[Princess Maria Antonia of Naples|a Princess of Asturias]]. {{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}
[[File:Mengs - Maria Carolina of Austria, Royal Palace of Madrid.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Maria Carolina (by [[Anton Raphael Mengs]], {{Circa|1772–1773}})]]
[[File:Tanucci Bernardo 01.jpg|thumb|Marquis [[Bernardo Tanucci]], ''de facto'' ruler of Naples and Sicily from 1759 until 1776|alt=An elderly brown-eyed man wears a powdered periwig and a red sash, with, over this, the cross of the Constantinian Order of Saint George.]]

=== Fall of Tanucci ===
Ferdinand, having received a lacklustre education from the Prince of San Nicandro, lacked the ability to rule, relying completely on his father Charles III of Spain's{{#tag:ref|Charles III was King of Naples and Sicily from 1734 until 1759, when his half-brother, [[Ferdinand VI of Spain|Ferdinand VI]], died.<ref>Jones, p. 243.</ref>|group=note}} counsel, communicated by [[Bernardo Tanucci]].<ref>Acton, p. 114.</ref> Pursuant to Empress Maria Theresa's instructions, Maria Carolina gained Ferdinand's trust by feigning interest in his favourite activity—hunting.<ref name="Acton172" /> With it, she obtained a back door to the administration of the state, to be fully realised only by the birth of an heir in 1775, and her consequent admission to the Privy Council.<ref name="Acton172">Acton, p. 172.</ref><ref>Bearne, p. 78.</ref> Until then, Maria Carolina presided over the rejuvenation of Neapolitan court life, largely neglected since the advent of her husband's regency.<ref>Bearne, p. 80.</ref> Academics [[Gaetano Filangieri]], [[Domenico Cirillo]], and [[Giuseppe Maria Galanti]] frequented her ''salon'', among others.<ref>Bearne, p. 81.</ref>

[[Bernardo Tanucci|Tanucci]]'s fall from grace came about over an argument with Maria Carolina regarding [[Freemasonry]], of which she was an adherent.<ref name=Acton172/> Acting on orders from Charles III, Tanucci revived a law from 1751 banning Freemasonry in response to the discovery of a Masonic lodge among the royal regiment.<ref name=Acton172/> Angered, the queen expressed to Charles III her opinion that Tanucci was ruining the country through the medium of a letter written by her husband, thus making it look as if it was his idea.<ref>Acton, p. 175.</ref> Resigned to the queen's wishes, Ferdinand dismissed Tanucci in October 1776, causing a rift with his father.<ref>Acton, pp. 175–176.</ref> The appointment of Tanucci's successor, the Marquis of Sambuca, Maria Carolina's powerless puppet, represented the end of Spanish influence in Naples, hitherto virtually a province of that country.<ref>Bearne, p. 84.</ref><ref>Acton, p. 176.</ref> Maria Carolina proceeded to alienate large swaths of the nobility by replacing the influence of Spain with that of Austria.<ref name=Bearne174>Bearne, p. 174.</ref> Her unpopularity among the nobility was increased by her attempts to curb their prerogative.<ref name=Bearne174/>

===Acton and the military===
[[File:Sirjohnacton.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sir John Acton, 6th Baronet|Sir John Acton]], Maria Carolina's favourite, from a painting by [[Emanuele Napoli]]|alt=An old, pink-skinned man wears a navy frock coat adorned with medals.]]
Without Tanucci in government, the queen alone ruled Naples and Sicily, assisted by her French-born, English favourite, [[Sir John Acton, 6th Baronet|Sir John Acton]], from 1778 onwards.<ref name=Acton181>Acton, p. 181.</ref> Acting on her brother the [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II's]] advice, Maria Carolina and Acton revamped the Neapolitan navy, then neglected, opening 4 marine colleges and commissioning 150 ships of various sizes.<ref name=Acton181/><ref name=Acton189>Acton, p. 189.</ref> The merchant navy, too, was augmented by trade pacts with [[Russian Empire|Russia]] and [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]].<ref name=Acton189/> [[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]], having declared war on [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] in alliance with the United States, was angered by Acton's appointment to the Ministry of War and of Marine because he felt his Spanish candidate, Don Antonio Otero, was more worthy of such a high government post by virtue of the fact he was not English.<ref name=Acton188>Acton, p. 188.</ref> Maria Carolina once again replied using a letter written by the king, expounding to Charles III that Acton, the son of a French woman, was not English and that he was appointed before Spanish hostilities with Britain broke out.<ref name=Acton188/> Charles's attacks against Acton only served to endear the latter more to the queen, who proceeded to appoint him Field-Marshal.<ref name=Acton188/> Acton's reforms were not restricted to the expansion of the navy; at the same time, he cut the expenditure of his department by 500,000 [[ducats]] and invited foreign drill-sergeants and officers to fill vacancies in the army.<ref name="Acton189"/><ref>Bearne, p. 102.</ref> Acton and Maria Carolina were seen to have become so close by 1782 that, according to the Sardinian ambassador in Naples, people falsely believed they were lovers.<ref>Acton, p. 190.</ref> That the rumour was untrue was not known to the king, who tried several times to "surprise you together" and threatened to kill them both in a rage.<ref name=bearne104>Bearne, p. 104.</ref> In response, Maria Carolina set spies on her husband, but a reconciliation was soon achieved.<ref name=bearne104/> As part of this ''rapprochement'', Acton went to live in [[Castellammare di Stabia|Castellamare]], but returned to Naples three times a week to see the queen.<ref name=bearne104/>

===Artistic patronage and the death of Charles III===
[[File:Painting of the family of Ferdinando IV (Angelica Kauffmann, 1782).jpg|thumb|300px|''The Royal Family of Naples'', by [[Angelica Kauffman]]. This portrait represents a break with typical depictions of [[House of Bourbon|the Bourbons]], incorporating an Arcadian landscape and simple poses<ref>Tarabra, p. 203.</ref>|alt=A family in simple clothing poses on an Arcadian landscape]]
Maria Carolina patronised German-Swiss artists, foremostly [[Angelica Kauffman]], who famously painted the queen's family in an informal garden setting in 1783, and gave her daughters lessons in drawing.<ref>Acton, p. 214.</ref> Maria Carolina showered Kauffman with gifts, but she preferred the artistic circles in Rome to Naples.<ref name=Acton215>Acton, p. 215.</ref> The queen's patronage was not restricted to portrait painters: she allotted landscape painter [[Jacob Philipp Hackert]] a wing of the palace at Francavilla.<ref name=Acton215/> Like Kauffman, he gave lessons to the queen's children and enjoyed her confidence.<ref>Acton, p. 216.</ref> On recommendation from Hackert, the king and queen restored the statues of [[Palazzo Farnese]] and brought them to Naples.<ref>Acton, p. 217.</ref> In 1784, the queen established the philanthropic [[San Leucio]] colony, a village with its own unique laws and customs whose sole object was to weave silk.<ref>Bearne, pp. 124&ndash;125.</ref> She also commissioned ornamental snuff boxes and jewellery from goldsmiths.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fashioningtheearlymodern.ac.uk/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/ducrollay-album.pdf |title=V&A Museum inventory |access-date=16 August 2012 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213323/http://www.fashioningtheearlymodern.ac.uk/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/ducrollay-album.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1788, with the death of King Charles III, Neapolitan-Spanish relations improved.<ref>Bearne, p. 112.</ref> The new king, [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles IV]], was eager to be on good terms with his brother, the King of Naples, sending the Spanish fleet to salute to him.<ref name=Bearne113>Bearne, p. 113.</ref> To consolidate their reconciliation, Charles IV proposed that his daughter marry the king and queen's eldest son, [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies|the Duke of Calabria]].<ref name=Bearne113/> While the king supported the match, Maria Carolina shunned it.<ref name=Bearne113/> Like her mother, she had carefully chosen the prospective husbands and wives of her children, matches that were to cement political alliances of her choosing.<ref>Bearne, p. 114.</ref> The death of the queen's nephew [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Crown Prince Francis of Austria]]'s wife, [[Duchess Elisabeth of Württemberg]], afforded her an opportunity to fulfil her marital ambitions.<ref>Acton, p. 229.</ref> Her daughters [[Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily|Maria Theresa]] and [[Princess Luisa of Naples and Sicily|Luisa]] married Crown Prince Francis and [[Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany]], respectively, during the Neapolitan royal family's visit to Vienna in 1790.<ref>Wheatcroft, p. 238.</ref>

== End of enlightened absolutism ==
[[File:Marie-Antoinette; koningin der Fransen.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Marie Antoinette]], Queen of France, here depicted by Jean-Baptiste Gautier Dagoty, was Maria Carolina's favourite sister. It was as a response to her treatment by the French that Maria Carolina allied Naples with Britain during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]<ref>Jackson, pp. 260&ndash;261.</ref>|alt=A woman with a pouf wears a voluminous blue dress with a train of fleur-de-lis.]]
Maria Carolina was anxious to improve Neapolitan-Papal relations, which had deteriorated owing to arguments with [[Pope Pius VI]] over ecclesiastical laws and the investiture and choice of bishops.<ref name=Bearne127/> Consequently, Naples had stopped paying its annual tribute of 7,000 ducats.{{#tag:ref|The [[Kingdom of Naples]] was nominally a [[Papal States|Papal]] fief.|group=note}}<ref name=Bearne127>Bearne, p. 127.</ref> Therefore, Maria Carolina arranged a meeting with the pope.<ref name=Bearne127/> To emphasise their desire to see him, the king and queen arrived in Rome, ''en route'' to Naples from Vienna, earlier than expected, where they were greeted by Pius VI in a private audience.<ref name=Acton232>Acton, p. 232.</ref> The pope agreed to cede to the king the right of appointing bishops to vacant sees.<ref name=Acton232/> Thus, because the king and queen had not made any concessions in return, the prestige of Naples was augmented.<ref name=Acton233>Acton, p. 233.</ref> On leaving, Maria Carolina was presented with the [[Golden Rose]], a great mark of Papal favour.<ref name=Acton233/>

The return from Vienna marked a new epoch in the politics of Naples.<ref>Bearne, p. 138.</ref> Alarmed by developments in France, especially in regards to her favourite sister, [[Marie Antoinette]],{{#tag:ref|In Rome, Maria Carolina met the ''[[Mesdames de France#A particular group|Mesdames de France]]'', the last two surviving daughters of [[Louis XV of France|King Louis XV]], who had sought refuge from the turmoil engulfing France there.<ref name=Bearne128>Bearne, p. 128.</ref> From them, Maria Carolina learned of her sister's maltreatment at the hands of the French.<ref name=Bearne128/>
|group=note}} Maria Carolina ended her experiment in [[enlightened absolutism]] and started on a reactionary course.<ref>Bearne, p. 142.</ref> She rejected the [[French Revolution]] and was determined to prevent its ideology gaining prevalence in Naples.<ref>Acton, p. 237.</ref> She did this by sub-dividing Naples into twelve police wards, controlled by government-appointed commissioners, replacing the popularly elected alderman system.<ref name=Bearne143>Bearne, p. 143.</ref> The effectiveness of the wards was increased by the creation of a secret police force, which had in its pay spies of every class.<ref name=Bearne143/> It was through her secret police that Maria Carolina learned of her substantial decline in popularity among all classes of society.<ref>Bearne, p. 172.</ref>

In an attempt to please Great Britain, with a military alliance in mind, the queen deigned to meet the wife of the English ambassador, [[Emma, Lady Hamilton|Emma Hamilton]], in audience, despite the fact that the British Queen, [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]], had not yet received her.{{#tag:ref|At the time, there was a convention that disbarred women from being received by a foreign sovereign if they had not been received by their native one.<ref name=Acton241/>|group=note}}<ref name=Acton241>Acton, p. 241.</ref> However, they soon struck up a friendship, Emma singing duets with the king and dining privately with the royal family.<ref name=Acton242>Acton, p. 242.</ref> The queen, whom Emma thought "most excellent and strictly good and upright", was drawn closer to Emma by her willingness to betray Britain's diplomatic secrets.<ref name=Acton242/>

===The Sémonville affair and the First Coalition===
[[File:Vigée-Lebrun, after - Maria Carolina of Austria - Condé Museum.jpg|thumb|Maria Carolina as she appeared in 1791, in a painting by [[Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun|Élisabeth-Louise Vigée-Le Brun]]. She strongly resembles her sister, Marie Antoinette|alt=A woman bedecked in pearls wears a blue and red dress.]]
[[Louis XVI|King Louis XVI of France]] and Queen Marie Antoinette were arrested on 10 August 1792.<ref name=Bearne145/> Hence, the Neapolitan government refused to recognise French diplomatist Baron Armand de Mackau's recently arrived legation.<ref name=Bearne145>Bearne, p. 145.</ref> Queen Maria Carolina was so horrified at what had happened at the [[Tuileries Palace|Tuileries]] that day that she almost broke off relations with France altogether.<ref>Bearne, p. 161.</ref> The king and queen's procrastination regarding Mackau's requests to be recognised as a representative of the [[First French Republic|French Republic]]{{#tag:ref|The French monarchy had just been abolished, on 21 September 1792.<ref>Lever, p. 285.</ref>|group=note}} caused tension with that country.<ref name=Acton245>Acton, p. 245.</ref> John Acton, now Prime Minister of Naples, allayed Maria Carolina's fervent desire to go to war with France and tried to placate Mackau until he could rely on British military support.<ref name=Acton245/> His plan, however, backfired when the French government intercepted a letter detailing how he sabotaged the diplomatic mission of [[Charles Louis Huguet, marquis de Sémonville|Huguet de Sémonville]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name=Acton246>Acton, p. 246.</ref> When France started making preparations for war in November to avenge this insult, the king and queen finally capitulated and begrudgingly recognized Mackau and the Republic.<ref name=Acton246/> However, the national assembly had already sent 9 ships under Admiral [[Louis-René Levassor de Latouche Tréville|Latouche Tréville]] to seek redress, which arrived on 17 December in Naples.<ref name=Bearne164>Bearne, p. 164.</ref> Latouche stipulated that, if Acton did not apologise to him in person for the Sémonville affair, he would bombard and lay waste to Naples within an hour.<ref name=Bearne164/> The queen's decision to accede to Latouche's demands earned her the criticism of some Neapolitan historians, like [[Pietro Colletta|General Colletta]], who overlook the fact that Naples was unable to mount a defence at the time as the navy was not mobilised.<ref name=Bearne164/>

Maria Carolina's preventatives against [[Jacobinism]] were rendered useless in the face of the subversive actives of Latouche's fleet, which was obliged to return to Naples shortly after leaving by a storm.<ref name=Acton251>Acton, p. 251.</ref> The French sailors, "republican agents", were allowed to land on this occasion, inculcating their anti-monarchical sentiments in the Neapolitans.<ref name=Acton251/> Upon Latouche's departure, on 29 January 1793, Maria Carolina launched an ineffective offensive against Neapolitan radicals, allowing the most dangerous schemers to escape justice.<ref name=Acton256>Acton, p. 256.</ref> Why the offensive failed can be explained by the fact that her chief of police, [[Luigi de' Medici]], was secretly a radical himself.<ref name=Acton256/> Concurrently, Maria Carolina arranged a treaty of alliance with Great Britain, on whom France had latterly declared war.<ref name=Bearne191>Bearne, p. 191.</ref> By this treaty, Naples was to contribute four men-of-war, four frigates and four smaller ships, along with six thousand soldiers, to protect commerce in the Mediterranean.<ref name=Bearne191/> In August 1793, following the [[Siege of Toulon (1793)|Siege of Toulon]], Naples joined the [[First Coalition]], comprising Great Britain, [[Empire of Russia|Russia]], [[Archduchy of Austria|Austria]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], Spain, [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] and [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Savoy-Sardinia]], against France.<ref>Acton, p. 258.</ref><ref>Bearne, p. 192.</ref>

===Italian campaign===
[[File:Piastra 1791P.jpg|thumb|left|The effigies of Maria Carolina and her husband on a 1791 [[Neapolitan piastra]]|alt=Two heads appear on a grey coin surrounded by Latin text]]
The execution of Marie Antoinette in October 1793 breathed a new lease of life into the queen's [[counter-revolution]].<ref name=Davis76>Davis, p. 76.</ref> Maria Carolina was so horrified by that event that she refused to speak French, "that monstrous language", and banned the "inflammatory" philosophical works of Galanti and Filangeri, who had hitherto enjoyed the queen's patronage.<ref>Acton, p. 262.</ref> In 1794, following the discovery of a Jacobin plot to overthrow the government, Maria Carolina ordered Medici to suppress the Freemasons, of which she was once an adherent, believing they were partaking in treasonable activities with the French.<ref name=Davis76/> The army was kept perpetually mobilised in case of sudden attack, occasioning a huge increase in taxation.<ref name=Davis77>Davis, p. 77.</ref> Fearing for the safety of her family, Maria Carolina employed food-testers and switched the royal families' apartments on a daily basis.<ref name=Bearne221>Bearne, p. 221.</ref> What compelled Maria Carolina to do this was the general terror reigning throughout the city, in which "nobody was safe".<ref name=Bearne221/>

The cessation of Franco-Spanish hostilities in the summer of 1795 gave [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], a Corsican general in the French army, the opportunity to focus on [[Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars|France's Italian Campaign]].<ref>Acton, p. 279.</ref> Bonaparte's successes in Northern Italy{{#tag:ref|Napoleon had conquered Parma, Modena, Lombardy and the main fortresses of Piedmont in rapid succession.<ref>Acton, p. 280.</ref>|group=note}} compelled Maria Carolina to sue for peace, under which Naples had to pay to France a war indemnity of 8 million [[French francs|francs]].<ref name=Bearne236>Bearne, p. 236.</ref> However, neither country intended to observe this treaty in the long-term.<ref name=Bearne236/> The marriage of her eldest son, [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies|the Duke of Calabria]], to [[Archduchess Maria Clementina of Austria]] in 1797 offered Maria Carolina a brief respite from the affairs of war, which had taken a toll on her health.<ref>Bearne, p. 238.</ref> Maria Carolina entered a secret defensive alliance with Austria on 20 May 1798, in response to France's occupation of the [[Papal States]], which shared a border with Naples.<ref>Acton, p. 300.</ref> After the British victory at the [[Battle of the Nile]], the queen decided to join the [[Second Coalition]] against France;<ref name=Bearne246>Bearne, p. 246.</ref> Austria sent [[Karl Mack von Leiberich|General Mack]] to take command.<ref name=Bearne246/> War council meetings, comprising the queen, the king, Mack, Sir William Hamilton, the English ambassador, and [[Admiral Nelson]], the victor of the Nile, were held in the [[Palace of Caserta]].<ref name=Bearne246/> They decided to invade the [[Roman Republic (18th century)|Roman Republic]],{{#tag:ref|France had replaced the Papal States with a republic in February 1798.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507900/Roman-Republic|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=britannica.com|title=Roman Republic|access-date=4 May 2010}}</ref>|group=note}} a French puppet state.<ref>Acton, p. 308.</ref>

=== Escape and creation of the Parthenopean Republic ===
When the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily joined the Second Coalition, Napoleon found a reason to act. The French General [[Jean-Étienne Championnet|Jean Étienne Championnet]] succeeded rapidly, and in January 1799 he occupied Naples and forced the royal family to escape to Sicily. In the Sicilian exile Maria Carolina continued her politics towards Naples.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}
[[File:Flag of the Parthenopaean Republic.svg|thumbnail|200px|right|Flag of the Parthenopean Republic]]
On 24 January 1799, the [[Parthenopean Republic]] was proclaimed in Naples by the French troops led by General Championnet. The chosen name (after ''Parthenope'', an ancient Greek colony which existed on the site of the future city of Naples) was an attempt by the French to obtain the support of the Neapolitan people. During the republican period, a government was installed with Ercole D'Agnese as elected President, press freedom was proclaimed, and future reforms were prepared. However, after only 6 months, the young republic ended when the ''Sanfedisti'', the army led by Cardinal [[Fabrizio Ruffo]], attacked and invaded Naples (21 June 1799). The collapse of the republic was largely due to the English fleet, which had supplied the royal army with weapons. Again, it was Admiral Nelson who successfully defeated the French in the middle of 1799 from Naples and Sicily securing the throne for the Royal couple.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

In June 1800, Maria Carolina traveled with her three unmarried daughters, her younger son [[Leopold, Prince of Salerno|Leopoldo]], and accompanied by William and Emma Hamilton and Nelson over [[Livorno]], [[Florence]], [[Trieste]] and [[Ljubljana|Laibach]] to [[Vienna]], where she arrived two months later. Maria Carolina stayed two years in her homeland, where she arranged advantageous marriages for her children. In the family circle, she spent most time with her favorite grandchild, [[Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma|Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria]], who later became the wife of her arch-enemy Napoleon.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

== Exile and death ==
[[File:Coat of Arms of Marie Caroline, Queen of Naples and Sicily.svg|thumb|right|Coat of arms of Maria Carolina as Queen of Naples and Sicily]]
After her stay in Vienna, Maria Carolina returned to Naples on 17 August 1802. It is said that Napoleon claimed that the queen was ''the only man in the Kingdom of Naples''.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FY84AQAAMAAJ ''Napoli nobilissima: rivista di topografia ed arte napoletana''], Volume 1, Article titled ''La Floridiana'', by Riccardo Carafa, page 65.</ref> The European states were concerned by Napoleon's growing power, which reached its peak with his Imperial coronation on 18 May 1804. By 1805 Italy was again the center of interest of the new Emperor, whose crown bore the inscription ''Rex totius Italiae''. From then on, events came quickly and Maria Carolina was surprised by the news of the defeat of Austria in the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] (2 December 1805).{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

Napoleon then did not hesitate to conquer Naples and installed first his brother [[Joseph Bonaparte]], and four years later his brother-in-law [[Joachim Murat]], on the throne of Naples. The royal family was forced to flee to Sicily in February 1806. In their exile, the refugees relied on the help of Great Britain, but after the death of Admiral Nelson in the [[Battle of Trafalgar]] (21 October 1805), the British developed more and more aversion to Maria Carolina. Finally in 1813, her husband essentially (but not officially) abdicated and appointed their son [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies|Francis]] regent. This deprived her of any political influence, and the queen was forced to leave Sicily and return to Vienna.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

During her trip, she received the news of Napoleon's defeat at the [[Battle of Leipzig]] on 19 October 1813. After a long journey through [[Constantinople]], [[Odessa]], [[Lviv]], and [[Budapest]], Maria Carolina finally arrived in Vienna in January 1814, where she began negotiations with Prince Metternich and her nephew, Emperor [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I of Austria]], for the restoration of her husband and herself to the Neapolitan throne. However, this never happened: Maria Carolina died on 8 September as a consequence of a stroke, without seeing the final defeat of Napoleon and the restoration of her husband by the [[Congress of Vienna]]. Her maid found the queen lying dead on the floor among scattered letters. Maria Carolina was the last surviving child of Empress Maria Theresa. {{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

Maria Carolina was buried in the [[Imperial Crypt Vaults#Tuscan Vault|Imperial Crypt]] in Vienna. Her parents and most of her siblings are also buried there.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kapuzinergruft |url=https://www.kapuzinergruft.com/habsburger |access-date=2023-01-23 |website=www.kapuzinergruft.com |language=de}}</ref>

==Issue==
{|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="min-width:60em; margin:0.3em auto;"
! colspan=5|Children of Maria Carolina of Austria by Ferdinand IV of Naples
|-
!Name!!Picture!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|[[Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily|'''Maria Teresa''' Carolina Giuseppina]]||[[File:Maria Teresa di Borbone-Napoli.jpg|100px]]||[[Royal Palace (Naples)|Royal Palace of Naples]], 6 June 1772||[[Hofburg Imperial Palace]], 13 April 1807||Named after her maternal grand mother [[Maria Theresa of Austria]], she married her double first cousin [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]], in 1790; had issue, among them Emperor [[Ferdinand I of Austria]], the [[Archduke Franz Karl of Austria]] and [[Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma|Marie Louise, Empress of the French and Queen of Italy]].
|-
|[[Princess Luisa of Naples and Sicily|'''Maria Luisa''' Amelia Teresa]]||[[File:Joseph Dorffmeister 001.jpg|100px]]||Royal Palace (Naples)|Royal Palace of Naples, 27 July 1773||Hofburg Imperial Palace, 19 September 1802||Married her double first cousin [[Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany]], and had issue.
|-
|[[Carlo, Duke of Calabria|'''Carlo''' Tito Francesco Giuseppe]]||[[File:CarloFrancisco01.jpg|100px]]||Caserta Palace, 6 January 1775||Caserta Palace, 17 December 1778||Died of smallpox.
|-
|[[Maria Anna of Naples and Sicily|'''Maria Anna''' Giuseppa Antonietta Francesca Gaetana Teresa]]||[[File:MariaAnna2Sicily.jpg|100px]]||Royal Palace of Naples, 23 November 1775||Royal Palace of Naples, 22 February 1780||Died of smallpox.
|-
|[[Francis I of the Two Sicilies|'''Francesco''' Gennaro Giuseppe Saverio Giovanni Battista]]||[[File:Francis I of the Two Sicilies.jpg|100px]]||Naples, 14 August 1777||Naples, 8 November 1830||Married his double first cousin [[Archduchess Maria Clementina of Austria]] in 1797 and had issue; married another first cousin [[Maria Isabella of Spain|Infanta Maria Isabella of Spain]] in 1802 and had issue; was King of the Two Sicilies from 1825 to 1830.
|-
|[[Maria Cristina of Naples and Sicily|'''Maria Cristina''' Teresa]]||[[File:Maria Cristina of Naples and Sicily.jpg|100px]]||Caserta Palace, 17 January 1779||[[Savona]], 11 March 1849||Married [[Charles Felix of Sardinia]] in 1807; had no issue; it was she who ordered the excavations of [[Tusculum]].
|-
|[[Prince Gennaro of Naples and Sicily|'''Gennaro''' Carlo Francesco]]||[[File:Gennaro2Sicily.jpg|100px]]||Royal Palace of Naples, 12 April 1780||Caserta Palace, 2 January 1789||Died of smallpox.
|-
|[[Prince Giuseppe of Naples and Sicily|'''Giuseppe''' Carlo Gennaro]]||[[File:Giuseppe2Sicily.jpg|100px]]||Royal Palace of Naples, 18 June 1781||Caserta Palace, 19 February 1783||Died of smallpox.
|-
|[[Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily|'''Maria Amelia''' Teresa]]||[[File:Louis Hersent - Portrait de la reine Marie-Amélie.jpg|100px]]||Caserta Palace, 26 April 1782||[[Claremont (country house)|Claremont House]], 24 March 1866||Married [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis Philippe d'Orléans]], ''[[Duke of Orléans]]'' in 1809 and had issue; Queen of the French 1830–1848; died in exile in England.
|-
|'''Maria Carolina'''|| ||Caserta Palace, 19 July 1783||Caserta Palace, 19 July 1783||Stillborn.
|-
|[[Princess Maria Antonia of Naples and Sicily|'''Maria Antonietta''' Teresa Amelia Giovanna Battista Francesca Gaetana Maria Anna Lucia]]||[[File:Maria Antonietta Borbone Napoli 1784 1806.jpg|100px]]||Caserta Palace, 14 December 1784||[[Royal Palace of Aranjuez]], 21 May 1806||Married her cousin [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Infante Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias]]; died from tuberculosis; had no issue.
|-
|[[Maria Clotilde of Naples and Sicily|'''Maria Clotilde''' Teresa Amelia Antonietta Giovanna Battista Anna Gaetana Polcheria]]||

 ||Caserta Palace, 18 February 1786||Caserta Palace, 10 September 1792||Died of smallpox.
|-
|[[Maria Henrietta of Naples and Sicily|'''Maria Enricheta''' Carmela]]||

 ||Royal Palace of Naples, 31 July 1787||Caserta Palace, 20 September 1792||Died of smallpox.
|-
|'''Carlo''' Gennaro|| ||Naples, 26 August 1788||Caserta Palace, 1 February 1789||Died of smallpox.
|-
|[[Leopold, Prince of Salerno|'''Leopoldo''' Giovanni Giuseppe Michele of Naples]]||[[File:Leopoldo Giovanni Borbone Salerno 1790 1851.jpg|100px]]||Naples, 2 July 1790||Naples, 10 March 1851||Married his niece [[Archduchess Clementina, Princess of Salerno|Archduchess Clementina of Austria]] and had issue.
|-
|[[Prince Alberto of Naples and Sicily|'''Alberto''' Lodovico Maria Filipo Gaetano]]||[[File:AlbertodeSicily01.jpg|100px]]||Royal Palace of Naples, 2 May 1792||Died on board {{HMS|Vanguard|1787|6}}, 25 December 1798||Died in childhood (died of exhaustion on board {{HMS|Vanguard|1787|6}}).
|-
|'''[[Maria Isabelle of Naples and Sicily|Maria Isabella]]'''||[[File:MariaIsabella2Sicily.jpg|100px]]||Naples, 2 December 1793||Naples, 23 April 1801||Died in childhood.
|-
|}

==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center |ref=<ref>{{cite book|title=Genealogie ascendante jusqu'au quatrieme degre inclusivement de tous les Rois et Princes de maisons souveraines de l'Europe actuellement vivans| trans-title=Genealogy up to the fourth degree inclusive of all the Kings and Princes of sovereign houses of Europe currently living |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AINPAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1|year=1768|publisher=Frederic Guillaume Birnstiel|location=Bourdeaux|language=fr|page=1}}</ref>
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Maria Carolina of Austria'''
|2= 2. [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]]
|3= 3. [[Maria Theresa|Maria Theresa of Austria]]
|4= 4. [[Leopold, Duke of Lorraine]]
|5= 5. [[Élisabeth Charlotte of Orléans]]
|6= 6. [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor]]
|7= 7. [[Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick]]
|8= 8. [[Charles V, Duke of Lorraine]]
|9= 9. [[Eleanor of Austria, Queen of Poland|Eleonore of Austria]]
|10= 10. [[Philippe I, Duke of Orléans]]
|11= 11. [[Elizabeth Charlotte, Madame Palatine|Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate]]
|12= 12. [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor]]
|13= 13. [[Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg]]
|14= 14. [[Louis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick]]
|15= 15. [[Christine Louise of Oettingen-Oettingen]]
}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist|1}}
{{Reflist|group=note|colwidth=30em}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*Acton, Harold (1956). ''Bourbons of Naples''. Methuen & Co.: London.
*Bearne, Catherine Mary (1907). ''A Sister of Marie Antoinette: The Life-Story of Maria Carolina, Queen of Naples''. T. Fisher Unwin: London
*Crankshaw, Edward (1969). ''Maria Theresa''. Longman Publishers: London.
*Davis, John Anthony (2006). ''Naples and Napoleon: southern Italy and the European revolutions (1780–1860)''. Oxford University Press: Oxford. {{ISBN|0-19-820755-7}}
*Fraser, Antonia (2002). ''Marie Antoinette: The Journey''. Phoenix: London. {{ISBN|978-0-7538-1305-8}}
*Jackson, Gudia M (2000). ''Women Rulers Throughout the Ages: An Illustrated Guide''. Abc-Clio: Santa Barbara. {{ISBN|1-85109-339-7}}
*Jones, Colin (2002). ''The Great Nation: France from Louis XV to Napoleon''. Columbia University Press: New York. {{ISBN|0-231-12882-7}}
*Recca, Cinzia (2016). "The Diary of Queen Maria Carolina of Naples, 1781-1785: New Evidence of Queenship at Court". Palgrave McMillan:London -New York
{{ISBN|9783319319872}} 
*Lever, Evelyn (2006). ''Marie Antoinette: The Last Queen of France''. Judy Piatkus: London. {{ISBN|0-7499-2194-3}}
*Nagel, Susan. (2008). ''Marie Thérèse: The Fate of Marie Antoinette's Daughter''. Bloosmbury: New York. {{ISBN|978-0-7475-8159-8}}
*Tarabra, Daniela (2008). ''European Art of the Eighteenth Century''. The J. Paul Getty Museum: Los Angeles. {{ISBN|978-0-89236-921-8}}
*Vernon, Mrs HM. (1909). ''Italy: From 1494 to 1790''. Cambridge University Press: London.
*Wheatcroft, Andrew (1996). ''The Habsburgs: Embodying Empire''. Penguin Books: London. {{ISBN|978-0-14-023634-7}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{s-start}}
{{S-hou|[[House of Habsburg-Lorraine]]|13 August|1752|8 September|1814|[[House of Lorraine]]}}
{{S-roy|it}}
|-
{{s-vac|rows=2|last=[[Maria Amalia of Saxony]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Queen consort of Naples]]|years=12 May 1768 – 23 January 1799}}
{{s-vac|reason=[[Parthenopaean Republic]]}}
|-
{{s-ttl|title=[[Queen consort of Sicily]]|years=12 May 1768 – 8 September 1814}}
{{s-vac|next=[[María Isabella of Spain]]|as=[[Queen of the Two Sicilies]]}}
|-
{{s-vac|reason=[[Parthenopaean Republic]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Queen consort of Naples]]|years=13 June 1799 – 30 March 1806}}
{{s-vac|next=[[Julie Clary]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{Queens of Naples}}
{{Royal consorts of Sicily}}
{{Austrian archduchesses}}
{{Tuscan princesses}}
{{The Bourbons of Naples and Sicily (1735–1816)}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maria Carolina of Austria}}
[[Category:1752 births]]
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